1.

INTRODUCTION TO CFD SPRING 2017

1.1 What is computational fluid dynamics?

1.2 Basic principles of CFD
1.3 Stages in a CFD simulation
1.4 Fluid-flow equations
1.5 The main discretisation methods
Appendices
Examples

1.1 What is Computational Fluid Dynamics?

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is the use of computers

and numerical methods to solve problems involving fluid flow.

CFD has been successfully applied in many areas of fluid mechanics. These include
aerodynamics of cars and aircraft, hydrodynamics of ships, flow through pumps and turbines,
combustion and heat transfer, chemical engineering. Applications in civil engineering include
wind loading, vibration of structures, wind and wave energy, ventilation, fire, explosion
hazards, dispersion of pollution, wave loading on coastal and offshore structures, hydraulic
structures such as weirs and spillways, sediment transport. More specialist CFD applications
include ocean currents, weather forecasting, plasma physics, blood flow, heat transfer around
electronic circuitry.

This range of applications is very broad and involves many different fluid phenomena. In
particular, the CFD techniques used for high-speed aerodynamics (where compressibility is
significant, but viscous and turbulent effects are often unimportant) are very different from
those used to solve the incompressible, turbulent flows typical of mechanical and civil
engineering.

Although many elements of this course are widely applicable, the focus will be on simulating
viscous, incompressible flow by the finite-volume method.

CFD 11 David Apsley

1.2 Basic Principles of CFD

The approximation of a continuously-varying quantity in terms of values at a finite number of

points is called discretisation.

The following are common to any CFD simulation.

(1) The flow field is discretised; i.e. field continuous discrete

curve approximation
variables (, u, v, w, p, ) are
approximated by their values at a finite
number of nodes.

f
(2) The equations of motion are discretised:

derivatives algebraic approximations

(continuous) (discrete) 2 df f f f
2 1
dx x x2 x1
f
1
x
x

(3) The resulting system of algebraic equations is solved to give values at the nodes.

1.3 Stages in a CFD Simulation

The main stages in a CFD simulation are:

Pre-processing:
formulate problem (geometry, equations, boundary conditions);
construct a computational mesh (set of control volumes).

Solving:
discretise the governing equations;
solve the resulting algebraic equations.

Post-processing:
analyse results (calculate derived quantities: forces, flow rates, ... );
visualise (graphs and plots).

CFD 12 David Apsley

1.4 Fluid-Flow Equations

The equations of fluid flow are based on fundamental physical conservation principles:
mass: change of mass = 0
momentum: change of momentum = force time
energy: change of energy = work + heat
In fluid flow these are usually expressed as rate equations; i.e. rate of change =

Additional equations may apply for non-homogeneous fluids (e.g. multiple phases or
dissolved chemicals).

When applied to a fluid continuum these conservation principles may be expressed

mathematically as either:
integral (control-volume) equations;
differential equations.

1.4.1 Integral (Control-Volume) Approach

Consider how the total amount of some physical quantity V

(mass, momentum, energy, ) is changed within a finite
region of space (control volume).

For a control volume the balance of any physical quantity over an interval of time is
CHANGE = (IN OUT) + CREATED

In fluid mechanics this is usually expressed in rate form by dividing by the time interval (and
transferring net transfer through the boundary to the LHS); regarding outward as positive:
RATE OF CHANGE NET FLUX SOURCE
inside V (1)
inside V throughboundaryof V

The flux (rate of transport through a surface) is further subdivided into:

advection1 movement with the flow;
diffusion net transport by random molecular or turbulent motion.

RATE OF CHANGE ADVECTION DIFFUSION SOURCE

throughboundaryof V inside V (2)
inside V

This is a generic equation, irrespective of whether the quantity is mass, momentum, chemical
content, etc. Thus, instead of lots of different equations we can consider (Section 4) the
numerical solution of a generic scalar-transport equation.

The finite-volume method, which is the subject of this course, is based on approximating
these control-volume equations.

1
Some authors but not this one prefer the term convection to advection. This author prefers convection to be
reserved for the transport of heat.

CFD 13 David Apsley

1.4.2 Differential Equations

In regions without shocks, interfaces or other discontinuities, the fluid-flow equations can
also be written in equivalent differential forms. These describe what is going on at a point
rather than over a whole control volume. Mathematically, they can be derived by making the
control volumes infinitesimally small (Section 2). As we shall see, there are different ways of
writing these differential equations.

Finite-difference methods are based on the direct approximation of a differential form of the
governing equations.

1.5 The Main Discretisation Methods

i,j+1
(i) Finite-Difference Method
i-1,j i,j i+1,j
Discretise the governing differential equations; e.g. for mass:
u v ui 1, j ui 1, j vi , j 1 vi , j 1
0 i,j-1
x y 2x 2y

(ii) Finite-Volume Method vn

Discretise the governing integral (control-volume) equations; e.g. uw ue
net mass outflow (uA) e (uA) w (vA) n (vA) s 0
vs

(iii) Finite-Element Method

Express the solution as a weighted sum of shape functions S(x); e.g. for velocity:
u (x) u S (x)
Substitute into some form of the governing equations and solve for the coefficients (aka
degrees of freedom or weights) u.

This course will focus on the finite-volume method.

The finite-element method is popular in solid mechanics (geotechnics, structures) because:

it has considerable geometric flexibility;
general-purpose software can be used for a wide variety of physical problems.

The finite-volume method is popular in fluid mechanics because:

it rigorously enforces conservation;
it is flexible in terms of both geometry and fluid phenomena;
it is directly relatable to physical quantities (mass flux, etc.).

CFD 14 David Apsley

In the finite-volume method ...

(1) A flow geometry is defined.

(2) The flow domain is decomposed into a set of control volumes

or cells called a computational mesh or grid.

(3) The control-volume equations are discretised i.e.

approximated in terms of values at nodes to form a set of
algebraic equations.

(4) The discretised equations are solved numerically. b

CFD 15 David Apsley

APPENDICES

A1. Notation

Position/time:
x (x, y, z) or (x1, x2, x3) position; (z is usually vertical when gravity is important)
t time
Field variables:
u (u, v, w) or (u1, u2, u3) velocity
p pressure
(p patm is gauge pressure; p* = p + gz is piezometric pressure)
T temperature
concentration (amount per unit mass or per unit volume)
Fluid properties:
density
dynamic viscosity
( / is the kinematic viscosity)
diffusivity

A2. Hydrostatics

At rest, pressure forces balance weight. This hydrostatic relation can be written
dp
p gz or g (3)
dz
The same equation also holds in a moving fluid if there is no vertical acceleration, or, as an
approximation, if vertical acceleration is much smaller than g.

If density is constant, (3) can be written

( p gz) 0
or
p* p gz constant (4)
p* is the piezometric pressure, combining the effects of pressure and gravity. For a constant-
density flow without a free surface, gravitational forces can be eliminated entirely from the
equations by working with the piezometric pressure.

A3. Equation of State

In compressible flow, pressure, density and temperature are connected by an equation of

state. The most common is the ideal gas law:
p RT , R R0 /m (5)
where R0 is the universal gas constant, m is the molar mass and T is the absolute temperature.
For ideal gases, temperature is related to internal energy e or enthalpy h (per unit mass) by
e cv T (6)
h c pT (7)
where cv and cp are specific heat capacities at constant volume and constant pressure.

CFD 16 David Apsley

Examples

The following simple examples develop the control-volume notation to be used in the rest of
the course.

Q1.
Water (density 1000 kg m3) flows at o
45
2 m s1 through a circular pipe of

10 cm
2 m/s
diameter 10 cm. What is the mass flux C
S1 S2
across the surfaces S1 and S2?

Q2.
D=10 cm A water jet strikes normal to a fixed plate as shown.
Compute the force F required to hold the plate fixed.
F
u=8 m/s

Q3.
An explosion releases 2 kg of a toxic gas into a room of dimensions 30 m 8 m 5 m.
Assuming the room air to be well-mixed and to be vented at a speed of 0.5 m s1 through an
aperture of 6 m2, calculate:
(a) the initial concentration of gas in ppm by mass;
(b) the time taken to reach a safe concentration of 1 ppm.
(Take the density of air as 1.2 kg m3.)

Q4.
A burst pipe at a factory causes a chemical to seep into a river at a rate of 2.5 kg hr1. The
river is 5 m wide, 2 m deep and flows at 0.3 m s1. What is the average concentration of the
chemical (in kg m3) downstream of the spill?

CFD 17 David Apsley