Aftersales Training -

Trainer's Workbook.
Fundamentals of Electrics/
Electronics.

BMW Service
The information contained in this Workbook is intended solely for the trainer of this seminar run
by BMW Aftersales Training.

Refer to the latest relevant BMW Service information for any changes/supplements to the
Technical Data.

Information status: December 2005

Contact: conceptinfo@bmw.de

2005 BMW AG
Mnchen, Germany.
Reprints of this publication or its parts require the written approval of
BMW AG, Mnchen
VS-12 Aftersales Training
Trainer's Workbook.
Fundamentals of Electrics/
Electronics.
Notes on this Workbook

Symbols used
The following symbols are used in this Workbook to facilitate better
comprehension and to draw attention to important information.

3 contains information for better understanding of the described

systems and their functions.

1 identifies the end of a note.

Relevance:
In view of the constant further developments in the design and equipment
of BMW vehicles, variations may arise between this Workbook and the
vehicles made available as part of the training course.
The background material refers exclusively to left-hand drive vehicles.
The controls are in part arranged differently in right-hand drive vehicles
than shown in the graphics in the Workbook.
Contents
Fundamentals of Electrics/
Electronics
Information for the trainer 1
List of materials 1

Training 3
Structure of atoms 3
Electrical voltage 5
Electrical current 11
Electrical resistance 15
Ohm's Law 18
Electrical power 22
Capacitors and electrical capacitance 24
Coil and inductance 26
Semiconductor technology 29
Semiconductor components 35
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Information for the trainer
Fundamentals of Electrics/Electronics

List of materials

The materials listed in the following are required specifically to complete the training module.
Material/tools:
Modular system (STE in case for fundamentals of motor vehicle electrical/electronic systems,
colloquially known as "Leybold kit")
Digital multimeter
Pocket calculator

Media:
Product information "Fundamentals of Electrics/Electronics"
Participant's Workbook "Fundamentals of Electrics/Electronics"
PowerPoint "Grundlagen_E_E_de.ppt"/"Grundlagen_E_El_en.ppt"
TIS access.

Vehicles:
BMW vehicles for measuring closed-circuit current.

Notes for the trainer:

If you have no modular system available, you can perform some of the exercises using other
kits such as the BMW training and diagnostics kit (electronics case for foundation course in
diagnostics).
The above specified materials/vehicles should be available in quantities corresponding to the
number of participants.
Further information on the Internet:
www. wikipedia.org
www.elektronik-kompendium.de

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2
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Trainer's Workbook
Fundamentals of Electrics/Electronics

Structure of atoms

Electrons, protons and neutrons

All matter is made from approximately 100 The model assumes that atoms are made up
different elements. The smallest building of an atomic core or nucleus and an
blocks of these elements are atoms. atomic shell.
The atomic core is located in the centre of the
atom. It consists of protons and neutrons.
Neutrons are mass particles that exhibit no
charge. The protons are particles with a
positive electrical charge. The protons and
neutrons have approximately the same mass.
The atomic core or nucleus is charged
positively and contains virtually the entire
mass of the atoms.
The electrons are negatively charged
particles. The number of electrons in the
atomic shell equals the number of protons in
the core of the atom. The mass of the
1 - Structure of a lithium atom electrons is approximately 2000 times less
than the mass of the protons or neutrons.
Index Explanation
An atom is electrically neutral towards the
1 Electrons outside. The core and the shell of an atom
2 Neutrons have the same number of electrical charges
(protons and electrons).
3 Protons

The model illustrated here is the Bohr atom

model. It shows the positions of electrons,
protons and neutrons in relation to each other.

Assignment 1: Complete the illustrated models of atoms such that each model
represents an electrically neutral atom.

Solution: A) 2 electrons added

B) Atom is already electrically neutral
C) 12 protons in the nucleus

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Assignment 2: The copper atom has 29 protons on 4 orbits about the core:
Orbit 1 ---> 2 electrons
Orbit 2 ---> 8 electrons
Orbit 3 ---> 18 electrons
Orbit 4 ----> 1 electron
Is copper a good or poor conductor? Give reasons for your
answer.

Solution: Copper is a good conductor.

Most metals have only a few electrons (the copper atom has only one
electron) in the outer shell so that this electron can easily break loose.
The electrons then move relatively freely through the crystal or
molecular lattice formed by the atomic nuclei. The flow of electrons does
not consist of one single free electron but rather it is made up of a vast
number of electrons.

If the conductor is subjected to an electrical pressure, i.e. electrical

voltage, the electrons will move in a certain direction. The existence of
free electrons is therefore of decisive importance for creating electrical
current.

4

Electrical voltage
What is voltage?
A voltage source is created by the separation
of positive charges on the one side and
negative charges on the other.
Voltage sources always have two poles of
different charge. The one side comprises the
positive pole with a deficiency of electrons
while the other side is the negative pole with a
surplus of electrons.
The electrons have a propensity towards
equalization between the negative and
positive poles, i.e. when both poles are
connected, the electrons flow from the
negative pole to the positive pole.
This propensity of the electrons to
achieve equalization is known as
electrical voltage.
The principle of electrical voltage can be
clearly illustrated using a vehicle battery as an
example.
2 - Positive and negative poles (terminals) of a vehicle battery
Index Explanation
1 Negative pole of battery
2 Positive pole of battery
9
The electrochemical processes in the vehicle
battery cause a separation of charges:
The electrons collect on the one side
(negative pole)
There is a deficiency of electrons on the
other side (positive pole)
Consequently, a difference in potential is
created between the poles, i.e. an electrical
voltage.
The voltage level depends on the difference in
the quantity of electrons.
When both poles of the battery are connected
by an electrical conductor with a defined
electrical resistance, the electrons will move
from the negative pole to the positive pole. An
electrical current flows for as long as there is
no difference in potential between the poles or
the current circuit is interrupted.
The following statements can be made about
electrical voltage:
Electrical voltage is the pressure or force
exerted on free electrons.
Electrical voltage is the cause of electrical
current.
Electrical voltage (pressure) occurs as the
result of the difference in charge between
two points or poles.
Formula symbol
The formula symbol for voltage is upper case
U.
Unit of measure
The unit of measure for electrical voltage U is
1 Volt (V).
5
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Voltage measurement
The following points should be borne in mind
when measuring with a voltmeter:
The type of voltage, i.e. alternating (AC) or
direct (DC) voltage must be set.
Initially, a larger measurement range should
be selected.
Observe polarity when measuring direct
voltage.
After measurement, the voltmeter should
be set to the largest alternating voltage
range.

3 - Digital multimeter for measuring voltage

Voltage is measured with a voltmeter. A digital

multimeter is often used for measuring the
electrical variables (voltage, current,
resistance).
A voltmeter is always connected parallel to the
electrical load, component or voltage source.

4 - Example of measuring voltage at the resistor R2

The internal resistance of the voltmeter should

be as large as possible in order not to influence
the circuit to be measured.
The momentary voltage is measured when
measuring at the voltage source.

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Assignment 3: Draw the voltmeter in the following circuit for measuring the
voltage at the resistor R1 and R4.
What is the value at the voltage at resistor R3?
Build up the circuit and measure the voltages.

Solution:

The voltage at resistor R3 is the same as the voltage at resistor R4.

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Interconnection of voltage sources
The interconnection of several individual
voltage sources is known as a battery. When
the voltage sources are connected in series,
the total no-load voltage is equal to the sum of
the individual no-load voltages.
Utotal = U1 + U2 + U3
8
5 - A) Series connection of
voltage sources
B) Parallel connection of
voltage sources
Particular care must be taken in the case of
parallel connection of the voltage sources to
ensure that only the voltage sources with the
same individual voltage are connected in
parallel! When the voltage sources are
connected in parallel, the total no-load voltage
is equal to the sum of the individual no-load
voltages.
Utotal = U1 = U2 = U3
 9

Assignment 4: What values are measured in the following current circuits?

Enter the respective values in Volt.

9
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Solution: a) U = 0 V
b) U = 12 V
c) U = 6 V
d) U = 24 V
e) U = 18 V
f) U = 0 V

Assignment 5: Can the battery from a truck with a voltage rating of 24 V be used
to jump-start a passenger vehicle with a 12 V electrical system?
Give reasons for your answer.

Solution: No. The 24 V battery would damage the electrical system in the
passenger vehicle. The reason for this is that an increase in voltage also
means an increase in current at the same resistance (Ohm's law).

Assignment 6: How must the poles of the two batteries be connected correctly
for the purpose of providing a jump start?
Draw the circuit in the following illustration.

Solution: With the "donor and receiver battery" having the same rated voltages,
e.g. 12 V, the positive pole of the donor battery is connected to the
positive pole of the receiver battery. Likewise, the negative pole of the
donor battery is connected to the negative pole of the receiver battery.

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Electrical current
Directed movement of charge carriers
Electrical current is the directed movement of
charge carriers, e.g. free electrons or ions in a
substance or vacuum.
6 - Directed movement of free electrons.
The formula symbol for electric current is I.
The unit of measure for electric current is
ampere (A). Current is measured with an
ammeter.
7 - Measuring electrical current
Index Explanation
1 Switch
2 Ammeter
3 Resistor
The ammeter is always connected in series
with the electric load. For this purpose, the
wire of the current circuit must be cut to insert
the measuring instrument in the current
circuit. The current must flow through the
ammeter during the measurement.
The internal resistance of the meter should be
as low as possible in order not to influence the
current circuit.
The following points must be observed when
measuring with an ammeter:
Establish the type of current, i.e. whether
alternating current or direct current (AC/DC)
is flowing through the circuit.
Initially, the measuring range should be
selected as large as possible.
Observe the polarity in connection with
direct current.
After measurement, the ammeter should
be set to the largest possible alternating
voltage range.
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Clip-on ammeter
The clip-on ammeter is a further option for
measuring current. Measuring current with a
clip-on ammeter is of particular advantage
when currents > 10 A are to be measured. A
further advantage is that the current circuit
need not be opened for the purpose of
measuring the current.

8 - Measuring current with a clip-on ammeter

Index Explanation
1 Clip-on ammeter
2 Negative lead of battery

Assignment 7: Draw the ammeters in the following circuit for measuring the
current across resistors R1 and R4.
What is the value at the current across resistor R2?
Build up the circuit and measure the currents.

Solution:

The current across resistor R2 is the same level as the current across
resistor R1.

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Assignment 8: With the aid of the Service Information 61 03 99 (474), measure

the closed-circuit current in a vehicle. Make a note of the
individual working steps and points of particular interest.

How high is the maximum permissible closed-circuit current in

BMW vehicles?

Convert the value into amps.

Why can a closed-circuit current be measured at all?

Solution: The trainer supervises the correct procedure according to the Service
Information 61 03 99 (474).
He provides assistance as required.
Depending on the equipment and type of vehicle, it can take up to 70
minutes to measure the closed-circuit current (quiescent current). It is
sufficient for the participants to start the procedure for measuring the
closed-circuit current and then observe and discuss the results after
about one hour.
The maximum permissible closed-circuit current in BMW vehicles is 80
mA.
80 mA = 0.08 A
The closed-circuit current can be measured because the CAS, for
example, must always be in standby ready for the remote control or the
antitheft alarm system must always be active ...

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Assignment 9: The following illustrations show two possible directions of current flow.
What terms are used to describe them?
a)

b)

What is the reason for these different current directions?

Solution: a) Technical current direction

b) Physical current direction
As the exact procedures in the conductor were still not known, the
direction of current outside a voltage source was determined as being
from the positive pole to the negative pole. This direction is known as the
technical current direction. Although the then assumption was
disproved, the original (historic) current direction was retained for
practical reasons. Therefore, even today, the current flow within a circuit
is still defined as being from the positive pole to the negative pole. In
actual fact, the electrons outside a voltage source move from the
negative pole to the positive pole (physical current direction).

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Electrical resistance

Electrical resistance of conductors

Electrical resistance is the impedance of
electron migration through the lattice
structure of the conductor. All conductors and
therefore all electric loads offer resistance to
the current. Three factors determine the
resistance of a conductor:
Material
Length
Cross section
The longer a conductor, the higher its
resistance.
The larger the cross section of a conductor,
the lower its resistance.
Different materials with the same dimensions
offer different levels of resistance. Each
substance has a certain specific resistance
Rho.
The electrical resistance of a conductor is
calculated with the following formula:
9 - Formula for calculating the
electrical resistance of a
conductor
Index Explanation
R Electrical resistance in Ohm
Specific electrical resistance in
(Ohm * mm2 / m)
l Length of conductor in m
A Cross section of conductor in
mm2

10 - Battery positive leads in the E90

Depending on the variant, different battery Copper cables are used on diesel engine
leads to the starter are used on the E90. vehicles. If aluminium leads were used, the
cross sections would have to be so large that
Battery leads made from aluminium are used
they would pose problems in terms of
on petrol engine vehicles.
package space and installation.
The advantages of aluminium are:
Low weight
Low costs
The disadvantage of aluminium is its poor
conductivity.

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Assignment 10: The battery lead to the starter has a length of approx. 5 m and a
diameter of 10 mm.
The specific electrical resistance of aluminium is = 0.0303
Ohm * mm2 / m.
The circular area is calculated using this formula: A = (d/2)2 *
Calculate the resistance of the battery lead.

Solution:

A = (d/2)2 * = (10 mm / 2)2 * = 25 mm2 * 3.14 = 78.5 mm2

R = (0.0303 (Ohm * mm2 / m) * 5 m) / 78.5 mm2
R = (0.15 Ohm * mm2) / 78.5 mm2
R = 0.002 Ohm = 2 mOhm
The resistance of the battery lead is 2 mOhm.

Assignment 11: What is the diameter of a battery lead of the same length but
made of copper assuming the same resistance of the lead?
The specific electrical resistance of copper is = 0.0178 Ohm *
mm2 / m.

Solution: A = * (l / R)
A = 0.0178 (Ohm * mm2 / m) * (5 m / 0.002 Ohm)
A = (0.0178 * 2500) mm2
A= 44.5 mm2
d = (A / ) *2 = (44.5 mm2 / 3.14) *2 = 7.5 mm
The copper lead would have a diameter of 7.5 mm.

Assignment 12: The lead from the battery to the junction box has a length of
approx. 4 m and a cross section of 40 mm2. Another cable with a
length of approx. 2 m and cross section of 20 mm2 leads from the
junction box to the footwell module. A cable with a length of
approx. 2 m and a cross section of 5 mm2 runs from the footwell
module to the headlight. All three leads are made of copper.
Calculate the total resistance of these three cables.

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Solution: This arrangement is a series connection of three line resistors.

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
R1 = (0.0178 (Ohm * mm2 / m) * 4 m) / 40 mm2 = 0.00178 Ohm
R2 = (0.0178 (Ohm * mm2 / m) * 2 m) / 20 mm2 = 0.00178 Ohm
R3 = (0.0178 (Ohm * mm2 / m) * 2 m) / 5 mm2 = 0.00712 Ohm
Rtotal = 0.00178 Ohm + 0.00178 Ohm + 0.00712 Ohm
Rtotal = 0.00427 Ohm = 4.27 mOhm

Assignment 13: Two resistors are connected in parallel to the electrical supply
system of an E90 with a measured voltage UB = 13 V.

R1 = 1.2 kOhm
R2 = 3.9 kOhm

Calculate the total resistance.

Compare the total resistance with the individual resistances.

Solution: This is a parallel circuit of two resistors.

The total resistance in a parallel circuit is calculated using the following
formula:

1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2

Rtotal = (R1 * R2) / (R1 + R2)
Rtotal = (1200 Ohm * 3900 Ohm) / (1200 Ohm + 3900 Ohm)
Rtotal = 4680000 Ohm / 5100 Ohm = 917 Ohm
The total resistance is lower than the lowest individual resistance.

Assignment (only This point is the ideal opportunity for a participant activity to
for the trainer): round off the topic of voltage, current and resistance.
The trainer asks the participants to go through the door as fast
as possible. He then asks the participants whether they can
connect this action in relation to voltage, current and
resistance.
Voltage --> Trainer or his request to leave the room through the
door.
Current --> The movement of the participants towards and
through the door.
Resistance --> The door.

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Ohm's Law

The most important law in electrical engineering

Ohm's law is one of the most important laws in
electrical engineering that describes the
relationship between voltage, current and
resistance.
The three basic variables of a current circuit
can be calculated with Ohm's law if at least
two of the variables are known.
Ohm's law can be expressed by the following
11 - The "magic" triangle
three formulae:
U=I*R The magic triangle can be used as an aid for
determining the different formulae of Ohm's
I=U/R law.
R=U/I The value to be calculated is crossed out. The
result is calculated with the two remaining
values.
A mental note of the word URI should be made
in order to remember the order of the values.

Assignment 14: A resistance of 6 Ohm is applied to a voltage of 12 V.

Calculate the current (amperage) with the aid of Ohm's law.

Solution: I=U/R
I = 12 V / 6 Ohm = 2 A
I=2A
A current of 2 A flows through the resistor.

Assignment 15: A current of 3 A flows through a 4 Ohm resistor.

Calculate the voltage with the aid of Ohm's law.

Solution: U=I*R
U = 3 A * 4 Ohm = 12 V
U = 12 V
The voltage has a value of 12 V.

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Assignment 16: A current of 4 A flows in a circuit at a voltage of 220 V.

Calculate the resistance with the aid of Ohm's law.

Solution: R=U/I
R = 220 V / 4 A = 55 Ohm
R = 55 Ohm
The resistance has a value of 55 Ohm.

Assignment 17: By way of example, a vehicle battery has an internal resistance

of 0.5 Ohm and a no-load voltage of 14 V. The heating element of
the seat heating has a resistance of 10 Ohm. A current of 3 A
flows when the seat heating is switched on.

How high is the voltage loss due to the internal resistance and
how high is the terminal voltage?

Solution: The internal resistance of the battery and the resistance of the heating
element are connected in series.
Internal resistance (Ri) = 0.5 Ohm
Voltage drop at the internal resistance (Ui) = 0.5 Ohm * 3 A = 1.5 V
Terminal voltage (U) = no-load voltage (U0) - Ui
U = 14 V - 1.5 V = 12.5 V
The terminal voltage is 12.5 V.

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Assignment 18:

Build up the circuit.

Select the following values for the resistors:
R1 = 100 Ohm
R2 = 200 Ohm
R3 = 200 Ohm
R4 = 100 Ohm
Measure the voltage drop at all resistors and calculate the
currents through the resistors.
Note down your observations.

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Solution:

Example:
The following values are obtained at a voltage of approx. 5 V:
U R1 = 1.41 V
U R2 = 2.81 V
U R3 = 0.937 V
U R4 = 0.937 V

I R1 = 1.41 V / 100 Ohm = 0.014 A = 14 mA

I R2 = 2.81 V / 200 Ohm = 0.014 A = 14 mA
I R3 = 0.937 V / 200 Ohm = 0.00468 A = 4.68 mA
I R4 = 0.937 V / 100 Ohm = 0.00937 A = 9.37 mA

The current through resistor R2 is the same value as the current flowing
through resistor R1. The voltage drop at resistor R3 is the same value as
the voltage drop at resistor R4.

Reference to Kirchhoff's laws (see Product Information).

1. At each nodal point, the sum of the incoming currents is the same as
the sum of the outgoing currents.
e.g. nodal point between R2, R3 and R4

I R2 = I R3 + I R4

14 mA = 4.68 mA + 9.37 mA

2. In every closed current circuit, the sum of the source voltages is the
same as the sum of the voltage drops.

U = U1 + U2 + U3
5.16 V = 1.41 V + 2.81 V + 0.937 V

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Electrical power

What is power?
Generally speaking, power is the ability to An unknown electrical variable can be
perform work within a defined period of calculated from two known electrical variables,
time. e.g.
The formula symbol for electrical power is P = U*I
upper case P and the unit of measure Watt
(W).
The mathematical relationship between
electrical power P, electrical voltage U,
electrical current and electrical resistance is
represented in the following diagram.

12 - Conversion circle for current I, voltage U, resistance R and power P

Assignment 19: The starter in the 330d has a power output of 2.2 kW. The starter
in the 330i has a power output of 1.4 kW.

Assuming a 13 V vehicle electrical system, calculate the

respective current rating.

Solution: I=P/U
Current in 330d:
I = 2.2 kW / 13 V = 2200 W / 13 V = 169 A
A current of 169 A flows through the battery lead when starting the
330d.

Current in 330i:
I = 1.4 kW / 13 V = 1400 W / 13 V = 107.7 A
A current of 107.7 A flows through the battery lead when starting the
330i.

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Assignment 20: Remove the turn indicator side repeater from a vehicle.

Read off the power rating of the turn indicator side repeater.

What current flows through the turn signal side repeater?

What is the resistance of the turn signal side repeater?

Solution: The turn signal side repeater in the E90, for example, has a power output
of 5 W at a voltage of 12 V.

I = P / U = 5 W / 12 V = 0.416 A
A current of 0.416 A flows through the turn signal side repeater.

R = U2 / P = (12 V)2 / 5 W = 28.8 Ohm

The turn signal side repeater offers a resistance of 28.8 Ohm.

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Capacitors and electrical capacitance

Storage of electrical energy

Capacitors store electrical energy in an
electrical field. Corresponding to their design,
a differentiation is made between:
Non-polarized capacitors
Polarized capacitors
13 - Left: Non-polarized
capacitor
Right: Polarized capacitor
Capacitors are used for smoothing rectified
voltages and for the purpose of creating time
delays.
The storage capacity of a capacitor is referred
to as electrical capacitance. The unit of
measure for capacitance is Farad (F).
Capacitors used in practical applications have
values smaller than one Farad, e.g. 1 F = 10-
6 F (F = micro-Farad).
The value of the resistor, through which the
charge current of the capacitor flows and the
value of the capacitor are required for the
purpose of calculating the charge and/or
discharge time. The applied voltage has no
influence on the charging time.
Charging takes place faster the smaller the
capacitance of the capacitor C and the smaller
the resistance R.
The product of capacitor C and resistor R is
therefore defined as a time constant (tau).
=R*C
A capacitor charges or discharges at a rate of
63 % of the applied or charged voltage within
each time constant (tau). A capacitor is
almost fully charged or discharged after 5 time
constants.

Assignment 21: The following circuit for charging/discharging the capacitor is

given:

1 Voltage source
2 Switch
3 Ammeter
4 Resistor R = 470 Ohm
5 Capacitor C = 2200 F

Calculate the time required to charge capacitor C.

Solution: Time = 5 = 5 (R * C) = 5 (470 Ohm * 2200 F) = 5.17 seconds

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Assignment 22:

Five capacitors (1) connected in parallel serve as the energy

reserve for the rollover sensor in the E46. Each capacitor (1) has
a capacitance of 5600 F.
Calculate the total capacitance Ctotal .

Solution: The capacitors are connected in parallel.

Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5
Since all capacitors are identical, Ctotal = 5 * C1 = 5 * 5600 F
Ctotal = 28000 F = 28 mF = 0.028 F

Assignment 23: These capacitors are discharged via two parallel-connected

electromagnets. Calculate the discharge time of the capacitors
when taking into account only the resistance of 10 Ohm of the
electromagnets.

Solution: Discharge time is calculated as follows: 5 = R * C

Rtotal = (R1 * R2) / R1 + R2 = (10 Ohm * 10 Ohm) / 20 Ohm = 5 Ohm
= R * C = 5 Ohm * 0.028 F = 0.14 seconds
Discharge time = 5 = 0.7 seconds

25
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Coil and inductance

switched off. An induced voltage is produced.

The formula symbol for inductance is L. The
unit of measure for inductance is H (Henry).
Typical values for coils are in the mH-range
(mH = milli-Henry).
The strength of the magnetic field of a coil
depends on:
14 - Electrical coil without iron - Number of windings N
core
- Current I and
A magnetic field is produced when current - The layout of the coil
flows through a coil. Coils are used in transformers, relays and
Coils store electrical energy in a magnetic electric motors.
field. The magnetic energy is converted back
to electrical energy when the flow of current is

Assignment 24: When current flows through a coil, a magnetic field is produced
about the coil.

Name three factors that define the strength of the magnetic

field?

Solution: Number of windings (more windings --> stronger magnetic field)

Current I (higher current --> stronger magnetic field)
Geometric layout of coil

Assignment 25: Is the magnetic field of a coil weakened or strengthened by

inserting a soft iron core? Why?

Solution: The magnetic field is strengthened. The initially random elementary

magnets in the iron are directed by the magnetic field of the coil with
current flowing through it such that they strengthen the coil field.

Assignment 26: Electric magnets rather than permanent magnets are used in
scrapyards to lift vehicles. Why?

Solution: It is necessary to release the vehicles again. With electric magnets it is

only necessary to switch off the current and the load releases from the
magnet. This would not be so easy using permanent magnets.

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Assignment 27: Build up the following circuit.

Two coils are arranged opposite each other on an iron core. The
coil that is connected to the voltage source is known as the
primary coil. A voltage U1 is applied to this coil and its number of
windings equals N1 = 500. The coil in which the current is
induced is known as the secondary coil. The voltage U2 can be
tapped off from this coil, its number of windings is N2 = 1000.
The ratio of the number of windings of the coils is the same as
the ratio of the voltages applied at the coils.

U1 / U2 = N1 / N2

The current ratio corresponds to the inverse of the winding

ratio.
I2 / I1 = N1 / N2
a) Calculate the voltage U2, when U1 = 12 V.

b) What is the value of resistor R that must be selected so that a

current of 20 mA flows through LEDs? The resistance of LEDs
can be ignored.
c) Why is this resistor necessary?
d) Why does an LED in the secondary current circuit light briefly
when the primary current circuit is closed? Give reasons for
your answer.
e) What happens in the secondary current circuit when the
primary current circuit is interrupted? Give reasons for your
answer.

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Solution: a)
U1 / U2 = N1 / N2
12 V / U2 = 500 /1000
U2 = 12 V * 2 = 24 V

b)
According to Ohm's law R = U / I = 24 V / 20 mA = 1200 Ohm.

c)
The characteristic feature of LEDs is that they light up very brightly with
only a few milliamperes of current. The red light-emitting diodes in
particular exhibit an outstanding degree of efficiency. An LED must
always be connected to a series resistor in order to limit the current that
flows through the diode. Without this current limitation, a very high
current would flow through the LED due to the low resistance thus
destroying the LED.
d)
The LED lights because of the induced voltage in the secondary current
circuit. The voltage is induced for as long as there is a change in the
current (increase to maximum value) in the primary circuit.

e)
The other LED in the secondary current circuit lights up briefly when the
primary current is interrupted. A voltage is again induced in the
secondary coil for as long as there is a change in current (drop to
minimum value) in the primary circuit.

A voltage is induced in the secondary coil depending on whether the

current in the primary circuit increases or decreases. The layout of this
voltage is such that it counteracts a change. For this reason, an LED
lights when the primary current circuit is switched on and the other LED
when it is switched off.

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Semiconductor technology

What are semiconductors?

Semiconductors are materials whose
conductivity is between that of metals with
very good conductivity and insulators.
Semiconductors are contaminated for the
purpose of specifically influencing or
controlling their conductivity. In technical
terms this is referred to as doping. The doping
process involves incorporating external atoms
of varying valency in a defined crystal
structure.
The conductivity of semiconductors is low at
room temperature. The conductivity changes
by subjecting semiconductors to energy in the
form of heat, light, voltage or magnetic energy.
The sensitivity of semiconductors to pressure,
temperature and light also makes them the
ideal material for sensors.
Semiconductor elements are mainly produced
from the semiconductor materials silicon (Si) 15 - Structure of a silicon atom

and gallium arsenide (GaAs). A silicon crystal comprises a solid structure of

Germanium (Ge) which was used particularly
in the early years of semiconductor
technology as the raw material for
manufacturing transistors is of little
significance today due to its low boundary
layer temperature of 75 C.
individual silicon atoms. Each atom has 4
electrons in its outer shell, known as valent
electrons. On each side of the atom, a valent
electron combines with the corresponding
electron of the neighbouring element to form
an electronic compound. In this way, each
atom forms 4 fixed electron pair bonds with
the respective neighbouring atom.
In its solid state, pure silicon therefore forms a
crystalline lattice which has high-resistance
characteristics, i.e. it is a poor conductor.
The conductivity of the pure silicon crystal can
be increased by specifically contaminating it
with substances of higher or lower valent. The
incorporation of external atoms in the silicon
crystal lattice is known as "doping".

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n-Doping
When contaminating a silicon crystal with a The degree of doping of the silicon with
pentavalent element such as phosphorous, phosphorus is therefore very weak.
the phosphorus atom can easily slip into the
silicon crystal structure. However, a
phosphorus atom has five valent electrons, of
which only four can form a fixed electron pair
bond with the neighbouring silicon atoms.
One free electron therefore remains surplus.
The phosphorus atom that was incorporated
in the silicon crystal therefore forms an
imperfection with a surplus electron. The
crystal dopes in this way is an n-
semiconductor. In practical applications, the
structure is formed such that one phosphorus
atom is added to every million silicon atoms. 16 - n-Doping

p-Doping
In the case of p-doping, a trivalent element
such a boron is added to a silicon crystal. A
boron atom has three electrons in its
outermost electron orbit, however, it requires
four electrons for it to combine with its four
neighbouring elements to produce a covalent
atomic bond. Consequently, a "hole" remains
in the place where an electron is missing. In
view of the electron hole, this contaminated
crystal is known as a p-semiconductor. The
electron holes have a propensity to absorb
electrons in order to become neutral again.
17 - p-Doping

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pn-Junction
The different types of doping therefore
produce two different semiconductors. By
joining p-conductive material and n-
conductive material a boundary layer is
produced between the materials known as the
pn-junction. Under the influence of ambient
heat, the electrons at the boundary layer of
both zones migrate from the n-semiconductor
to the p-semiconductor while taking on
electron holes. The electrons leave behind
electron holes in the n-conductor. In this way,
a space-charge zone is produced at the
boundary between p- and n-semiconductors.
The electron migration is terminated when the
electric field is large enough to counteract the
force exerted by the thermal vibration. The
higher the temperature, the wider the space-
charge zone and therefore the greater the
electric field. An electrical voltage is produced
between the space-charges. This voltage is
0.6 V to 0.7 V for silicon at a temperature of 20
C.

18 - pn-junction without external voltage

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Assignment 28: What happens when a voltage is applied to a semiconductor, on

which a boundary layer is already established? Give reasons for
your answer relating to the direction of the applied voltage.
a) Voltage in non-conducting direction

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b) Voltage in conducting direction

Solution:
a)
By applying the positive pole of the voltage source to the n-
semiconductor and the negative pole to the p-semiconductor, the
surplus electrons of the n-doped semiconductor migrate through the
current source into the electron holes of the p-doped semiconductor.
This increases the boundary layer (junction) and no current flows
through the silicon crystal.
1 ---> Switch open; 2 ---> Narrow space-charge zone
4 ---> Switched closed; 3 ---> Wide space-charge zone

b)
If, on the other hand, the negative pole of the voltage source is applied
to the n-semiconductor and the positive pole to the p-semiconductor,
the n-doped layer (junction) receives a vast number of electrons from the
voltage source while the electrons are taken from the p-doped layer so
that even more surplus electrons occur in the n-doped layer and even
more electron holes on the right. Consequently, the barrier junction
disappears completely and current flows.
The pn-junction therefore functions as a rectifier (diode) which allows
current to flow in the one direction and blocks the flow of current in the
other direction.

1 ---> Switch open; 2 ---> Narrow space-charge zone

4 ---> Switched closed; 3 ---> No space-charge zone

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Assignment 29: Draw the circuit symbol of a Z-diode and an LED.

Solution: Circuit symbol - z-diode

Circuit symbol - LED

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 9

Semiconductor components

Assignment 30: Build up the following circuit.

Use components with following values:

T1 = T2 = BD 137
C1 = C2 = 470 F or higher
R1 = 470 Ohm
R2 = 10 kOhm
R2 = 10 kOhm

Select a supply voltage of approx. 12 Volt.

a) For what function in the vehicle is this circuit suitable?
b) Turn the potentiometer R3 and observe the response of the
circuit.
c) What happens when the resistor R1 is replaced by a bulb?
d) On what does the ON time of the bulb depend?
e) What is the task of the transistors?
f) What must be borne in mind when an LED is used instead of
the bulb?

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 9

Solution: a)
e.g. for operating the direction indicator lights.

b)
The bulb lights longer and the pauses are shorter at lower values of the
potentiometer R3.
The ON-time and OFF-time are approximately equal at the mid-values
of the potentiometer R3.
The lamp lights briefly and the pauses are much longer at higher values
of the potentiometer.

c)
The two bulbs light alternately. The ON/OFF time ratio depends on the
value set for the potentiometer R3.

d)
The ON-time of the bulb depends on:
- Capacity of the capacitors C1 and C2
- Size of resistors R2 and R3
The ON period can be calculated with the formula = R * C.
Higher capacitor and resistor values also mean longer charging times of
the capacitors and longer ON-periods of the bulbs.

e)
The transistors are used as switches. A sufficiently high base-emitter
voltage results in a base current. The collector-emitter path in the
transistor becomes conductive as soon as a base current flows, i.e. the
bulb lights. No current (base current) can flow when the capacitor is
charged and the collector-emitter section is no longer conductive. The
bulb is then also no longer illuminated.

f)
If an LED is installed instead of a bulb, particular attention must be paid
to the polarity of the LED and the current flowing through the LED. It may
be necessary to connect a series resistor in series to the LED to limit the
current.

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Assignment 31: Build up the following circuit.

Select a supply voltage of approx. 10 V.

Vary the temperature at the PTC resistor (positive temperature
coefficient), e.g. by briefly heating with a hot-air blower.

Measure the voltage at and the current flowing through the PTC
resistor.

How do the voltage and current respond to increasing

temperatures?
How does the LED respond to increasing temperatures? Give
reasons for your answer.

This exercise can also be performed using an NTC resistor

(negative temperature coefficient).

How do current, voltage and the LEDs in a current circuit with

NTC resistor respond to increasing temperatures? Give
reasons for your answer.

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 9

Solution: Circuit with PTC resistor:

Measured values (examples):
R = 100 Ohm
U [V] I 7.5 I 7.7 I 7.8 I 7.9 I 8.0 I 8.1 I 8.3 I 8.5 I
I [mA] I 60 I 55 I 45 I 34 I 25 I 20 I 10 I 1 I

The measurement was started at ambient temperature.

The resistance of the PTC resistor increased after being heated.
Consequently, the current becomes lower and the voltage drop at the
PTC resistor greater. The LED and PTC resistor can be considered as
voltage dividers. Higher resistance means a greater voltage drop.
Initially, the LED lights with sufficient intensity. As the value of the PTC
resistor increases, the current flowing through the LED reduces as it is
connected in series. The LED no longer lights when the current drops
below approx. 15 mA. As the PTC resistor cools, the resistance
decreases and the current increases. The LED lights again as from a
current of approx. 15 mA.

Circuit with NTC resistor:

Measured values (example):
R = 2.2 kOhm
U [V] I 8.35 I 8.25 I 8.2 I 7.9 I 8.1 I
I [mA] I 6 I 10 I 15 I 34 I 18 I

The measurement was started at ambient temperature.

The resistance of the NTC resistor decreased after being heated.
Consequently, the current becomes greater and the voltage drop at the
NTC resistor smaller. The LED and NTC resistor can be considered as
voltage dividers. Lower resistance means a smaller voltage drop.
Initially, the LED is not on. As the value of the NTC resistor decreases,
the current flowing through the LED increases as it is connected in
series. The LED lights when the current increases to approx. 15 mA. As
the NTC resistor cools, the resistance increases and the current
decreases. The LED no longer lights when the current is less than
approx. 15 mA.

38
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