Edl 775 Policy Paper Achieving Advanced Proficiency in Languages Other Than English in Michigan

Running head: POLICY AND POSITION REPORT 1
Policy and Position Report:
Achieving Advanced Proficiency in Languages Other than English in Michigan
Sean R. Hill
Central Michigan University

POLICY AND POSITION REPORT 2
Policy and Position Report:
Achieving Advanced Proficiency in Languages Other than English in Michigan
Policy Background and Politics
The United States depends on skilled employees with high levels of proficiency in
languages other than English for its business, diplomatic, and defense needs. The ability to
communicate and collaborate with people both nationally and internationally is considered a 21st
century skill. Unfortunately, the country has a high level of difficulty in producing those
employees. In fact, Friedman (2015) reported that "less than 1 percent of American adults today
are proficient in a foreign language that they studied in a U.S. classroom" (para. 5). While
Spanish is unofficially known as the second language of the United States, and the co-official
and de facto language of Puerto Rico, there are not many proficient speakers of languages that
have been designated as critical, like Chinese, Korean, or Arabic, for example. Further, the
United States lacks highly qualified teachers in these very areas (Commission on Language
Learning, 2017; Friedman, 2015; Joint National Committee for Languages, 2016; Spellings &
Oldham, 2008). With this in mind, it is not surprising that technology companies have also
sought highly skilled employees from abroad and have asked for restrictions on HB-2 visas to be
lifted (Tannock, 2009). Similarly, universities and K-12 schools have found the dearth of highly
proficient speakers of critical languages problematic and they have entered the visa lottery in
hopes of filling teaching vacancies.
Therefore, it is imperative that the United States produce more highly proficient speakers
of languages other than English. This vision was highlighted by George W. Bush as he publicly
increased funding for k-12 and university programs that would enhance students' world language
abilities (Capriccioso, 2006). Even so, there has been little in regard to a national language policy
or national planning (Wiley & Garca, 2016). Unfortunately, the Great Recession brought an end
to much of the funding for such programs (Zehr, 2011) and they have yet to recover. Further, the
cuts that are outlined in President Trump's budget for the Department of Education's Title VI of
the Higher Education Act, Every student Succeeds Act Title III and Title IV programs, Institute
of Education Sciences, the Department of State's Educational and Cultural Exchanges,
Department of Defense's Defense Language and National Security Education Office, Defense
Language Institute Foreign Language Center, as well as the National Endowment for the
Humanities will further weaken America's readiness in world language skills (JNCL-NCLIS,
2017). Paradoxically, the cuts in the United States State Department and the Department of
Defense, specifically to critical languages, will further reduce the capability of the country to
tackle its diplomatic and defense needs.
Change in world language education requirements
Regardless of funding initiatives and budget cuts, it is important to consider approaches
that have occurred both at the national and state levels to recognize the significance of world
language education. O'Rourke, Zhou, and Rottman (2016) examined the amount of states that
included world language as a mandated high school graduation requirement. They found that
only seven states had a specific requirement; however, nearly half of states allowed world
language courses to count toward elective credit in meeting their graduation requirement.
Michigan is one of those states. Assigning world language courses as a requirement for high
school graduation speaks to the emphasis that a state places on its importance. Although there is
not a cost to mandating a specific curriculum to the state, individual school districts are
responsible for ensuring they have sufficient and qualified staff to provide the needed courses to
students (Retired Michigan Department of Education [MDE] consultant, personal

communication, April 1, 2017). In Michigan, the current world language requirement has both
been and not been a requirement for graduation under the Michigan Merit Curriculum. This will
be explained in greater detail later in this report.
Similarly, it is important to note that the world language leadership in Michigan instituted
higher expectations for its teachers at the Department of Education and aligned the state world
language curriculum to the national standard for foreign language produced by the American
Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). This included ACTFL's position
statement that teachers model language use by teaching at least 90% of the time in the target
language. In order to ensure teachers' capacity to teach in the target language, the Michigan
Department of Education required teaching candidates to pass the Oral Proficiency Interview
(OPI) at a minimum level of Advanced low for most languages (Whiston, 2015). Without this
level of proficiency, teachers could not become licensed in Michigan. Although reaching the
advanced low level of proficiency is difficult, especially without a study abroad component, it
can be reached and sets a higher bar for expectations of students graduating from both university
and high school (Moeller, 2013). Teacher candidates are required to pay for Michigan Test for
Teacher Certification test as well as the OPI interview and the Written Proficiency Test (WPT),
which is substantial.
To continue, this put additional pressure on university programs to graduate students at
the appropriate level. In order to accomplish this, many universities sought ways to improve
teacher candidate proficiency. For example, many universities started to institutionalize soft
mandates for teacher candidates in world languages to study abroad for at least a semester, which
was paid for by the teacher candidate (Chambless, 2012; Pearson, Fonseca-Greber, & Foell,
2006; Sullivan, 2011). In spite of an age of accountability and high expectations, Burke (2013)
questioned whether the ACTFL and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE) mandates of advanced low was actually improving instruction at the K-12 level. She
found that there are inconsistencies across state lines for teacher preparation and licensure.
O'Rourke, Zhou, and Rottman (2016) also signaled the promising Seal of Biliteracy
(SOB) movement as a tool for enhancing the visibility of high school graduates with world
language skills to employers and colleges. Currently, twenty-four states and the District of
Columbia have approved the SOB and in another three it is under consideration. Michigan,
however, is only in the early stages of the process (sealofbiliteracy.org, 2017). When a state
approves a SOB, there is little cost associated with the award at the state level. A state may
decide what measures constitute required proficiency. Sometimes it is awarded after successful
completion of Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate exams. Other districts can
create their own assessments based on the national world language standards or use a
Linguafolio assessment. At a minimum, students must demonstrate proficiency at ACTFL's
intermediate mid level in order to receive the SOB.
Finally, the SOB is a tool for also valuing the diverse linguistic backgrounds that English
language learners (ELLs) have. As long as they are bilingual and biliterate in English and another
language at the appropriate levels, they can attain this recognition. In contrast to the English only
movement which seeks to provide sole instruction in English, bilingual education and two way
dual immersion programs can be seen as adding value to ELLs and other heritage language
speakers. Dual immersion programs, which have experienced a marked increase in popularity
(DeMatthews & Izquierdo, 2017), operate with different models and have different costs
associated with them. DeMathews and Izquierdo (2017) paint dual language education as an
example of social justice and educational equity, especially in two-way models, because of the
inherent worth placed on both languages.
Political discord
The push to produce students with actionable language skills (i.e., a proficiency rating of
at least intermediate mid on the ACTFL scale) has not been met with outright resistance. In fact,
as noted in a conversation with the former world languages consultant to the Michigan
Department of Education from 2010-2015, "Nobody came after us politically. There were not
many resistors at the board [state board of education] level." (Retired MDE consultant, personal
communication, April 1, 2017) Further, two different SBE (state board of education) presidents
were very supportive of the idea of increasing student performance in languages other than
English. Moreover, she found that many school districts and superintendents were also on board
with the two-year language requirement for graduation in Michigan.
In spite of the general agreement that it is beneficial for students to speak another
language and understand the cultures of a world language, when it comes to allocation within the
state curriculum and budgetary needs, different political forces appeared. To begin with, the first
iteration of the Michigan Merit Curriculum (MMC) did not include any requirement for world
language education. After a period of heavy advocacy, spearheaded by the Michigan World
Language Association (MIWLA) and multiple language associations (like the American
Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, for example), the second iteration of the
MMC did include a provision for a language proficiency requirement. The requirement was that
students would need to reach the novice-high level in order to meet the two credit goal. This goal
could be met before students entered high school and was supposed to be met with a proficiency
test that hit all areas of the new standards-based curriculum. However, this additional
requirement quickly was restructured in response to the call for a two credit requirement which
would be met by successfully completing a first and second year in a world language.
A few political groups offered support. Not surprisingly, the different language education
groups supported the new curriculum, but so did bilingual education and groups focused on the
needs of ELLs. Other groups did not like the allocation of world language credits for graduation
requirements. Specifically, vocational education groups voiced fierce opposition to the world
language requirement as their programs were diminishing in relative importance. Those groups
advocated hard for a reduction in the world language requirement and they eventually were able
to realize the change they sought by allowing career-technical education programs or additional
visual or performing arts classes to count for one credit of the world language credit (Smith,
2014). Additionally, this demonstrated that the arts and music education groups also opposed the
world language requirement's allocation in the MMC (Retired MDE consultant, personal
communication, April 1, 2017).
A world language united front?
Although it would intrinsically make sense that world language educators would present
a united front in support for the requirement, the actual implementation of the policy and its
logistics is more nuanced. To begin with, many world language educators supported the
requirement at both the k-12 and higher education levels. In particular, university instructors
were excited at the possibility of having fewer enrollments in beginning language courses so that
more effort could be focused at increasing student proficiency with more advanced coursework.
However, community colleges were concerned that beginning enrollments would suffer as a
result of greater competency from all high school students. Therefore, what was viewed as
increased clout and job security at the secondary level and an opportunity to help students better
meet the new mandated world language teacher education requirements at the university level
was watched closely from the community college level.
To continue, the implementation of the requirement meant that secondary teachers had to
teach all students. This was a jolt for many teachers who had previously been used to teaching
students preparing to enter college. While the former world language consultant to the Michigan
Department of Education stressed that the requirement effected changes in curriculum, teacher
preparation, and teachers, she noted that world language teachers had to increase their
instructional toolbox in order to meet the needs of more diverse classrooms. They had to learn
how to differentiate their instruction and maintain higher standards in order to meet the goal of
the graduation requirement (Retired MDE consultant, personal communication, April 1, 2017).
This increased the workload of world education teachers and brought in more problems with
classroom management.
As teachers implemented the new world language policy requirement, unintended
consequences helped grow cracks in the united front. A retired Spanish and French teacher
described her view in a letter to the MIWLA:
I do NOT (emphasis in original text) support two years of world language as a graduation
requirement in Michigan. Why? Here's what has happened to my language program. I
have had to lower my standards since I no longer have mostly college-bound students in
my classes. Therefore when my students go on to college or university, they do not have
the same knowledge as before the implementation of the "standard". They are not as
prepared as they used to be. Many students do not want to be in a foreign language class
and do nothing which is frustrating to me and to the students who want to learn. Some
students, such as special education students, do not have the ability to acquire a second
language, especially at the age they are starting it[...] Then there is the shortage of foreign
language teachers! I retired last year and here I am filling in because no replacement has
been found for my position. I know of some schools that have substitutes filling in for
language teachers. We have transfer students who know nothing! (Retired language
teacher, personal communication, March 27, 2017)
She continued to express her belief that language education must begin at the elementary level
but acknowledge her district could not do this because of time demands at that level. Further, she
decried the low proficiency of many language teachers and urged all world language educators to
pass through at least six months of coursework in an immersion setting.
Interestingly, this teacher's views have much in common with the president of a state
language association. He recommended study abroad and immersion experiences as his major
suggestions for increasing the number of proficient speakers at the advanced level (Language
association president, personal communication, March 27, 2017). Because world language
educators must pass the oral proficiency interview at the advanced low level, these teachers need
these experiences in order to reach that level. In fact, Central Michigan University strongly
recommends a study abroad experience for any student pursuing a teaching degree with a major
or minor in a foreign language or take two additional classes (Foreign Languages, Literatures,
and Cultures, 2007). While it is important that many world language educators coalesce around
the importance of an extended study abroad immersion experience as a cornerstone to build the
proficiency level of students, it is paramount to note that not all language educators are for the
mandate that the state require two (or one) credits in a world language for high school
graduation. Therefore, although it appears counterintuitive, there is not a united front in the
language community in regard to the mandate that world language education be a requirement
for graduation from high school. For the most part, there is agreement on the worth of high levels
of proficiency of teachers and students and on the necessity of engaging in opportunities to study
abroad and interact with native speakers, even the top language leaders in the state disagree on
the utility of a world language high school graduation requirement.
In conclusion, national and state efforts have focused on three different methods in order
to increase the language proficiency of students by the time they graduate. One attempt to make
this come about has been to instill graduation requirements in foreign language. In Michigan, for
example, the graduation requirement set forth a standard of two years in the same language in
order to build a foundation in language skills the end of K-12 education. Another strategy has
been the national and state focus on increasing standards and proficiency levels in teacher
training programs. If highly competent and proficient teachers maintain their target instruction at
the 90% level, students will receive much better instruction and this will lead students to obtain a
higher level of proficiency by graduation. The third movement that has begun nationally and is
still in the beginning stages in Michigan is a special recognition on a student's diploma called
the Seal of Biliteracy. This recognition is awarded to students that show intermediate proficiency
levels, both written and orally, by graduation. Lastly, there has been a large growth of immersion
programming across the United States and this has a large potential to dramatically increase
student proficiency levels by the end of primary and secondary education. With the different
recognitions and programming models that are available, it is possible to provide opportunities
for greater educational equity for Michigan's students and recognize the diversity of cultures both
within and outside of the United States. In two-way dual language or bilingual education
programs, students can have their heritage language affirmed in a powerful way, which
effectively increases their democratic power. The following section will describe the current
situation of language proficiency, its economic and strategic importance for our democracy, and
recommend an articulated pK-16 model of immersion education as a way to approach the current
language deficit in the United States.
Policy Report and Recommendations
The United States desperately needs more citizens with advanced foreign language
proficiency skills. These skills are coveted by businesses that have connections to or aspire to
international trade. Similarly, they are requisite skills for the United States' government in
positions with diplomatic or defense needs. Although there have been multiple attempts at the
national and state levels to develop policies to ameliorate teacher candidates and require foreign
language education classes for high school graduation, it my assertion that the most effective
recommendation is to increase opportunities for children to participate in dual language
immersion programs from their first formal schooling and to allow that program to continue as a
strand through middle school and articulate into college credit by the time those students reach
high school. Effectively, it would be a preK-16 articulated program model. By freshman year,
students would be able to take the Advanced Placement exam and based upon their performance,
they would be able to dual enroll into classes at either local colleges or universities. Wood (2016)
and Bott Van Houten (2013) described an articulated program model that is currently in the high
school stage in Utah with young high school students already receiving college credit. Utah
imagined students completing a minor in a foreign language at the end of high school or first
official year of college and this model would create highly proficient students. Since Michigan
aspires to be within the top ten states in educational outcomes within ten years (Burnette, 2017),
this policy recommendation would help enable this to happen.

Policy instruments
Fowler (2013) describes different policy instruments that can be used in order to effect
change based on the work of McDonnell and Elmore (1987) and McDonnell (1994). Of the five
possible policy instruments, this policy recommendation calls for two district types of
instruments to be utilized, capacity building and system change.
Capacity building
Capacity building is "the transfer of money for the purpose of investment in material,
intellectual, or human resources" (McDonnell & Elmore, 1987, p. 134). This instrument is
particularly effective because it:
is designed to bring about a major, permanent change in the functional ability of an
individual or an organization. Therefore, it represents a long-term investment whose full
impact will not be apparent for years [...] Capacity building is well suited to situations in
which the currently employed staff and existing institutions cannot carry out desired
policies because they are incapable of doing so. (Fowler, 2013, pp. 226-227)
Because this recommendation seeks to build Michigan graduates with language and cultural
skills that can be used with international business, diplomatic and defense purposes, as well as in
educational careers, it is precisely a goal that requires a long-term perspective and investment in
students.
Fowler (2013) mentioned that a substantial financial investment must accompany the
policy implementation. This would be correct because the majority of Michigan schools are not
in a position to offer dual language immersion programs at the present time. While
considerations of classroom space and material supplies are important, there is a dearth of
qualified teachers with the skill set that is required (Mitchell, 2016). Not only do teachers need to
have high levels of proficiency in the target language as verified by an oral proficiency interview
and written proficiency test, but the teachers would also have to be trained in foreign language
pedagogy. Effectively, they would be certified foreign language teachers, and preferably K-12.
Furthermore, immersion teachers in the lower grades would also be required to also have
elementary licensure because their primary task is to deliver content instruction in the target
language. Because of the paucity of language teachers, many schools have began to recruit from
outside of the United States in search of bilingual educators (Mitchell, 2016). In order to
accomplish the policy objective of an articulated pK-16 pipeline with a dual language immersion
program beginning, it is necessary to implement the system change policy instrument.
System change
System change is another policy instrument that is required because of the way that
teacher licensure is handled in Michigan. System change is essentially a practice of transferring
authority by some means among different agency players (McDonnell & Elmore, 1987). Fowler
(2013) described:
Its central component is a statute, administrative rule, or board policy that weakens or
eliminates the authority of an official or agency over a specific decision-making area
while simultaneously shifting that authority to different individuals or agencies. As a
secondary effect, a system change may reallocate resources[...] System change is an
appropriate policy instrument when new behavior is needed by the currently employed
staff and existing institutions are unresponsive to demands for change. (p. 227)
System change is required for the licensure and visa processing to be streamlined in order to
open opportunities for Michigan students to be able to participate in dual language programs.
Again, the paucity of foreign language teachers in general, of immersion teachers in particular,
and with a critical language like Chinese as an important nuance, establishes a system in which
both capacity building and system change are required in order to create the articulated pk-16
dual language immersion program I am advocating.
Personal experience with licensing requirements for Chinese nationals to serve as
immersion teachers has indicated that there is slow movement at the state level. Due to the
innovative and extensive nature of the training (Michigan State University, n.d., Romig, 2015)
and the program models that have been supported by the Confucius Institute at Michigan State
University (MSU), Chinese instructors are able to meet the licensure requirements for Michigan.
However, recent changes have required that all teachers pass the three primary assessments
before they come to the United States. First, the teachers must demonstrate English proficiency
because they will be accepted as graduate students in a Master of Arts in Curriculum and
Instruction at MSU (Michigan State university, n.d.). Second, they must pass the Michigan Test
for Teacher Certification in the Chinese (Mandarin) language and culture content area. Of course,
this is not a primary difficulty for them because they are mostly native speakers. (Although
Mandarin is the official language of the People's Republic of China, many Chinese speak
Cantonese or many other dialects as their first language. Mandarin instruction is mandatory in
schools and students receive a level which pertains to their Mandarin mastery in speech and
writing.) Third, the Professional Readiness Examination, is required to be passed before the
teachers can come to Michigan (Michigan State University, n.d.). Additionally, if a teacher is
going to teach in an immersion setting, they must also pass the elementary examination. The
Michigan Department of Education (n.d.) recently released clarification specifically for
immersion programs in the state. For elementary and middle school language immersion
programs, the state requires the following licensure:

Elementary Education Certificate with specific world language endorsement (e.g.,
Spanish) OR Elementary Education Certificate with specific bilingual endorsement (e.g.,
Bilingual Chaldean) OR Secondary Education Certificate with Elementary Education
endorsement and specific world language endorsement (e.g., German) OR Secondary
Education Certificate with Elementary Education endorsement and specific bilingual
endorsement (e.g., Bilingual Arabic) OR Co-teaching model: (bold in original)
Elementary Education Certificate AND Secondary Education Certificate with specific
world language or bilingual endorsement (e.g., Japanese or Bilingual Filipino) OR
Elementary Education Certificate AND Elementary Education Certificate with specific
world language endorsement (e.g., Spanish). (p. 4)
Although this framework seeks to clarify the certifications and endorsements a teacher must have
in order to enter a dual language immersion classroom, it presents a difficulty in policy
implementation precisely due to the fact that the candidate pool is nearly zero. For this reason,
many current immersion programs currently exist in schools with a religious orientation wherein
the requirements for teachers are less stringent. A system change is necessary because this
framework practically limits the public schools to very few licensed educators.
Different states have created systemic change and installed policies specifically for guest
teacher programs in order to fill these needs. For example, Utah has worked to expedite the
process to obtain a certificate allowing them to teach in an immersion setting in order to fill the
overwhelming parent demand for immersion programs. For instance, the Utah State Board of
Education offers four different routes to an immersion endorsement or a state approved
endorsement program (SAEP) that allows a:

Licensed Teacher to teach Dual Language Immersion classes while working on the Dual
Language Immersion Endorsement--meaning they are not yet highly qualified in Dual
Language Immersion. 2. The applicant has two years from the date of the SAEP is
approved to complete all requirements for the endorsement. 3. The applicant must
document either a minimum of six hours toward the endorsement or already have a World
Language Endorsement in the language of instruction before applying for the SAEP.
(Utah State Board of Education, n.d., p. 3)
Utah's progressive policy streamlines the process for guest teacher from multiple countries to
enter the state with an essentially honored, foreign teaching license and their native language
fluency to teach in an immersion classroom. The system change policy instrument would be
beneficial in Michigan in order to open alternatives to teacher certification in regard to difficult-
to-staff programs like language immersion programs. As Fowler (2013) opined, "The ideal result
of a system change is a revolutionized institution able and willing to meet the new demands
placed on it (p. 228). Unless a public policy change can be institutionalized, immersion programs
may remain more in the sphere of religious or other private schools.
To continue, there is one more area that requires a drastic system change policy
instrument to capitalize on the intensified interest in dual language immersion education. The
area that needs to experience Fowler's (2013) revolution is the process with which the United
States federal government allots H-1B visas. The H-1B visa is a type of visa that allows U.S.
employers to hire temporary foreign workers in fields with noted difficulties in finding personnel
(U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, n.d.). These fields are often thought of as
specialized technology or scientific fields because of technology companies' requests to increase
the amount of H-1B visas allotted. Annually, this visa lottery system allots about 85,000
temporary visas, regardless of higher demand (Aobdia, 2017). Even Governor Snyder has called
for an increase in these types of visas and believes them good for business (Eggert, 2014).
Many immersion teachers fit exactly this category but school districts that choose to hire
them are at a disadvantage relative to large companies. Large companies are able to essentially
buy many visa lottery spots, thus reducing the overall supply of H-1B visas for cash-strapped
school districts that are unable to try to reserve space for more than a couple teachers (Preston,
2015). Therefore, a system change is needed in order to better match the needs that U.S.
employers have. For example, every year the Chinese instructors that have graduated from MSU
either decide to return to China or remain in the United States to seek employment. If they find a
school district that is willing to pay the large costs associated with applying for a visa, then it
becomes a waiting game to see if the teacher effectively wins the visa lottery.
The MSU teachers are able to come to the United States originally on a student visa that
allows them to work for MSU. Essentially they are contracted out of MSU to the different school
districts or provide online instruction (Michigan State University, n.d.). Once they graduate, they
must enter the H-1B lottery process by being sponsored by a school district. Even though they
are offered positions, they are not able to work unless they receive the H-1B visa. If they work
before the visa is awarded, they are considered undocumented workers and face deportation. If
they do not receive a visa, they have to return to China very shortly. The system change policy
instrument is needed in order to change the statutes and streamline a process for public
employers, for example, to meet their needs when they cannot compete against the resources of
large businesses. This becomes an argument for more equitable treatment for the public schools
and American students.

In conclusion, the paucity of foreign language teachers in general, of immersion teachers
in particular, and precisely with a critical language like Chinese, needs two different policy
instruments in order to create the changes needed to establish the articulated pK-16 dual
language immersion programs I am advocating. Both capacity building and system change are
required in order to help create and then institutionalize pathways for these programs so that we
can create students with high proficiency in languages other than English for our economic,
diplomatic, and defense needs.
Intended audience
The policy recommendation presented in this report is intended toward a wide variety of
audiences. Principally, however, school administrators, parents, businesspeople, and lawmakers
are the primary targets. Each particular group has its own potential contribution that can lead to
the implementation of a pK-16 articulated dual language immersion program ending with college
credit. In the same matter, these groups not only have their own contributions, but their efforts
should work in tandem in order to ensure greater opportunities for our children.
The first group that is targeted is school administrators. This audience consists of both
personnel at the level of central office and the principals of individual school buildings. In small
school districts there are less bureaucratic obstacles to face with the implementation of a
particular program or policy. As such, either principals or school superintendents can wield large
influence in a district's direction. Within the small school districts, even quasi-administrative
roles, such as department chairs, instructional coaches, or the teachers union president may be
able to institutionally shape a particular program or policy's implementation. Therefore, it is
important that outreach be directed specifically at these intended targets because, quite frankly,
these are often the individuals that will be tasked with implementation. Within larger school
districts, a superintendent or other central office administrators might be a better audience rather
than focusing on the quasi-administrative players. For example, the director of instructional
support programs for the Lansing School District has been instrumental in promoting immersion
programs in the school district and assists in Chinese teacher candidates' preparation.
Central office administrators that have a similar role would be appropriate administrators
to target, as well as the school superintendent. For both large and small districts, the
superintendent has the position in order to greatly help shape policy. For example, a
superintendent's ability to provide a specific direction can be paramount. In larger districts,
individual school buildings may be designated a magnet school with the implementation of a this
type of policy. Therefore, targeting a superintendent can be a powerful way to influence the
implementation of a program. Lastly, individual members of the local school board serve in a
quasi-administrative role in regard to district decisions and they can be individually addressed in
order to build board support for policy and program proposals.
The second primary group to target are the parents of children in the school district,
specifically those that have students that will be entering a school district for the first time.
Parents often demand for immersion programs and this demand can be enough to sway local
districts into implementation (Batti, 2013; Belden, 2012; Chandler, 2014; Emma, 2011;
Thompson, 2014). Therefore, it is important for parents to be aware of the potential difficulties
and academic achievement of students in similar programs. Tapping into the power of parents is
very important in order to provide administrators the impetus of beginning immersion programs;
at the very least the parents provide pressure at the school board and superintendent level (Batti,
2013; Feinberg, 2011). Mayer (2011) described how parents that wanted an immersion program
could not "find elementary school principals willing to give up the space and budget to make
room for a French immersion program" (para. 7) so they organized their own charter school to
meet their needs. Gregg Roberts, the world language and immersion specialist in the Utah State
Office of Education, "attributes the interest to the savviness of parents, who know there are
economic benefits for people who can speak another language" (Rogers, 2012, para. 9). Since
parents can be a driver of policy in local school buildings and districts, it is paramount to target a
group of engaged and persistent parents.
The third group that is targeted are businesspeople. As the previous quote eludes, the
economic power behind people with language skills is in the interest of business and industry.
For example, Roberts continued and said, "We must educate students who are multilingual and
globally confident[...] It takes many, many years of hard work to learn a language at a business-
quality level" (quoted in Rogers, 2012, para. 11). In spite of efforts to mandate global
companies' use of English as the lingua franca throughout all countries in which the company
operates (Neeley, 2012), employees with language and global culture skills are a necessary part
of business and are generally paid a premium for these skills (Chau, 2014). Because of the
political clout often associated with business leaders, even those at a local level, their backing
can be an important consideration for executive level decision makers in school districts.
Lastly, lawmakers should be incorporated into the targeted audiences for these programs
because of the avenues into policy and legislation at the local, state, and national levels. Often,
lawmakers will be needed in order to step behind proposals that can make it easier to navigate a
system change or to build capacity at the implementation level. For instance, the question of
teacher certification was presented earlier in this report. This support can coalesce into
bureaucratic release valves and further institutionalize the policy recommendation for a pK-16
dual language immersion program. Additionally, lawmakers at the national level will also be
cognizant of the economic, diplomatic, and defense needs associated with highly proficient
speakers of languages other than English and may help shape funding sources or visa
requirements for program implementation from a federal level.
The preferred approach and the right moment for Michigan
The push for world language education came to its climax with the second iteration of the
Michigan Merit Curriculum. In an effort to ensure that nearly all Michigan students would have a
novice-high level of proficiency upon leaving high school, world language groups lobbied hard
for their inclusion in the graduation requirements. The first requirement set a proficiency
benchmark, however, with no enforcement body to oversee that students met proficiency
standards and continued lobbying form other interest groups, the requirement quickly began to
lose its teeth. For example, the proficiency guidelines were replaced with credits that sought to
approximate the proficiency levels. Credits would then be determined at the local level and
currently students may now replace the second year of language with coursework in visual,
performing, or industrial arts. As the Michigan Senate considers replacing the world language
requirement with computer coding courses, it is time to reevaluate the best way of meeting the
goals and proficiency levels that the world language requirement had hoped to usher in.
Clearly, sustained sequences of courses and preferably beginning in the early grades will
have the biggest potential to help students reach advanced levels of proficiency. It is my belief
that immersion models have the largest likelihood of propelling students to meet those goals. As
other states such as Utah and Oregon have taken leadership positions with immersion offerings
and immersion expansion at historic levels (Center for Applied Linguistics, 2011), now is the
time for Michigan to also take a leadership role and help expand these opportunities for students.
With the limited number of teachers that are capable of teaching in an immersion classroom,
Michigan must act to ensure that it would be able to fill classrooms with teachers. Once
Michigan has been able to build the capacity for highly proficient speakers of languages other
than English, we may be able to fill our teacher shortage with home
Economic benefits
As previously mentioned, language skills are particularly important assets for employers
that are tied to international trade. Among the states, Michigan ranks seventh in regard to goods
exported with Mexico, Canada, and China as our top export destinations worth $19 billion (Asia
Society, 2017). Obviously, automotive and other advanced manufacturing accounts for much of
Michigan's exported goods. However, agricultural products are also an extremely important
source of export revenue. According to Michigan Farm Bureau (2012), approximately one third
of agricultural products are exported annually and generate $2.8 billion. The top destinations for
agricultural products are Canada, Mexico, Japan, China, and Thailand. Language skills can be
important for both the production and exportation of these products.
At the local level, individual districts may see the economic advantages of these
immersion programs simply through enrollment trends. Because Michigan allows for school of
choice, students may attend any school they choose. Of course, most students attend the local
area school district. However, some districts with low state accountability scores lose many
students to neighboring districts. An immersion program can act like a magnet school among
different school districts and slow bleeding enrollments and attract students from other districts.
An analysis of enrollment trends indicated those two trends working in tandem in a school
during the years in which it had an immersion program (Hill, 2016). Since each student
represents an allotment of funding from the state, greater enrollment can create a positive
snowball effect and positively influence a district's finances.

Students have an additional benefit that can be realized because of the pK-16 dual
language immersion and strand program. Wood (2016) and Bott Van Houten (2013) described
how Utah students in high school were already preparing for the Advanced Placement test and
that programs were being articulated for students to attend university intermediate and advanced
level coursework while still in high school. This results in a benefit for students because the cost
of college tuition will be reduced with a substantial number of credits earned while still at the
secondary level.
Academic Achievement
Thomas, Collier, and Abbot (1993) examined the effects of immersion programs in
multiple languages on student achievement. When controlling for demographic characteristics,
immersion students tended to score on par with students in traditional education programs.
Moreover, the immersion students developed as predicted in academic and cognitive domains.
Turnball, Hart, and Lapkin (2003) on the other hand had previously reported that immersion
students initially lagged behind students in traditional classrooms on standardized testing. Their
analysis of immersion programs at the sixth grade provided evidence that the deficits in
immersion students' performance had disappeared by this grade level testing period. Therefore,
immersion students may initially fall behind their peers but these are washout effects, leaving
little indication that prolonged immersion experiences are related to academic deficits. In terms
of performance, it is expected that students' achievement is indistinguishable from their peers. Of
course, the immersion also have learned another language in the same period of time. Other
studies have indicated that immersion education can provide benefits to students of different
ethnicities and economic backgrounds (Holobow, Genesee, Lambert, & Gastright, 1987) and a
positive correlation between foreign language study and the SAT and ACT (Cooper, 1987; Olsen
& Brown, 1992; Timpe, 1979).
What are the long-term benefits or participation in an immersion program? Mellgren &
Somers (2008) surveyed students that had participated in an elementary immersion program and
found that students were likely to continue their language studies in middle and high school, as
well as in college. In regard to academic performance, approximately 82% of the respondents
had high school GPAs of 3.1 or greater and 99% went on to attend college. Additionally, many
went on to study other languages as well and to study abroad. Of the 41% that majored in
Spanish, nearly all of them listed one or two other majors as well. Much in the way that Utah
students are being prepared to already have high language skills entering college (Bott Van
Houten, 2013; Wood, 2016), these students seem to combine language with another professional
field. Student reactions from participation in the program many years prior indicated that the
experiences was generally transformative. It is important to clarify that the graduate response
rate was 27% so it is possible for the results to be skewed.
Resolving potential issues
An articulated pK-16 dual language and continuing strand model has the potential to
resolve multiple issues that the Michigan world language graduation requirement and higher
expectations of teachers standards attempted to address, in addition to focusing on broad level
goals such as national economic competiveness, diplomatic and defense needs. Further, the
outcomes associated with language proficiency will also help with the administration of public
and social programs as well, given that the United States provides language support services to
different language minority groups as standard practice. This program model will create high
school and college graduates with very high levels of language proficiency, as well as cultural
knowledge. Xu, Padilla, and Silva (2015) examined a two-way dual language Mandarin
elementary program and found that the elementary students had comparable proficiency to high
school counterparts that had taken a traditional high school sequence of courses. The
performance of those elementary students with continued instruction throughout the high school
years easily leads to the performance outcomes and awarding of college credit described by Bott
Van Houten, 2013).
Similarly, time spent in language instruction can lead to intangible outcomes like a
recognition of the inherent worth of language instruction. This could potentially create students
that not only surpass the ideals established by the Michigan Merit Curriculum's world language
requirement, but also has the potential to create teacher candidates whose language skills are
easily competent enough to pass the newly mandate proficiency standards for teacher
preparation. Indeed, the capacity building potential inherent in this program model would help
Michigan to meet its goals under the ESSA (Burnette, 2017) and create young adults with
opportunities unlike most others across the country. The implementation of this program model
would create a crop of American students with skills in critical languages and greater potential
contextualized language in different career fields.
Criticisms
As with any new policy, there are multiple criticisms that can be levied in its contrary.
With a capacity building implementation instrument, one potential criticism is the amount of
money and time that must be invested before there are fruitful gains to be realized. Start up cost,
principally made up from the cost to hire new immersion teachers, can be a very real setback.
With the elimination of many funding programs since the Great Recession, former program start-
up grants such as the Foreign Language Assistance Program have disappeared. Even with a
reduction in regulations regarding the licensure of immersion teachers, funding can be a
particular issue that must be resolved. School districts may strategically wait until there are
multiple expected retirements of older teaching staff in order to fill immersion teaching spots
through staff attrition as a way to absorb additional costs. Similarly, space constraints can
sometimes be burdensome in schools. In larger districts, some staff may be displaced, perhaps in
other buildings, to make room for the immersion classrooms and this could cause resentment in
the teaching staff. Another potential solution to this problem would be the creation of immersion
programs in more urban schools districts or others with declined populations. School districts
that have downsized from historic high populations, like Flint, have classrooms and buildings
that are well under capacity. Regardless, this issues of money and space are very legitimate
concerns in school districts in spite of the potential benefits that immersion programs may bring.
In the same vein, the system change model would require the removal of statutory
roadblocks that would allow for the implementation of temporary licensure of immersion
instructors. Although the Michigan Department of Education recently included language
pertinent to immersion classrooms and the required certifications a teacher must possess, there
are still supply side problems since so few teachers actually possess those qualifications.
Therefore, there are not enough American teachers than can fulfill the demand that parents
already have. Michigan should therefore consider the model put forth by Utah in order to both
provide opportunities for our students but to also provide a pathway for teachers, both domestic
and foreign-born, to meet the high standards that are in place. Filling the teacher shortage with
foreign candidates can potentially create other unintended difficulties since local teachers,
especially in small districts, will worry that their positions will be replaced by foreign teachers.
Lastly, since it is expected that there may be opposition at the administrative, teacher, or
parent level, advocates for this kind of policy implementation need to form a guiding coalition
and try to enlist a volunteer army that will work towards the goal (Kotter International, 2017).
They may be required to work outside of the box. Mayer (2011) reported on a group of parent
advocates that did just that. When parents met with malaise from area administrators they created
their own charter school to provide their children with opportunities to participate in a French
immersion school. Effectively, they were able to remove obstacles that were in their way (Kotter
International, 2017). Likewise, large school districts with multiple elementary schools may
consider designating one of the buildings as a magnet school in order to house such a program.
Still, this may lead to teacher being displaced into other buildings or cause unwilling parents to
send their own children to another elementary building. Regardless, a specified building may
also pull in students through school of choice, which could potentially help increase the district's
financial outlook.
Whatever the specific criticism or situation that is encountered, Kotter International
(2017) strongly recommends to celebrate all small victories and achievements. These
celebrations can take on a snowball effect; they may start out small but accumulate more with
their increasing momentum. In order to for a policy change implementation to become
institutionalized policy, those small victories need to help sustain years of pressure and calls to
return to the status quo. Those short-term gains must then be consolidated and then it is possible
to build upon a strong foundation of achievements (Kotter International, 2017) .Therefore, we
must end our addiction to short-termism and play a long game in order to increase opportunities
and celebrate diversity for our children. The following section focuses on the need to provide
sufficient planning time for a new policy implementation to have a chance.

General timeline
A general timeline is discussed in this section which provides a framework for
implementing an immersion program in a school district. To begin, it is pertinent to rally grass-
roots support in both the school employees and with a community of parents. Sometimes, the
preparation and organization can last a couple years and still end in a "no" vote by a school board
or the superintendent (Peterson, 2004). Therefore, if tacit approval is given to begin a program
then it will require probably one year for a board-appointed task force to study the issue.
Concurrently, a base of support must also be established and opportunities provided for staff to
learn about the program model and to visit other school districts. This time period allows for
buy-in by the school and community and similarly can also be a time period to study the politics
involved in decision-making at the district and building levels. With full approval, there is still
one full year of planning and the localization of the first immersion teacher candidates. As
discussed previously, there are multiple ways of finding appropriate teacher candidates; some
may need to be teachers from overseas. Another aspect of the preliminary time period is the
ability to seek multiple funding streams that schools can apply for in regard to the innovative
programming model. This can help offset the costs of a potential new hire and new materials.
After the initial year or two of politicking and planning, the immersion program may
begin small during the first year. Close monitoring of student progress will be necessary and
frequent meetings will be required to maximize the transition to a new program model within the
school or district. It may not be necessary to convert an entire school into an immersion school; it
may start off as a single strand within the school. However, there is potential there for growth.
Within the first year of implementation, plans are made for the upcoming year and all
stakeholder representatives need to have their voices heard in order for the new policy to be as
successful as possible. Additionally, a new teacher for the next grade level will have to be
contracted and materials prepared as well. This process will continue over multiple years. In
addition, a school district may have to determine if a building will only operate a strand or
become an immersion building (Arthur, 2004). Further, another important area of concern and
study will be how the program will continue in the middle and high school years (Carr, 2003;
Montone & Loeb, 2003). For these reasons, a specific timeline is difficult to describe. However,
appropriating adequate time before a policy implementation is essential in order for establishing
buy-in and a successful program.
Conclusion
The push for the inclusion of a world language graduation requirement and the higher
expectations for world language teacher candidates was hoped to increase the amount of students
with high levels of proficiency in languages other than English. Similarly, the heritage languages
of English language learners were seen as credit-worthy opportunities, which demonstrated more
equity for students' home languages. As the Michigan Senate currently debates the further
watering down of the language requirement, it is pertinent to look at different alternatives that
can arrive at the same ends. Offering sustained programming sequences in a language from the
earliest grades will lead to the highest likelihood of producing students proficient in foreign
languages. Therefore, it is my assertion that a dual language immersion program beginning in the
preschool grades and extending throughout the elementary will provide a solid foundation for
students without detracting from other scholastic experiences. If those programs are continued as
strands throughout the middles school grades, it is likely that high school freshmen would be
able to enroll in Advanced Placement or dual enrolled language courses for college credit. As
demonstrated by Utah's immersion model, students would be able to successfully complete a

college minor in a language after their freshman year (Wood, 2016). At this point, students may
either continue with their language studies or focus on completely different content areas.
Regardless, they will have a demonstrably high level of proficiency in a language other than
English and help increase the United States' economic competitiveness and provide a further
resource for diplomatic and defense capabilities. Michigan must act quickly and with certainty or
risk economic, diplomatic, and defense growth and capacity.
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Edl 775 Policy Paper Achieving Advanced Proficiency in Languages Other Than English in Michigan

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Edl 775 Policy Paper Achieving Advanced Proficiency in Languages Other Than English in Michigan

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Running head: POLICY AND POSITION REPORT 1

Policy and Position Report:

Achieving Advanced Proficiency in Languages Other than English in Michigan

Central Michigan University

Policy and Position Report:

Achieving Advanced Proficiency in Languages Other than English in Michigan

Policy Background and Politics

hopes of filling teaching vacancies.

of Education Sciences, the Department of State's Educational and Cultural Exchanges,

tackle its diplomatic and defense needs.

Change in world language education requirements

Regardless of funding initiatives and budget cuts, it is important to consider approaches

students (Retired Michigan Department of Education [MDE] consultant, personal

be explained in greater detail later in this report.

To continue, this put additional pressure on university programs to graduate students at

completion of Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate exams. Other districts can

Linguafolio assessment. At a minimum, students must demonstrate proficiency at ACTFL's

intermediate mid level in order to receive the SOB.

inherent worth placed on both languages.

with the two-year language requirement for graduation in Michigan.

communication, April 1, 2017).

A world language united front?

was watched closely from the community college level.

As teachers implemented the new world language policy requirement, unintended

described her view in a letter to the MIWLA:

requirement in Michigan. Why? Here's what has happened to my language program. I

my classes. Therefore when my students go on to college or university, they do not have

teacher, personal communication, March 27, 2017)

pass through at least six months of coursework in an immersion setting.

the utility of a world language high school graduation requirement.

language deficit in the United States.

Policy Report and Recommendations

recommendation is to increase opportunities for children to participate in dual language

this policy recommendation would help enable this to happen.

instruments to be utilized, capacity building and system change.

particularly effective because it:

is designed to bring about a major, permanent change in the functional ability of an

individual or an organization. Therefore, it represents a long-term investment whose full

program beginning, it is necessary to implement the system change policy instrument.

teacher licensure is handled in Michigan. System change is essentially a practice of transferring

eliminates the authority of an official or agency over a specific decision-making area

while simultaneously shifting that authority to different individuals or agencies. As a

secondary effect, a system change may reallocate resources[...] System change is an

dual language immersion program I am advocating.

Personal experience with licensing requirements for Chinese nationals to serve as

Michigan Department of Education (n.d.) recently released clarification specifically for

programs, the state requires the following licensure:

Elementary Education Certificate with specific world language endorsement (e.g.,

Spanish) OR Elementary Education Certificate with specific bilingual endorsement (e.g.,

Bilingual Chaldean) OR Secondary Education Certificate with Elementary Education

endorsement and specific world language endorsement (e.g., German) OR Secondary

Education Certificate with Elementary Education endorsement and specific bilingual

endorsement (e.g., Bilingual Arabic) OR Co-teaching model: (bold in original)

Elementary Education Certificate AND Secondary Education Certificate with specific

world language or bilingual endorsement (e.g., Japanese or Bilingual Filipino) OR

Elementary Education Certificate AND Elementary Education Certificate with specific

world language endorsement (e.g., Spanish). (p. 4)

in order to enter a dual language immersion classroom, it presents a difficulty in policy

Education offers four different routes to an immersion endorsement or a state approved

endorsement program (SAEP) that allows a:

(Utah State Board of Education, n.d., p. 3)

beneficial in Michigan in order to open alternatives to teacher certification in regard to difficult-

may remain more in the sphere of religious or other private schools.