The Message of Love and Compassion

leading to TRUTH
 Dedicated With Prayers And Reverence
To
His Holiness

Marhoom Sufi Muhammad Ibrahim Rehmani

 Acknowledgements
We would love to acknowledge the invaluable contributions of various
people towards the successful completion of this project.

In the very beginning, we thank our History teacher, Mr. D.T. Tiwari, who
helped us select this worthy topic. He was always encouraging and critical
in his suggestions.

We owe to the expertise and rich experience of Ms. Zakia Kidwai and
Mr. Atul Srivastava. They helped us with their constructive ideas at every
step. We are also grateful for all the assistance from various teachers at
Rajghat. Mr. Anurag Pathak and Mr. Ramesh are to be specially
mentioned.

The School Library and Computer Department proved instrumental in

providing both moral and material support.

Next in the row are our resource people. Sheikhul Mashaeikh Dewan Syed
Zainul Abedin Ali Khan Chishti and Syed Nazim Ali Nizami, who are to be
thanked in particular for spending their much valued time with us. The
Dargah Committees, Ajmer and Nizamuddin Aulia were very cooperative in
making the necessary arrangements for videography in the shrines.

Lastly, we acknowledge the suggestions and artistic ideas from our friends,
adding meaning to the project.
 Project Report

We got this wonderful opportunity to do this project on Sufism and gain a

vast knowledge revolving around it. We were assigned different topics to
research and get as much authentic information as possible.

Priyansh set the background by introducingIslam as a Socio-Political

Religious Body and the topic, Sufism, the Mystical Dimension of Islam.
His role in making the presentation was instrumental.He also went to a
local shrine of Hazrat Ghode Shahid, Bhadoi.

Bindu visited a local mufti who helped her understand what sharia is and
the relationship between the ulemas and the Sufi saints. She found out that
the popular notion Sufis do not follow the fundamental Islamic
Laws(besharia) is not applicable to all the Tariqas. In fact most of the Sufi
orders strictly abide by the sharia.

Mohit did field work, visiting the famous shrine at Ajmer and meeting the
descendent of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti. He also got a chance to be the
part of Chhatti Sharif, an important function at Ajmer dargah. He also
visited Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulias Dargah in Delhi and spoke to the head of
the shrine. His research adds some important primary information to the
project.

Aishwarya was eager to find out the various tariqas (orders) of Sufism and
found out that there are more than 40,000 tariqas known to us. She did a
very thorough research and brought forth the history of the six major silsilas
in detail. She visited a local mazar of Hazrat Barande wale Baba in
Morena(M.P.).

Himani wanted to explore the social influence of Sufism on society. She

found that womens voice in Sufi literature is prominent, yet unnoticed. It
has to be noted that there is no difference of gender in Sufism. Her
research includes the relationship between the Hindu kings and Sufi Pirs. It
was her idea to collect the photos of the major Sufi shrines in an album.

Vaishalis work is a comprehensive study of Sufism in India. She examined

the evolution of Sufism and brought some rare Mughal farmans mentioning
the donations made by Akbar and Jahangir to the Ajmer Dargah.

Altogether, it was an educating project for all of us. Ms. Zakia Kidwai,
Secratery Rajghat Education Centre, Krishnamurti Foundation India,
Varanasi and Mr. Atul Srivastava, Vice Principal, Rajghat Besant School,
KFI, Varanasi, were extremely helpful and encouraged us at every step.
 Project Synopsis
Introduction

Sufism is a movement whose followers seek to find divine truth and love through direct
encounters with God. Sufism arose within Islam in the 8th-9th centuries C.E. as an ascetic
movement. The movement may have been given (or taken on) the name Sufism because of the
course wool garments they wore as a mark of their rejection of worldly things; Sufis have
traditionally taken vows of poverty and celibacy. Sufism developed religious practices focusing
on strict self-control that enable both psychological and mystical insights as well as a loss of
self, with the ultimate goal of mystical union with God. The Sufi movement consists of fraternal
orders in which leaders train and assist disciples in the mastery of Sufism's philosophical
principles and ritual practices. Such rituals and practices include writing and reciting poetry and
hymns; some of the most famous and beautiful literature of the Islamic world has been written
by Sufis. Sufis engage in a variety of ritual practices intended to help them realize unite with
God, such as distinct forms of ritual prayer (Zikr literally means "remembrance"), including the
recitation of God's names, as well as bodily rituals such as those practiced by the so-called
"Whirling Dervishes," a Turkish Sufi order that practices meditation and contemplation of God
through spinning.

Beginnings

Sufism first developed in Arabia. Although Muhammad was eventually seen as the model for
religious practice and moral behavior par excellence by the early Muslim community, a number
of early Muslims sought for ways in which to carry their religious practice beyond the
observance of the law or daily rituals required of all Muslims. To do so, these early Muslims
drew from the deep well of Near Eastern traditions, including Judaism and Christianity, in order
to develop practices and philosophies that centered on cultivating their souls. In the Near East
there was a developed and long tradition of asceticism and contemplative practices centered on
abstention from excessive food, an emphasis on prayer, and the cultivation of an inwardly-
directed mode of devotion.
Most immediately, this meant combining elements of Islamic practice, like prayer and
supplication, with modes of asceticism as they found them practiced in the Near East. New
habits, including a reduction in physical comfort in the form of food, sleep, and wealth
constituted a form of worldly renunciation characteristic of Christian asceticism. Such
renunciation was not foreign to the tradition of Muhammad, whose humble lifestyle and
approval of such was a feature of the hadith. Early Muslim ascetics actually believed that a
simple life of material renunciation was more in keeping with the true message of Muhammad,
an issue which could potentially become complicated by the rising fortunes and increasing
wealth of the Islamic empire over the 8th century C.E.
The term "Sufi" has become commonplace today and is a catch-all term for all Muslim mystics,
but the origin of the word Sufism, let alone the definition of the term, remains somewhat
controversial. On the one hand, it may derive from a group of people known as Ahl al-Suffah
(the people of Al-Suffah) who lived during the lifetime of Muhammad, in the 7th century. This
group consisted of a number of poor migrs who had accompanied Muhammad to Medina
after facing persecution in Mecca. Destitute after having been cast out by their families, and
without homes of their own, they lived in the courtyard of Muhammad's mosque. This was a
group united by their status as semi-itinerants more than any coherent ideology, but their
relative state of poverty resembled an ascetic lifestyle, although they were heavily engaged with
the early Muslim community, not isolated from it.
Other interpretations of the term "Sufi" derive meaning from the word "saff" or row, in Arabic,
which refers to the "first row standing before God" or the spiritual elect. This is a fanciful
etymology, but it reflects the interiority of some definitions of Sufism. Another popular
conception held by historians as illustrious as IbnKhaldoun (1332-1406) and which is related to
asceticism is that the term derives from rough woolen garments (the Arabic for wool is "suf")
worn by Sufis.

Early Sufis may also have been associated with a fringe movement called the Sufiyya, which
was originally marginalized for its overtly antinomian (a term that indicates being released from
the obligation to follow religious law) stance. While antinomianism in general may be
interpreted as a kind of disregard for the law, in this case it implied a mystical inquiry into why
practice is governed by law in the first place. That is, from an antinomian perspective,
practicing Islam through prescribed rites such as prayer and fasting is not an end in itself; it is
important, but is only a means of disciplining the soul and purifying oneself. That spiritual goal,
purification, is the desired result.
It is possible that this early group of Sufis is misrepresented, however, since all the early
sources about their movement come from a perspective that was opposed to them, and it may
be that they were not as anti-establishment as those sources would have us believe. In any
case, these Sufis were not opposed to so-called orthodoxy, and they continued to adhere to
mainstream guidelines of Islamic belief and practice. They supplemented these guidelines and
practices, however, with attentiveness to cultivating a love of God, exemplified by extra
supplications, prayers, poems, dance, and songs devoted to that topic.

The Sufiyya represented the first ideological claims of Sufism. They were the first, according to
medieval sources, who strove for an intimate personal relationship with God based on the
principles of love. The love of God is mentioned in the Quran, verse 5:54: "He loves them, and
they love Him." Love of God was expressed in forms of music and poetry, especially love
poetry. God was "the Beloved" and the recitation of such poems accompanied by dancing was
often part of a practice whereby the listener was brought to a state of ecstasy.

Sufi literaturecomprised of sayings of local figures and teachers, which were then collected by
their studentsoriginated in the 9th century C.E. Eventually, as the practices and dogma of
Sufism developed to incorporate methods of training and disciplining of the soul, thematic
works gave way to more elaborate treatises on the "Science of the Hidden" or "'ilm al-batin." An
early hub of mysticism developed in Baghdad, the capital of the Islamic empire under
the Abbasid dynasty from the 8th century onward. Antecedents of a famous teacher named Al-
Junaydibn Muhammad (d. 910 C.E.) included such luminaries as Al-Hasan al-Basri, a major
figure who is often cited as an intellectual forefather by later practitioners of Sufism.
With the consolidation of orthodox schools of law and the shariah, in the 9th century C.E., came
a flourishing of literary and philosophical scholarship in the Islamic world. "Religious Sciences" is
a term used for everything from Quranic exegesis to Sufi interpretations of scripture. This also
referred to knowledge of the self, a term which had both negative and positive implications.
One's lower self, or base self, was concerned with earthly necessities and desires. To transcend
this lower self successfully was to achieve union with God, the ultimate goal for which Sufis
strived.
In contrast to other types of scholarly endeavor, the knowledge resulting from Sufi exploration
of knowledge of the inner, hidden, or esoteric was deemed by its practitioners to be a more
inwardly-looking mode of worship. Sufism did not attempt to divorce itself from mainstream
Islam, but it did supplement it with this esoteric perspective. It is difficult, partly for this reason,
to discern the exact beginnings of Sufism chronologically. There was no foundational moment,
event, or single person. Sufis have long claimed that their original model was Muhammad
himself, a claim rejected by their mainstream opponents.

Early Developments

After its initial growth over the first three centuries of Islamic history, Sufis began to espouse a
distinct cosmological and metaphysical perspective. In part, these tendencies grew out of
broader speculative trends in Islamic philosophy and theology. As the social acceptability of
Sufism grew, its practitioners were organized by their sheikhs and disciples into Orders,
or turuq (singular: tariqa). These had a social and religious function, since they became
vehicles for the passing down of knowledge and practices among distinct circles of students.
The institutionalization of learning in Islamic schools, madrasas, overlapped with that of
thetariqas, and the scholarly works of Sufis were part of broader educational curricula.
The oneness of God was a matter of tremendous discussion in the early Islamic period,
especially as it related to his attributes, mentioned above. Questions arose as to whether or not
God's attributes were separate from him, or a part of him. That is, did they describe God, or
were they somehow co-eternal entities? This opened up many complicated philosophical and
theological lines of inquiry for medieval scholars, especially because of one attribute that calls
God "the One who Speaks." The answer to the question "What is God's speech?" was "The
Quran." This answer inspired yet another question: If the Quran is God's speech, did it always
exist (are his attributes co-eternal)? If not, was it created at a specific moment, or was it always
there? In other words, is the Quran eternal or created? At first glance, it seems that these
questions are about the text of the Quran but in fact they originated from discussions about
God's attributes, namely his speech.

Another dimension of how God communicates is the history of prophecynamely, how does
God choose to instruct humans regarding their behavior? When prophets speak and act, is it by
their authority or God's? Are they infallible because they are guided by God? Sufis did not come
up with a uniform set of responses to these questions, but their engagement in such matters
illustrates how much philosophy and theology came to shape Sufi thought.

Before these philosophical questions arose, Sufi works had been more concerned with the
practice of morality and the nature and status of the self and the soul. After the 13th century,
performative writing, especially poetry (the most famous example of which is the poetry of Jalal
al-Din Rumi, who died in the 13th century), came to dominate Sufi literature. With such
luminaries of mystical poetry as Farid al-Din Attar (d. 1221 C.E.), Hafiz (d. 1390 C.E.), and Amir
Khusrow (d. 1325), Sufi literature took yet another turn, making the 13th century a high point
for Sufi intellectual writing.

Tariqas

In the first centuries of Sufism, a tariqa was simply a way/path/Sufi school based on the
teachings and practice of a particular master, or sheikh. Occasionally, a tariqa is defined as
"confraternity" or "brotherhood." In this way, every Sufi tariqa represents a spiritual method for
how to practice Islam, not a school of law or a separate orthodoxy. A Muslim is therefore not
required to be in any tariqa, though every member of a tariqa is required to be a practicing
Muslim.
By the time of the high Middle Ages, more and more people were considering themselves
adherents of Sufism and, more specifically, pupils of a particular teacher. A sheikh was often
deemed a necessary remedy to the loss of spirituality occasioned by chronological distance from
the lifetime ofMuhammad. He was the link back to a prophetic past. If Muhammad was no
longer present to offer hands-on guidance for a spiritual quest, the sheikh could step in and
provide that guidance.
In this way, a sheikh represented the authority of the past and the power to affect the present
through his charisma and leadership. Occasionally, the term tariqa is used as a synonym of
"silsila," which means chain, and refers to a chain of authority and learning. This legitimacy was
passed down from Muhammad to his Companions, to their descendants, and on and on through
the generations to the sheikh himself, where it could be continued and extended still further
through his students. This concept of a silsila granted Sufis a sense of authenticity in a culture
where genealogy, physical and intellectual, mattered.
From the 7th to the 16th centuries, tariqas became organized and more precisely centered on a
person and type of practice. Sometimes disciples lived communally, though this was not
required. Members of a tariqa apply themselves to extra prayers and the recitation of a wird, a
ceremonial set of supplications that is repeated daily and is usually characterized as having
been passed down to the founding sheikh from the Prophet. Zikr and group reciting sessions -
generally called "gatherings" or "majalis" also comprise elements of the practical life of a Sufi.
Also rather important for Sufi group worship is the sama'a, a "spiritual hearing" during which
poetry is recited, accompanied at times by instruments.
Members of a tariqa could congregate in a designated building, called a zawiya or tekke, though
this was not required, as technically these gatherings and practices could take place anywhere.
By the 13th century, Sufism became increasingly present in urban settings, and Sufis and their
students could be found in mosques of major cities. What characterized a tariqa were the
particular instructions a sheikh gave to his disciples: from the recitation of a wird at a particular
time to performing an extra prayer one way and not another, certain attitudes toward food,
sleep, and so on.

Missions and Expansion

Part of what characterizes Sufism is its adaptability to various intellectual influences and its
absorption of regional cultures. Sufi Islam is practiced in Iran, the Arab world, India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, China, Morocco, Turkey, and many parts of Europe and the United States. Sufism
is also practiced in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australia.

India:
The shrines of the Sufi saints are common sites of celebration and prayer, and it is at these
sites that local cultic and venerative practices meld with Sufi doctrine. Local cultural traditions,
especially musical ones, also permeate various Sufi saint-day celebrations. In India, for
example, the tomb of MoinuddinChishti attracts Hindu and Muslim pilgrims. It has long been
argued by scholars and advocates of Sufism alike that Sufism contributed to the spread of Islam
in South Asia by forming cultural alliances between Muslims and other religious communities.
NizamuddinAwliya, a Sufi saint whose shrine is in Delhi was famous for his advanced practice of
Yoga. This type of cultural adaptation was bidirectional: Ramanand, a Hindu religious preacher
was likewise influenced by Sufism, and one of his disciples claimed that both religions revered
the same God.
Modern Age

Today, there are numerous Sufi orders in Europe and the United States, as well as throughout
the majority-Muslim world. Many of these are tariqas that have branches in the Muslim world
and that adhere to the principles of mainstream Islam. In other cases, some Western orders
encourage non-Muslims to study mysticism, although they maintain the connection to a sheikh.
Regardless of how open, most Sufi orders today continue to promote the idea of a silsila going
back to the teachings and authority of the Prophet.
Sufism appeared in Europe in the early 20th century, in a Swiss branch of an Algerian tariqa
known as the Alawiyya. From there it spread to France, England, and the United States.
The Naqshabandi order is well established in the United States. Other popular orders include
the Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship and the Helvati-Jerrahi Order. With continuous chant
available online, biographies of the order's Sheikhs, and links to articles with teachings and
databases of multimedia sources, it is a premier example of contemporary Sufism. It even
features its own social networking site called the Haqqani fellowship. An interested disciple may
even make the official oath of allegiance, thebay'a, to this order online. Underneath a photo of
disciples undergoing the oath of allegiance, the instructions read:
For those people who cannot reach one of our authorized representatives, the Sheikh has
granted permission to take initiation by reciting the baya` text along with this recording.
Clearly, Sufi groups in the U.S. have made themselves comfortable in the world of social
networking and the latest technology. This is not to say that opponents of Sufism don't exist in
the modern world. For many Islamic reformers whose roots lie in the late colonial 19th century
and postcolonial 20th century, Sufism is an aberration. This is especially true of the
Wahhabis who originated in Saudi Arabia and whose puritanical brand of Islam deems most of
Sufi practice heretical innovation. For these modern Muslims, Sufism is not legitimately Islamic.
Secularism was the opponent of Sufism in the case of Turkey, when Ataturk outlawed the
practices and organization of Sufi tariqas in 1925. Some Sufi retreats, called tekkes (a term
occasionally translated as "lodges," though they do not serve as permanent residences for all
members), in Turkey were closed down or turned into museums. Practitioners were forced to
carry on their group prayer and Zikr sessions in secret.
Sufism has now become a universal phenomenon, with a spectrum of representative tariqas
that range from the strictly orthodox to the universalistic and non-Islamic. Like mysticism in
other traditions, the Sufi dimension of Islam endures. It continues to exert an influence on the
music, art, and popular practice of millions of Muslims all over the world, and no matter how
controversial or marginalized by establishment Islam, Sufism remains the mode of millions of
everyday practitioners who also consider themselves fully within the boundaries of orthodoxy,
whether Sunni or Shi'i.
Rites and Ceremonies

Zikr is a devotional repetition of the names of God, which may also include supplications or
prayers culled from the Quran. While anyone may perform Zikr privately, it may also be
performed in groups, ceremonially. Zikr in group sessions are usually spoken aloud, and may be
led by the sheikh who "feeds" lines to the disciples to let them know which incantation to say at
a given time. The most basic component of Sufi communal life is the performance of Zikr, which
means remembrance or invocation. This could take the form of repeating the word Allah, or the
shahadah (the testification of faith) in a rhythmic manner with attentiveness to the body's
posture and to breathing. For Sufis, the practice of Zikr is incumbent, not optional. In their
view, all ritual, whether in the form of prayer or fasting, is aimed at remembering God. Thus
the recitation of God's name and the testification of faith serve as further remembrances of the
goal toward which all spiritual practice is directed.
Zikr ceremonies vary in their precise details and format from one Sufi order to another. These
varying liturgies are often derived from the practice of the founder of a tariqa, and may be
personalized to different disciples who find themselves at different points along their spiritual
paths. An elaborate Zikr known as a sama, or "spiritual concert," may include elaborate
recitations, singing, instrumental music, dance, and rhythmic breathing, the ultimate goal of
which is the attainment of a state of ecstasy or trance. Such a trance or ecstatic state marks
the culmination of a Zikr ceremony, which may last for several hours.
One well-known form of sama is a ceremony of Turkish origin, which has become vastly popular
in Turkey. It includes singing and dancing (known as whirling, for the repetitive circular nature
of the dance), and is easily known for the white robe worn by practitioners. This style of the
ceremony is most readily associated with the Mevlevi Order, although a form of this dancing
ceremony is also popular in India, with the Chishtiya order. The music associated with sama in
South and Southeast Asia is called qawwali. The whirling dance is a representation of the
Muslim's ascent through the intellect and into the perfection of love. Once in an ecstatic state,
the practitioner transcends the ego. As the dance slows, the Sufi experiences a return from the
journey, having been changed and transformed internally.

Worship and Devotion in Daily Life

The practice of Sufism is seen first and foremost as a path to union with God, or the beholding
of the Face of God. For this reason, Sufism cultivates both the inner and the outer dimensions
of spiritual practice, the esoteric and the exoteric. Taking seriously the Quranic verse that states
that "Wherever you turn, there is the Face of God" (2:115), the Sufi dedicates the self to a
practice in which the outer and inner dimensions of everything in the universe lead to the
realization of God.

Along the path of Sufism, each disciple has an intimate relationship with a sheikh, or Master.
Accordingly, a master reveals and instructs a disciple, each according to the spiritual knowledge
they achieve at various points in their path. According to SeyyedHossein Nasr, the disciple is as
a vessel into which the master, called a saki(from the word "one who pours"), pours wine
(Garden of Truth, 109). In daily practice, the master acts as an intermediary who guides the
disciple but does not stand in for God, or act as a priest. Because the disciple puts his or her
practice into a daily discipline, the master is in the role of assigning various practices according
to the nature and state of the disciple.
These additional practices are in addition to the general requirements incumbent on all Muslims.
In addition to the Zikr and sama, the hadith serve as a source for various invocations and
superogatory prayers performed by the Sufi disciple. Additional fasting and charity may
comprise additional aspects of Sufi daily practice. On a daily basis, the goal of these activities is
the remembrance of God. In the long run, the goal is to have internalized that remembrance to
such an extent that it exists at all moments in the life of the Sufi, whether in prayer, at work, or
at rest.
The aim of daily discipline is the purification of the Sufi's soul (tazkiyat al-nafs). The purification
of the soul entails the abandonment of material luxury, pride, individual desire, and distraction
from God. Contemplation, Zikr, and training of the body through abstinence from excessive
amounts of food or sleep may all factor into the daily life of the Sufi. In this, Sufis have long
relied on the example of Muhammad, whose abstemious example and simplicity of attire,
abode, and living standards represents the best and original model for a disciplined life.
Although there is no formal monasticism in Islam, Sufis echo monastic practices of
poverty, faqr, in a material and a spiritual sense, in that the Sufi is impoverished by distance
from God and uses daily practices to bridge that distance. And while Sufis do not join monastic
orders as such, they do swear an oath of allegiance to their Sheikhs, who are mainly male,
called the bay'a.

Community Organization

The term tariqa refers to a Sufi order, led by a sheikh who is sometimes called a murshid, pir,
or guide, but more often simply called a Sheikh. The members of an order are calledmureeds,
or disciples, followers. Other terms for a Sufi arefaqir, one who is poor or needy, generally
meaning that one is in need of God.
Sufism is equally prevalent among Sunnis and Shias. Those sectarian denominations are not
relevant to the category of Sufism, which adds a mystical dimension to either form of Islam.
Obviously, not every Muslim is also a Sufi, but Sufism is not viewed by non-Sufi Muslims as
another religion, but as another style of worship. Of course, such opinions vary from one place
to another, in one country or another. In Pakistan and India, for example, general participation
in Sufi festivals is extremely common, while in the United States, this is not usually the case.
This is partly because the Sufi tradition in South Asia is deeply rooted in general cultural
practices involving food, music, dancing, singing, and iconography, while in the United States, it
is less rooted in local custom, and therefore less likely to appeal to a wide range of members
and non-members.

Nearly every Sufi order takes its name from its original founder, and different tariqas could form
offshoots once disciples attain the level of becoming teachers themselves. In some cases, a
Sheikh will name a successor, who will carry on the work and tradition of an order. In other
cases, if no successor is named, disciples will elect a new leader. The mantle of leadership is
not necessarily passed on to one's family members, though this often is what occurs.

Every Sufi order has and maintains a chain of tradition going back through the founder to his or
her teachers and all the way back to Muhammad's teaching in the form of the hadith and as
revealed in the Quran. This continuous chain is called a silsila, and often comprises a simple list
of names of the generations of teachers who have passed on methods and wisdom through the
generations. For most Sufis who are Shias, the silsila goes back to Ali, the cousin and son-in-law
of Muhammad. Sunni Sufis often link their silsilas to Ali or to one or more of Muhammad's close
Companions, such as Abu Bakr or Umar.
Each disciple is guided along the path of his or her spiritual development with specific
instructions from theteacher. These instructions may consist of recitations that are to be read at
specific times of day, and may comprise dozens or hundreds of repetitive supplications. All of
these extra practices are in addition to the mandatory prayers incumbent on all Muslims, and
they change and develop as the Sufi matures on his or her path.

Sufis are often cast as community changers in that their brand of Islamic worship seems
conducive to more personalized and local expressions of religion. Thus, in South and Southeast
Asia, Hindu music and practices fused with local Sufi practices in ways that distinguish that
brand of Muslim life from other parts of the Islamic world. Sufi orders thus contributed to the
spread of Islam in various regions, including Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and North Africa. While
some scholars overstate the role of Sufi missionaries in the conversion of South and Southeast
Asia, it is true that Indonesia, the most populous Muslim country in the world, was affected by
Muslim merchants and Sufis and never conquered by Muslim armies.
 Outline
1. Introduction to Islam and Sufism (Priyansh Baranwal)
Origin of Sufism
Spread of Sufism
Idea behind Sufism
Sufism in Modern Age
Sufism in India

2. Sufism and Sharia: Mysticism and Orthodoxy (Bindu)

Differences in perception
Differences in terminology
Conflicts

3. Sufi Tariqas-Pathways to the Divine (Aishwarya Sharma)

Silsila-e-Naqshbandia
Silsila-e-Quadiriya
Silsila-e-Chishtiya
Silsila-al-Suhrawardiya
 The Mevlevi Tariqa
Silsila-e-Rehmaniya
Some other Silsilas
Sufi orders in the Modern Era

4. Sufi practices (Mohit Bhardwaj)

Regulation
Training in Sufism
Stages of Mysticism
The Practices and Rituals
Initiation
Spiritual Transmission (Tawajjuf)
Spiritual Affinity (Nisbat)
Zikr and Sama
Meditation (Muraqabah)
Realization of path
Visitation
Annual festival

5. Sufism and Society (Himani Tripathi)

Womens voice in Sufi Literature
 Pirs and Hindu rulers
Rajasthans shared spaces
Marwar
Amber Jaipur
Women Sufis
Sufism and Modern World

6. Sufism in India (Vaishali Yadav)

An overview
Sufism-was it spiritual
Sufism in the sultanate period
Various Sufi orders
Sufi thinkers
Influence and impact of Sufism
Sufism during British Rule
Conclusion

7. Some famous Sufi Saints

8. Glossary

9. Documental sources
 Introduction to Islam and
Sufism
Islam, a major world religion promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in
Arabia in the 7th century CE. The Arabic term islm, literally surrender,
illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islamthat the believer (called
a Muslim) accepts surrender to the will of Allah (in Arabic, God). Allah is
viewed as the sole Godcreator, sustainer, and restorer of the world. The will
of Allah, to which human beings must submit, is made known through
the sacred scriptures, the , which Allah revealed to his
messenger, Muhammad.

The dual religious and social character of Islam, expressing itself in one way as
a religious community commissioned by God to bring its own value system to
the world through the jihd(exertion, commonly translated as holy war or
holy struggle), explains the astonishing success of the early generations of
Muslims. Within a century after the Prophets death in 632 CE, they had
brought a large part of the globefrom Spain across Central Asia to India
under a new Arab Muslim empire.
The period of Islamic conquests and empire building marks the first phase of
the expansion of Islam as a religion. Islams essential egalitarianism within the
community of the faithful and its official discrimination against the followers
of other religions won rapid converts. Jews and Christians were assigned a
special status as communities possessing scriptures and were called the
 people of the Book (ahl al-kitb) and, therefore, were allowed religious
autonomy. They were, however, required to pay a per capita tax called jizyah,
as opposed to pagans, who were required to either accept Islam or die. The
same status of the people of the Book was later extended in particular times
and places to Zoroastrians and Hindus, but many people of the Book joined
Islam in order to escape the disability of the jizyah.
A much more massive expansion of Islam after the 12th century was inaugurated
by the Sufis (Muslim mystics), who were mainly responsible for the spread of
Islam in India, Central Asia, Turkey, and sub-Saharan Africa.

Beside the jihad and Sufi missionary activity, another factor in the spread of
Islam was the far-ranging influence of Muslim traders, who not only
introduced Islam quite early to the Indian east coast and South India but also
proved to be the main catalytic agents (beside the Sufis) in converting people
to Islam in Indonesia, Malaya, and China. Islam was introduced to Indonesiain the
14th century, hardly having time to consolidate itself there politically before
the region came under Dutch hegemony.

A Brief Timeline of Important milestones in Islamic History:

Date Event
(CE)

c. 570 Birth of Muhammad

Muhammad, the final prophet of Islam, is born into the Quraysh tribe in
Mecca.
610 First Revelations of the Quran
Muhammad is believed to have received his first revelations and his
 calling as Gods messenger in a cave near Mecca. These revelations
would continue throughout his life and eventually be recorded in the
Quran, Islams sacred scripture.
613- Muhammad's Public Ministry
622 Muhammad begins to preach monotheism3 and gains a few followers.
However, he is largely rejected by the polytheistic culture of Mecca.
619 Deaths of Khadijah and Abu Talib
Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife, and his uncle Abu Talib die the same
year. Both were significant figures in Muhammad's life and sources of
protection from hostile Meccans.
622 The Hijra
As persecution in Mecca intensifies, Muhammad moves
to Yathrib (modern-day Medina) with his followers. This move, referred
to as Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar and of Islams
establishment as a major religious and political force in Medina.
622 Marriage of Muhammad and Aisha
Muhammad marries Aisha, daughter of Abu Bakr.
622 Prophet's Mosque
Construction begins for a mosque at Muhammad's home in Medina.
This mosque expands throughout the years, eventually holds the tomb
of Muhammad, and becomes one of Islam's most sacred sites.
c. 622 Constitution of Medina
Shortly after Muhammad's move to Medina, he drafted a charter that
established Islam as a political entity as well as a religious body. This
charter and various agreements made with surrounding tribes and
existing religious groups become the Constitution of Medina, the
foundation of Islam as a powerful religio-political body.
624 Battle of Badr
Muslims gain a significant military victory over a larger Meccan army,
attributing their success to divine intervention.
628 Treaty of Hudaybiyah
A truce between Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca grants permission
for Muslims to visit the Ka'bah, a shrine located in Mecca and Islam's
holiest site.
630 Mecca Conquered
After breaches in the Treaty of Hudaybiyah, Muslims conquer Mecca.
 They clear the Ka'bah, a religious shrine from pre-Islamic times, of the
polytheistic idols held there and dedicate the site for theworship of the
one God.
632 Death of Muhammad
Muhammad dies at his home in Medina and is buried there.
632 Abu Bakr Becomes First Caliph of Islam
After Muhammad's death, uncertainty and disagreement regarding his
successor ends with the appointment of his close adviser Abu Bakr as
caliph, the leader of the religio-political body of Islam.
632- The Rashidun Caliphate
661 The four caliphs to succeed Muhammad as the leader of the Islamic
community were all important companions of the Prophet, and they are
known as the "Rightly Guided Caliphs," making up the Rashidun
Caliphate. This time is considered the golden age of Islam, when its
leaders adhered closely to the practices established by Muhammad.
634 'Umar Becomes Second Caliph
After the death of Abu Bakr, 'Umar (c. 591-644) succeeds him as caliph
of Islam. During his reign, the Islamic empire undergoes an enormous
military expansion.
635- Significant Expansion of Islamic Empire
641 Muslim armies conquer Syria, Persia, Alexandria, and Jerusalem.
644 Uthman Becomes Third Caliph
'Umar is assassinated by a Persian slave. Uthman succeeds him as
Islam's leader.
c. 650 Compilation of the Quran
Muhammads orally transmitted revelations are collected and recorded
in a single authorized version of the Quran.
656 'Ali Becomes Fourth Caliph
Uthman is assassinated by dissenting Muslims and succeeded by Ali,
Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law.
656 The Battle of Camel
'Ali faces an opposing army led by Aisha, widow of Muhammad and
daughter of the first caliph Abu Bakr. Aisha's army is defeated, and she
is allowed to return home. The battle is supposedly named for the camel
upon which Aisha rode.
657 Battle of Siffin
 'Ali faces an army led by Mu'awiyah, a relative of Uthman who felt that
'Ali had not made sufficient attempts to find and punish those
responsible for the death of the previous caliph. 'Ali's army was on the
point of victory when Mu'awiyah instructed his army to fasten pages of
the Quran to the points of their spears. Unwilling to attack under such
circumstances, 'Ali agreed to have the conflict settled by arbitration, a
decision that angered many of his followers and ultimately led to his
death and the end of the Rashudin Caliphate.
661 Mu'awiyah Becomes Caliph
'Ali is assassinated by dissenting Muslims, and Mu'awiyah seizes power,
ending the Rashidun Caliphate and establishing a family dynasty.
661- The Umayyad Caliphate
750 The Umayyad dynasty established by Mu'awiyah rules for nearly a
century from their capital at Damascus. The Islamic Empire continues
to expand through military conquests during their reign.
680 Death of Husayn
Husayn, 'Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson, challenges the rule of
Yazid I, accusing the caliph of corruption and insisting that proper
leadership of Islam belongs to the descendents of Muhammad. He and
his small band of followers are massacred near Karbala (present-day
Iraq), further dividing the factions that would later become Sunni
Muslims and Shi'i Muslims.
691 The Dome of the Rock
The Dome of the Rock is built in Jerusalem. It is the oldest Islamic
monument, one of Jerusalem's and Islam's most recognizable
structures.
c. 700 Rise of Sufism
Muslim ascetics lay the foundations of Sufism, a mystical movement
within Islam that focuses on personal experience with God.
705- Umayyad Mosque
715 The Umayyads convert the Christian Cathedral of St. John in Damascus
into a Muslim mosque. Today the mosque is one of Islam's oldest and
most sacred sites.
711 Conquest of Hispania
Muslims cross the Strait of Gibraltar and invade the Iberian Peninsula.
They control large portions of the peninsula for centuries, living with
Jews and Christians and shaping Spanish history..
750- Abbasid Caliphate
1258 The family of Abbasids, who take their name from Muhammads uncle
al-Abbas, establish Baghdad as their capital after the overthrow of the
Umayyads and appoint Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah as first caliph of the
Abbasid Caliphate. They rule for over five centuries, bringing Islam to
the height of its civilization.
750- Four Schools of Islamic Religious Law
850 Four major schools of Islamic law are established: Hanafi, Maliki, Sfi,
and Hanbali These four schools are established by Muslim religious
scholars rather than the caliphs. They become the most widely accepted
interpretations of Islam by Sunni Muslims.

c. 768 First Written Biography of Muhammad

The first written biography of Muhammad is recorded by Muhammad
Ibn Ishaq. This first written record of the Prophet's life was followed by
numerous biographical accounts.
786 Great Mosque of Cordova
The Umayyad Emirate constructs the Great Mosque of Cordova (in
present-day Spain) under the direction of 'Abd al-Rahman I.
850- Collection of Hadith
875 Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, important
scholars of the accounts of Muhammad's sayings and actions, collect,
authenticate, and compile hadith7 into the first two authentic
collections.
945 Islamic Rule Decentralized
A Shiite band invades Baghdad undermining the Abbasid caliphs, who
have become little more than figureheads. Until the 16th century, the
rule of Islam is decentralized with different sects, regions, and rulers.
997 India Raided by Muslims
Mahmoud of Ghazni, called the Sword of Islam, led a series of raids on
northern India. He destroys various temples, statues, and other
religious art. This is one of the main roots of anti-Muslim thought
among Hindus.
1095- The First Crusade is Launched
1099 Christians engage in the first crusade against the Muslims. The
Christians eventually accomplish their goal and recapture Jerusalem for
Christendom.
1100 Sufi orders (turuq) are founded.
1145 The Second Crusade is Launched
The second crusade is launched. The Muslims win by resisting a
Christian siege of Damascus.
1187 The Third Crusade is Launched
The Muslims recapture Jerusalem from the Christians. The third
crusade is launched.
1281- Reign of Uthman (Osman), who founds the Ottoman Empire.
1324 Muslim merchants and missionary Sufis settle in SE Asia.

Origin of Sufism
"Every age of the world has seen awakened souls, and as it is impossible to limit wisdom to any one
period or place, so it is impossible to date the origin of Sufism.

:Inayat Shah
The origin of the term Sufi is rather complex, but in general it signifies one
who wears the garment of suf i.e. wool. In the beginning it was a mark of
personal penitence. In the second century of Islam a particular group of
ascetics of Kufa were generally called al-Sufiya due to their dress. But, by 4th
century wearing of woolen garments became the recognised badge of the Sufis
of Iraq and hence the term was commonly applied to all Muslim mystics. In
the same century, groups of these used to assemble to recite aloud the holy
Quran and other religious pieces which practice gradually took on a liturgical
character called Zikr evolving into spiritual concerts named Sama (now
popularly called Qawwali in India) with their attendant perils of extreme
ecstatic nervous.
Gradually a change was coming over the general character of Sufism. Its basis
was fear of God and His wrath to come with the mystical element of love
and adoration. According to a woman saint, Rabia al-Adawiya (died 891 AD).
The mainspring of mysticism is Love. She said, Love of God had so absorbed
me that neither love nor hate for any other things remains in my heart.
Another possible derivation of the word Sufi is from the ahl-e-suffa
(literally, The People of the Bench), a group of early muslims who lived in the
first mosque at Medina in close proximity to the Prophet Muhammad. Yet
another derivation is from the Arabic word, safa, or purity.
Sufism is said to have been originated near a place called Basra located in Iraq.
The Muslims located in this region started off this religion as a path to reach
the divine. The divine form who is worshipped in Sufism is Prophet
Mohammed and all schools of Sufism consider the Prophet as the
manifestation of God. This is one reason why Sufi is considered to have
branched from Islam. However, ancient Islamic scriptures have no mention of
Sufism in them. Some scholars hold the view that Sufism is the evolution of
Islam in a more spiritual and mystic direction. Sufism in its earlier stages was
recited and meditated from the Quran.

There have been many debates concerning the origin of Sufism and how this
school of inner knowledge was established. In seeking the spiritual and
intellectual ancestry of Sufism, some have looked toward Greek philosophy in
general and Platonism especially, some to the Hermetic Christianity of the
Gnostics of the late Roman Empire, and others to Buddhism or Yogism. But
Sufism, as it has been practiced since its birth, is quite a different school of
belief, practice, and goal than any of these preexisting ways of thinking. Even
though Sufism as the school of spiritual knowledge based on self cognition as
the door toward understanding the realities of Being is a school open to all
humanity, but it was born out of Islam and is the heir to the treasures of
knowledge from the sacred heart of the Prophet Mohammed, and has
practiced its way accordingly. The actual birth of Sufism as a way of thought
and practice is therefore subsequent to the advent of Islam.
The history of the origin of Sufism records that during the lifetime of the
Prophet Mohammed, fifteen centuries ago, there was a group of pious
individuals from different nations who, guided by the Laws of Islam, sought
for the direct experience of the Divine. Companions of the Prophet, they were
people of principles practicing certain disciplines and meditations for the sake
of purification, the realization of Divine love, and the understanding of reality.
They were the Lovers of God who sought union with Him through losing the
limited self in His Divinity (fana), and remaining alive in that Reality (bagha).
These individuals met on the platform, or suffe, of the mosque where Prophet
Mohammed used to pray in Medina, Arabia. They would meet there almost
everyday to discuss the ways to inner knowledge, the truths of revelation, and
the meanings of the verses of the Koran. Thus the platform of that mosque in
Medina became the first gathering place of one of the most influential groups
in the history of mankinds spiritual civilization. They were called ahle suffe,
the People of the Platform.
These individuals cultivated the seed of a school of spiritual practice based on
knowledge of the self, and thus free of the trappings of tradition and
superstition, a knowledge of the inner heart apart from the customary beliefs
of their contemporary society as well as those of future civilizations. It is from
this group that all the schools of Sufism that have ever existed owe their
origin, for by pursuing the path of unsullied inner knowledge they were the
founders of Sufism, and the binding link between its subsequent
developments.
Among the most famous were: Salman Farsi, Ammar Yasser, Ballaal, and
Abdullah Masoud; some historians have added Oveyse Gharani to this list as
well. Avoiding proselytizing among the multitude, their gatherings were held
in private, open only to true seekers of reality. Instead of preaching in public,
these pious individuals were searchers for truth, not performers of rhetoric.
After the Prophet passed away, each of the people of suffe returned to his
homeland to instruct students eager to follow upon the path of inner
knowledge. There they became the great missionaries of Islam. History shows
that within a century or two their style of self understanding and discipline
were introduced by their students to nations as diverse and widely separated
as Persia, India, Indonesia, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North Africa. Their
teachings were based on individual understanding and direct experience, not
just on particular texts or rote learning. In this manner their fundamental
teachings have been preserved in their style up to the present, instead of
withering away into the empty formulas of scholasticism.
Through this process of diffusion, different schools and orders of Sufism
gradually emerged from the single original group of suffe at Medina. Their
practices differ from one another in emphasis and doctrine, but all legitimate
Sufi schools trace their ultimate origins back to the original group of the
Prophets spiritual disciples.
Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition first began with Ali
ibn Abi Talib. Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of
the principals and practices of Sufism.
Under the Umayads (661-749) there was a growing tendency to compare the
wealth and luxury of the ruling class with the simple lifestyle of the first
Caliphs. Devout believers were shocked by the worldliness and opulence of
court life and they reacted with a growing concern for reality in their own
personal relationship with God. Outward observance of the Shari'a laws could
not satisfy their growing spiritual hunger, and they started to imitate
Christian hermits who had discovered asceticism and poverty as a way to
develop a close relationship with God.
The first Sufis were ascetics who meditated on the Day of Judgement. They
were called "those who always weep" and "those who see this world as a hut
of sorrows." They kept the external rules of Shari'a, but at the same time
developed their own mystical ideas and techniques. "Little food, little talk,
little sleep," was a popular proverb amongst them. Mortification of the flesh,
self denial, poverty and abstinence were seen as the means of drawing near to
God, and this included fasting and long nights of prayer. A woman from Basrah
in Iraq, Rabi'a al-Adawiya (d.801) introduced the theme of Divine Love into
Sufism. She yearned to love God only for Himself, not for hope of any reward
(paradise) nor out of fear of judgement (hell). Following her death the love
theme became a dominant feature of Sufism. It expressed the Sufi's yearning
for the development of a love relationship with God that would lead to an
intimate experience of God and finally to a total union with God.
The love theme found its main expression in Sufi poetry in which the relations
between God the Divine Lover and the man searching for his love were
symbolically described. Early Sufi poems in Arabic express the soul's deep
yearning for union with the beloved. Persian poetry often compared the soul's
love relationship with God to that between a man and a beautiful youth. In
Indian poetry the loving wife yearning for her husband symbolised the soul's
yearning for God. Later poets developed the long mystical poems called
Mathnawis ( Masnawis) which expressed in symbolical verse the manifold
emotions of love to God and of unity with him.
Persia had the greatest flourishing of Sufi poetry, and most of its classical
poetry has a Sufi content. One example is the Mathnawi "Mantiq al-Tair"
(speech of the birds) by Farid al-Din 'Attar, an allegory which portrays the
mystic on his pilgrimage from asceticism through illumination to union with
God.
Jalal ad-Din Rumi (1207-1273), named "Mawlana" - our Lord or Teacher - was
the greatest Persian mystical poet. His famous Mathnawi of 26,000 rhythmic
couplets is a real encyclopaedia of Sufi allegorical and mystical thought and
experience. Persian Sufis regard it as next to the Qur'an in holiness. Rumi also
founded the Mawlawi (Mevlevi) order of whirling dervishes.
Sufi poetry uses the symbols of wine (God's intoxicating love), the wine cup
(the Sufi's heart) and the cup bearer (the spiritual guide). The wine house is
the religion of love and it is compared to the religion of law symbolised by the
mosque. Learning the many Sufi symbols and their meaning is essential to an
understanding of this kind of poetry.

The word Sufi comes from a Persian word meaning wisdom. From the original
root many derivations can be traced; among them the Greek word Sophia is
one of the most interesting.
Wisdom is the ultimate power. In wisdom is rooted religion, which connotes
law and inspiration. But the point of view of the wise differs from that of the
simple followers of a religion. The wise, whatever their faith, have always
been able to meet each other beyond those boundaries of external forms and
conventions, which are natural and necessary to human life, but which none
the less separate humanity.
People of the same thought and point of view are drawn to each other with a
tendency to form an exclusive circle. A minority is apt to fence itself off from
the crowd. So it has been with the mystics. Mystical ideas are unintelligible to
the generality of people. The mystics have, therefore, usually imparted their
ideas to a chosen few only, to those whom they could trust, who were ready
for initiation and discipleship. Thus great Sufis have appeared at different
times and have founded schools of thought. Their expression of wisdom has
differed to suit their environments, but their understanding of life has been
one and the same. The same herb planted in various atmospheric conditions
will vary in form accordingly, but will retain its characteristics.
The European historian sometimes traces the history of Sufism by noticing the
actual occurrence of this word and by referring only to those schools which
have definitely wished to be known by this name. Some European scholars
find the origin of this philosophy in the teaching Of Islam, others connect it
with Buddhism. Others do not reject as incredible the Semitic tradition that
Sufism's foundation is to be attributed to the teachings of Abraham. But the
greater number consider that it arose contemporary to the teaching of
Zoroaster. Every age of the world has seen awakened souls, and as it is
impossible to limit wisdom to any one period or place, so it is impossible to
date the origin of Sufism.
Not only have there been illuminated souls at all times, but there have been
times when a wave of illumination has passed over humanity as a whole. We
believe that such a period is at hand. The calamity through which the world
has lately passed, and the problems of the present difficult situations are due
to the existence of boundaries; this fact is already clear to many. Sufism takes
away the boundaries which divide different faiths by bringing into full light
the underlying wisdom in which they are all united.
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism
effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of
Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly
recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and
its development. Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the
way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is
strengthened.

Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of

Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarqt) in the early Middle
Ages. The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to general rule of orders
tracing their spiritual lineage through Muhammad's grandsons, as it traces the
origin of its teachings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.
Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism produced a flourishing
intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose
physical artifacts survive. In many places a pious foundation would endow a
lodge (known variously as a zaouia, khanqah, ortekke) in perpetuity (waqf) to
provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant
seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for a
complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the Sleymaniye Mosque in
Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens where
these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a
library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam
remained unaffected by Sufism in this period. An important feature of Sufi
belief was divine love. From the time of Rabia Al-Adawiya (died 801 AD). It
had become the mainstream of Sufism while in India it had become the
dominant feature of the popular Bhakti movement. Love they said was both
the causes as well as the effect of gnosis. A person was likely to achieve gnosis
as a result of divine blessing only when he had devotion for God. While a
person who had achieved gnosis could not help being overwhelmed and
overpowered by cosmic emotion (jazba) and divine love. Love, according to
them was emotive force of life in fact raison dtre. This powerful emotion
dominated every thought or sentiment, contemplative life, theology, ritual
thought of heaven and hell and all else. The heart of a mystics is a blazing
furnace of love which burns and destroys everything that comes into it
because no fire is stronger than the fire of love, says Khawaja Muinuddin
Chishty. Love implied an illuminative life a state of continued communion
with Reality (haal). The object of life was indifferently described as apologetic
vision (sometimes used in spiritual sense at others in a physical sense),
nearness to God, annihilation (fana), everlasting life in God (baqa) and
ultimately absorption or union (wassail). It was only on the achieves
tranquillity by falling into the sea? Thus when the lover finds the beloved he
no longer wails.
The natural outcome of such an outlook was a religion of ecstatic fervour and
intoxication (Sukr). Such an attitude of mind could best be produced by and
then find satisfaction in liturgical practices (Azkaar-Zikr-e-khafi, zikr-e-jail),
spiritual concerts or audition (sama), and other forms of auto hypnosis.
Because of the efforts of Khawaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Sufi
Hameeduddin Nagauri and Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, sama became
a cranial feature of the Chishty silsila and brought it in occasional conflicts
with the orthodox Ulama.
The mystic belief in gnosis and love is usually accompanied by characteristic
ethics. The Sufis had fully followed and systematised certain ethical concepts
before Islam came to India. The Indian Sufism merely reiterated these beliefs
although there was difference in the degree of emphasis. The basis of the Sufi
attitude is that the Veil which hides Reality from mankind is that of
Bashariyat, (creature hood). The nature of man consists of sensual, intellectual
and spiritual features. Intellect, according to them performed a restricted
function. The central pivot of spiritual life was the Qalb (heart) or the Rooh
(soul). They were regarded as ethereal in nature and hence capable of
communion with God. This function however could never be performed until
the heart was purified of the dirt of sensual or lower self called in Sufi
terminology the nafs (appetitive soul). The struggle against nafs regarded as
wholly evil, therefore, became one of the main concerns of the Sufis. This
implied an outlook of renunciation, penitence, asceticism, poverty, self-
mortification and quietism-in short, other worldliness. This other worldliness
was never interpreted strictly and the Chishty product recommended more an
outlook of another-worldliness than actually going away from society.
The idea among the nobler minds in the world of Islam, that there is a deeper
and more inward sense in the words of the Quran arose not from the wish to
escape from the rigour of texts and dogmas, but from a profound conviction
that those words mean more, not less than the popular expounders supposed
them to convey. This conviction combined with a deep feeling of Divine
pervasion, a feeling originating from and in perfect accordance with the
teachings of the Quran and the instruction of the Prophet led to the
development among the Muslims of that contemplative idealistic philosophy
which has received the name of Sufism. The appeal of which among the
Mohammedans was probably assisted by the prevalence of Neo-Platonic
ideas. Imam-al-Ghazzali in the East and Ibn Tufail in the West were the two
great representatives of mysticism among the Muslims.
At first the leaders of mysticism were supposed to be the Ulema or orthodox
religious teachers but by the end of 3rd century they were replaced mostly by
middle classes, specially from the mixed half Persian and half Arabian
population of Baghdad, who followed Sufism. Against the political
revolutionary aims of Shiaite propagandists the Ulema protested vehemently.
Their programme of reform included the awakening of religious conscience of
individuals and the spiritual revival of the social organisation of the
community. These social implications were reinforced by the labours of Sufis
in preaching and converting, firstly members of their own class or followers
and secondly carrying on their missionary work for Islam in other distant
lands. For all times and in all countries these Sufi ascetics were the most
active and powerful propagandists of Islam and it was none but Hazrat
Khawaja Muinuddin Chishty of Sanjar who introduce the Chishtia silsila
(order) of Sufis in India and did such a wonderful service to the cause of Islam.
For the above reasons the orthodox Ulema began to suspect the new social
implications of the Sufi movement in Islam and a rift seemed to be widening
between Sufism and orthodoxy. Serious attempts were made to silence the
Sufis and on failure an example of punishment was set of one prominent Sufi
Mansur al-Hallaj, who was charged with heresy in having identified himself
with God and was cruelty executed in the beginning of the 4th century. This
punishment was not inflicted by any violent fanatics but by pious upholders of
the ancient Faith like the Good Wazir Ale-ibn-Isa. Repression however proved
futile and the Sufi movement continued firmly based as it was on both the
open and secret teachings of Quran and the moral standards of Islam. Despite
the adverse views of the learned layers, the tendency towards the neglect of
the ritual prescriptions and the outside influence clashing with the traditional
outlook of Islam the strength of Sufism lay in the satisfaction which it gave to
the religious instincts of the people, instincts which were chilled or starved by
the rigid and impersonal teachings of orthodox Ulema but which found more
relief in the directly personal and emotional approach of Sufism.
The Sufi orders grew steadily in wealth and in political influence, but their
spirituality gradually declined as they concentrated on Saint worship, miracle
working, magic and superstition. The external religious practices were
neglected, morals declined and learning was despised.
In many areas Sufi orders succeeded in ruling the ignorant masses through a
well organised and power hungry hierarchy. Their local saints were revered
by the populace and worshipped after their death as mediators and
intercessors. Pilgrim's flocked to the Saint's tombs, willing to pay for a share
in the Sheikh's baraka. The orders became rich and powerful, and both
politicians and theologians feared to oppose them and preferred to share in
the profits.
Some sincere mystics still rose above the general decline. In Egypt, al-Shar'ani
(d.1565) lived at the time of the Ottoman conquest and was a serious and
comprehensive scholar.
In Iran Sadr al-Din Shirazi (d.1640), also known as Mulla Sadra, was a great
thinker who continued to develop the theology of illumination founded by
Suhrawardi and integrated it with Ibn-'Arabis Unity of Being. His impact is
still felt on theologians and philosophers in Iran today.
In India in the 18th century Shah Wali-Allah of Delhi tried to integrate the
various schools of Sufi thought, whilst Mir Dard contributed much to the
formation of Urdu poetry.
In Iran the Safavid order gained political power for two centuries (1499-
1720). The Sheikhs of this order claimed descent from 'Ali and they were
favourably treated by both the Mongol and the TiMureed dynasties. Based in
Ardabil in Azerbaijan the order became a local power in the 15th century as it
alternatively allied itself with and fought against the rulers of the Turkmen
tribal confederations (Ak-Koyunlu, the White Sheep and Kara- Koyunlu, the
Black Sheep).
The Turkmen Safavids of Anatolia and Azerbaijan were called Kizilbash
(Redheads) from the red headgear they wore. In 1501 the Safavid Sheikh
Ismail I defeated the Ak-Koyunlu and took the old Mongolian capital of Tabriz
where he proclaimed himself as Shah. Later he instituted Twelver Shi'ism as
the state religion of Persia and imposed it by force on the population. Many
Sunni 'Ulama' and Sheikhs of other Sufi orders were executed.
The Sunni Ottomans felt threatened by Shi'a Persia, and in the ensuing
centuries of warfare between these two powers they evolved an aggressive
Sunnism within their own Empire. The Sultan Selim I massacred all the
Shi'ites that he could lay his hands on, and until modern times the Kizilbash of
Anatolia and other Shi'a groups collectively called "Alevis" by the Ottomans
were forced to exist as an underground movement. Alevis still number some 8
million people in modern Turkey but they are officially ignored as non-
existent by the authorities.
In Arabia the Wahabi puritan revival was extremely anti-Sufi, seeing their
practices and doctrines as later pagan additions to pure Islam.
Colonialism, nationalism and secularisation had a negative impact on Sufism
in the 19th and 20th centuries. The modern revival of Islamic learning was
accompanied by a violent reaction against the superstitions of Sufism. It was
accused as being the cause of the Islamic world's backwardness compared to
the West. The two great Muslim reformers of the 19th century, Jamal al-Din al-
Afghani and Muhammad 'Abduh, both campaigned successfully against Sufi
orders helping to diminish their influence.
In Turkey, Kemal Ataturk abolished the Sufi orders in 1925 and confiscated
their lands and property. He saw them as corrupt and backward forces that
hindered the modernisation of Turkish society. In other countries too post-
colonial independent central governments were often suspicious of the
orders. They were suspected of being cells of political unrest and revolution
who held the loyalty of the masses by their superstitions, religious
emotionalism and outmoded power structures.
Despite religious and political attempts to eliminate them, the Sufi orders
continued to exist, often underground. With the resurgence of fundamental
Islam in the second half of the 20th century came also a Sufi revival. Sufism
still flourishes in North Africa, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, Central Asia, Pakistan, India
and Indonesia. In Soviet Central Asia their underground networks helped
Islam survive until the reforms of the late eighties. The disintegration of the
Soviet Union has allowed them to return to full public activity in the new
republics.
Sufism today is still a formidable force in the Islamic world. It still touches and
transforms the lives of Muslim people, giving them meaning and emotional
support in a world that is increasingly unstable and full of economic woes,
suffering and confusion.

Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and
especially its orientalist scholars. Figures like Rumi have become well known
in the United States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical
form of Islam.
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the
integration of Europe and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for
interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and
pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance
and humanismnondogmatic, flexible and non-violent. According to Philip
Jenkins, a Professor at Baylor University, "the Sufis are much more than tactical
allies for the West: they are, potentially, the greatest hope for pluralism and
democracy within Muslim nations." Likewise, several governments and
organisations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a means of
combating intolerant and violent strains of Islam. For example, the Chinese and
Russian governments openly favor Sufism as the best means of protecting
against Islamist subversion. The British government, especially following the 7
July 2005 London bombings, has favoured Sufi groups in its battle against Muslim
extremist currents. The influential RAND Corporation, an American think-tank,
issued a major report titled "Building Moderate Muslim Networks," which
urged the US government to form links with and bolster Muslim groups that
opposed Islamist extremism. The report stressed the Sufi role as moderate
traditionalists open to change, and thus as allies against violence. News
organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston Globe have also seen
Sufism, as a means to deal with violent Muslim extremists.
From Iraq and Persia, Sufism perpetrated into India with Hazarat Khawaja
Muinuddin Chishty where it found a very congenial soil to prosper after some
stubborn opposition. With its advent a large number of Sufi saints sprang up
all over the land, doing invaluable service by their solacing influence to the
afflicted humanity irrespective of caste or creed. It was this indiscriminating
service to the cause of the suffering humanity and peace that won the hearts
of the people of India and made the Sufis highly popular among all classes of
people from a peasant to the prince. Not only this but even after their death,
they are still held in high reverence, a thing which is unknown in other
countries. This unflinching devotion is of course not with out any reason;
there must be something very real and serious to come.
 Sufism and Sharia: Mysticism
and Orthodoxy

Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. It saw the rise of many sects and spiritual
movements within it. These movements were centered mainly around the interpretation of the
Quran. There were two major sects that arose within Islam the Sunnis and Shias. Our country
has both the sects, but in many other countries like Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. you will find
followers of only one of them.
Among the Sunnis, there are four principal schools of Islamic Law, based upon
the Quran and Hadiths (traditions of the Prophets saying and doings). Of these the Hanafi
school of the eighth century was adopted by the east ern Turks, who later came to India.
The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy
(Mutazilas), who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and has
nothing to do with mans evil actions. Men are endowed with free will and are responsible
for their own actions. The Mutazilas were opposed by the Ashari School. Founded by
Abul Hasan Ashari (873-935 AD), the Ashari school evolved its own rationalist argument
in defence of the orthodox doctrine (kalam). This school believes that God knows, sees
and speaks. The Quran is eternal and uncreated. The greatest exponent of this school was
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111 AD), who is credited with having reconciled orthodoxy
with mysticism. He was a great theologian who in 1095 began to lead a life of a Sufi. He is
deeply respected by both orthodox elements and Sufis. Al-Ghazali attacked all non-orthodox
Sunni schools. He said that positive knowledge cannot be gained by reason but by revelation.
Sufis owe their allegiance to the Quran as much as the Ulemas do.
The influence of the ideas of Ghazali was greater because of the new educational system
set up by the state, It provided for setting up of seminaries of higher learning (called
madrasas) where scholars were familiarised with Ashari ideas. They were taught how to
run the government in accordance with orthodox Sunni ideas. These scholars were known
as ulema. Ulema played an important role in the politics.Contrary to the ulema were the Sufis.
The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who were shocked at the degeneration in political
and religious life. They opposed the vulgar display of wealth in public life and the readiness of
the ulema to serve ungodly rulers.
Many began to lead a retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state. Tasawwuf, as
SUFISM was known in the islamic world - a realm of the Islamic sciences that is easily
misunderstood without qualified instruction. Any discussion and /or comments on Tasawwuf
must be backed by the knowledge of scholars in thisf ield. Tasawwuf is one of the several
Islamic sciences (ulum). Like most of the other Islamic ulum, it was not known by name, or in it's
later developed form, during the time of the Prophet . This does not make it less
legitimate.There are many Islamic sciences that only took shape many years after the Prophetic
age. The essence of Tasawwuf is purely Islamic. The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern
Islamic World, edited by Professor John L. Esposito [Oxford University Press, Oxford, May
1995, 4 vols.] "in a broad sense,Sufism can be described as the interiorization and
intensification of Islamic faith and practice.

The original sense of sufi seems to have been one who wears wool. By the
eighth century the word was sometimes applied to Muslims whose ascetic inclinations
led them to wear coarse and uncomfortable woolen garments. Gradually it came to
designate a group who differentiated themselves from others by emphasis on certain
specific teachings and practices of the Quran and the sunnah. By the ninth century the
gerund form tasawwuf, literally 'being a sufi' or 'sufism,' was adopted by
representatives of this group as their appropriate designation.
Understood as Islam's life-giving core, sufism is co-extensive with Islam. Wherever
there have been Muslims, there have been sufis. If there was no phenomenon called
'sufism' at the time of the Prophet, neither was there anything called 'fiqh' or 'kalam' in
the later senses of these terms. All these are names that came to be applied to various
dimensions of Islam after the tradition became diversified and elaborated. In looking
for a Quranic name for the phenomenon that later generations came to call sufism,
some authors settled on the term ihsan, 'doing what is beautiful,' a divine and human
quality about which the Quran says a good deal, mentioning in particular that God
loves those who possess it. In the famous Hadith of Gabriel, the Prophet describes
ihsan as the innermost dimension of Islam, after Islam ('submission' or correct activity)
and iman ("faith" or correct understanding)." [vol. 4, pp. 102-104.]
The link between Ihsan and Tasawwuf is reiterated in the English translation of Sahih
Muslim by Abdul Hamid Siddiqi in a footnote to the above hadith: "Ihsan means
beneficence, performance of good deeds, but in the religious sense it implies the doing
of good deeds over and above what is just and fair. It is indicative of the intense
devotion of man to his Creator and Master and his enthusiasm for virtue and piety.
What is implied by the term tasawwuf in Islam is nothing but Ihsan. The aim of Ihsan is
to create a sense of inner piety in man and to train his sensibilities in a way that all his
thoughts and actions flow from the fountainhead of the love of God." [vol. 1, pp. 3-4.]
In his work, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1986,

Professor Ismail R. al Faruqi, a modern Islamic scholar and activist, devoted a chapter
to sufism. The introduction to the chapter states: "Tasawwuf, or the donning of wool, is
the name given to a movement that dominated the minds and hearts of Muslims for a
millennium, and is still strong in many circles of the Muslim world. It nourished their
souls, purified their hearts, and fulfilled their yearning for piety, for virtue and
righteousness, and for closeness to God. It grew and rapidly moved to every corner of
the Muslim world. It was responsible for the conversion of millions to Islam, as well as
for a number of militant states and socio-political movements." [p.295.]

In his work, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, HarperCollins, New York, Cyril Glasse
describes Tasawwuf as "the mysticism or esotericism of Islam." He writes: "The word is
commonly thought to come from the Arabic word suf ('wool'): rough woolen clothing
characterized the early ascetics, who preferred its symbolic simplicity to richer and
more sophisticated materials. The essence of sufism is purely Islamic. Sufism is found
everywhere in the Islamic world; it is the inner dimension of Islam, from which the
efficacy and force of Islam as a religion flow. Historically, the sufis have been grouped
into organizations called tawa'if, or turuq (sing. tariqah, 'path'), the latter
word being used more commonly in the later period, from the time of the Qadiriyyah
order. Tariqah is now also a technical term for esotericism itself. Turuq are
congregations formed around a master, meeting for spiritual sessions (majalis), in
zawiyahs, khanaqahs, or tekkes, as the meeting places are called in different countries.
These spiritual meetings are described in the words attributed to the Prophet:
"Whenever men gather together to invoke Allah, they are surrounded by Angels, the
Divine Favor envelopes them, Peace (as-sakinah) descends upon them, and Allah
remembers them in His assembly."
All spiritual method also necessarily involves the practice of the virtues, summarized in
the concept of ihsan, the surpassing of self, which a Sacred Hadith defines thus:
"Worship God as if you saw Him, for if you do not see him, nevertheless, He sees you."
To this, the sufis add: "And if there were no you, you would see,' and make the
summation of mystical virtue the quality of "spiritual poverty" (faqr). By faqr they
mean emptying the soul of the ego's false "reality" in order to make way for what God
wills for the soul. They seek to transform the soul's natural passivity into re-collected
wakefulness in the present, mysteriously active as symbolized by the transformation of
Moses' hand. Humility and love of one's neighbour cut at the root of the illusion of the
ego and remove those faults within the soul that are obstacles to the Divine Presence.
"You will not enter paradise," the Prophet said, "until you love one another." The
disciple should live in surroundings and in an ambience that are aesthetically and
morally compatible with spiritual interiorization, in the sense that "The Kingdom of God
is within you." The need of such supports for the spiritual life can be summed up in the
Hadith: "God is beautiful and He loves beauty." [pp. 375-8]

Contrary to beliefs often held in the West, to set out on the path of sufism it is
absolutely necessary to be a Muslim, for sufism's methods are inoperative without this
religious affiliation, and may even prove destructive to the individual who lack the
protective and normative devotion of the religion of Islam, which is its vehicle. Ahmad
Zarruq, the fifteenth century Maliki scholar and hadith specialist, states: "So there is
no sufism except through comprehension of Sacred Law or Shariah, for the outward
rules of Allah Most High are not known save through it, and there is no comprehension
of Sacred Law or Shariah without sufism, for works are nothing without the sincerity of
approach, as expressed by the words of Imam Malik: 'He
who practices sufism without learning Sacred Law or Shariah corrupts his faith, while
he who learns Sacred Law or Shariah without practicing sufism corrupts himself. Only
he who combines the two proves true. Fiqh and Tasawwuf complement each other in Shariah.
"Fiqh deals with the apparent and the observable conduct, the fulfilling of a duty in practice.
The field which concerns itself with the spirit of conduct is known as Tasawwuf. For
example, when we perform salat, Fiqh will judge us only by the fulfillment of physical
requirements such as cleansing, facing towards the Kabah and the timing and the
number of rakaahs. Tasawwuf, on the other hand, will judge our prayers by our
concentration, devotion, purification of our souls and the effect of our prayers on our
morals and manners. Thus, the true Islamic Tasawwuf is the measure of our spirit of
our obedience and sincerity, while Fiqh governs our carrying out commands to the last
detail. An Ibadah devoid of spirit, though correct in procedure, is like a man handsome
in appearance but defective in character and an Ibadah full of spirit but defective in
execution is like a man noble in character but deformed in appearance. The above
example makes clear the relation between Fiqh and Tasawwuf. Tasawwuf, in the true
sense, is an intense love of Allah and Muhammad and such love requires a strict obedience to
their commands as embodied in the Quran and the Sunnah of Prophet.This point was further
emphasized by Professor Muhammad Abul Qasim in his book,
Salvation of the Soul and Islamic Devotions, Kegan Paul International, London, 1983.
He succinctly summed up the mutual relation of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and
sufism. He writes: "The Quran teaches that the means to salvation in the Hereafter on
the human side are belief or faith (iman) and action (amal): salvation cannot be
achieved without these two means. Both of them are mentioned in most of the verses
of the Quran containing references to salvation; in a few verses, however, only faith is
mentioned explicitly, but action is implicit in them. That faith and action are the
requirements of salvation on the human side is also the teaching of the prophetic
tradition which is but an elaboration of what is briefly taught by the Quran. The
prophetic tradition presents us with details of faith and action as means to salvation.
Closely following this teaching of the Quran and Tradition, Islamic jurisprudence,
theology and sufism have unanimously agreed that faith and action are the only two
means to salvation. In working out the details of these means, however, they differ
slightly among themselves. Thus jurisprudence accepts the outward meanings of the
teachings of the Quran and Tradition, without feeling the need to explore their deep,
inward meanings. Sufism, in addition to outward meanings, looks for inward meanings;
it also adds material learnt from experience but not inconsistent with the Quranic
teachings." [p. 29]
"Sufis put a great emphasis upon the Quranic teaching that faith and action are both
needed if a man is to ascend from the rank of lower animals to that of those who
behold the beauty of the glorious face of God." [p. 30] "Islam is a religion which
enjoins moderation or the mean state of all affairs. In Islam there is place neither for
too much of hardship nor for too much of lavishness, neither for excess nor for
deficiency. Moderation is considered by Islam to be the most reasonable course of
action and to enable man to achieve that at which the Islamic religion aims. A man has
an outward aspect and an inward aspect, and moderation is to be observed in relation
to both. His outward aspect is mainly the concern of Islamic law (fiqh) and hence in
this field one often finds the prescription of moderation and middle course. The inward
aspect of a man is mainly dealt with in sufism and Islamic philosophy and hence in
these two discipline also we find that moderation or the mean is taught emphatically."
[Footnote no. 14, p. 54]
In fact, true sufis perform obligatory prayers and other duties (fard) which the Shariah
has placed on them, and observe the sunnah of the Prophet which he has recommended. They
never think that they can any time dispense with the Shariah. Those who violate the Shariah
and commit sins are rather impostors, whouse sufism to justify their evil deeds. There is general
agreement among sufis that the only way to know what things are legal or illegal, and what acts
are right or wrong is the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, and their own conscience . These
are also the means for knowing the degrees of obligation, whether a thing is obligatory
(fard/wajib) or forbidden (haram), commendable (mandub), undesirable (makruh), or
permissible. The inspiration of the sufi has no rule in this regard,
neither in determining the legality or otherwise of things, nor in fixing the degree of
their obligation. Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi, the great seventeenth century Indian sufi and
religious reformer, states the common view in the clearest terms: It is commonly
agreed that in determining the rules (ahkam) of the Shariah, what counts is the
Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, the qiyas of a qualified jurist (mujtahid) and the
consensus of the Ummah. No other principle apart from these four is to be taken into
consideration to determine the legality of rules. Inspiration (ilham) does not determine
whether something is right or wrong, and the kashf of a sufi does not establish the
degree of a rule, whether it is obligatory or desirable. The saints (awliya) have to
follow, like an ordinary Muslim, the opinions of the mujtahids. Their revelations
(kushuf) and inspirations (ilhamat) do not elevate their status and relieve them from
following the judgments of the jurists (fuqaha). . . . They have to follow the judgments
of the jurists (mujtahidin) in matters of ijtihad.' [Maktubat Iman Rabbani, vol. II, p.
1041].
This vital Islamic science of sufism has been consistently expounded by the greater
Muslim scholars of all time. The overwhelming majority of the Muslim scholars were
actively involved in sufism. In fact, almost all the great luminaries of medieval Islam:
al-Suyuti, Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, al-'Ayni, Ibn Khaldun, al-Subki, Ibn Hajar al-Haytami;
tafseer writers like al-Baydawi, al-Sawi, Abu'l-Su'ud, al-Baghawi, and Ibn Kathir,
aqidah writers such as Taftazani, al-Nafasi, al-Razi: all wrote in support of sufism. Ibn
Khaldun, Muslim statesman, jurist, historian, and scholar of the fourteenth century,
devoted a long section of in his monumental work, al-Muqaddimah, to discuss the
science of sufism. He writes: "Sufism belongs to the sciences of religious law that
originated in Islam. It is based on the assumption that the practices of its adherents
had always been considered by the important early Muslims, the men around
Muhammad and the men of the second generation, as well
as those who came after them, as the path of true and right guidance. The sufi
approach is based upon constant application to divine worship, complete devotion to
God, aversion to false splendor of the world, abstinence from the pleasure, property,
and position to which great mass aspires, and the retirement from the world into
solitude for divine worship. These things were general among the men around
Muhammad and the early Muslims. Then, worldly
aspirations increased in the second (eighth) century and after. At that time, the special
name of sufis (Sufiyah and Mutasawwifah) was given to those who aspired to divine
worship.
The sufis came to represent asceticism, retirement from the world, and devotion to
divine worship. They developed a particular kind of perception which comes about
through ecstatic experience. When the sciences were written down systematically and
when the jurists wrote works on jurisprudence and the principles of jurisprudence, on
speculative theology, Quran interpretation, and other subjects, the sufis, too, wrote on
their subject. Some sufis wrote on the laws governing asceticism and self-scrutiny, how
to act and not act in imitation of model (saints). Thus, the science of sufism became a
systematically treated
discipline in Islam. Before that, mysticism had merely consisted of divine worship, and
its laws had existed in the breasts of men. The same had been the case with all other
disciplines, Quran interpretation, the science of tradition, jurisprudence, the principles
of jurisprudence, and other disciplines." Ibn Khaldun's al-Muqaddimah, translated from
the Arabic into English by Franz Rosenthal, 3 Vols., Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N. J., 1967 [vol. 3, pp. 76-81].
With all this, we observe a contradiction. Why is it, if sufism has been so respected a
part of Muslim intellectual and political life throughout our history that there are,
nowadays, angry voices raised against it? Apparently there are two reasons. First,
there have been deviant manifestations of true devotional sufism. In his work, The
Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, Cyril Glasse describes this issue as follows: An offshoot
of popular devotional sufism seeks reassurance above all in psychic phenomena,
communication with spirits, or jinn, trance dancing, magic, prodigies such as eating
glass, piercing the body with knives, and so forth. In psychic powers and extraordinary
mental states it finds proofs of spiritual attainment. It has given rise to the European
use of the word fakir (which comes from the word for an authentic sufi disciple, a
dervish, or faqir, literally a poor one') to mean a market-place magician or performer,
and has attained notoriety not only among Western observers, but also in Islamic
societies.' [p. 380]
Abd al-Karim Jili, the fourteenth century scholar of Islamic Law or Shariah, describes
such an experience: I have traveled to the remotest cities and dealt with all types of people, but
never has my eye seen, nor ear
heard of, nor is there any uglier or farther from presence of Allah Most High than a
certain group who pretend they are accomplished sufis, claiming for themselves a
lineal spiritual tradition from the perfected ones and appearing in their guise, while
they do not believe in Allah, His messengers, or the Last Day, and do not comply with
the responsibilities of the Sacred Law or Shariah, depicting the states of the prophets
and their messages in a manner that no one with a particle of faith in his heart can
accept, let alone someone who has reached the level of those to whom the unseen is
disclosed and who have gnostic insight. We have seen a great number of their
luminaries in cities in Azerbaijan, Shirwan, Jilan, and Khurasan, may Allah curse them
all.' (Idah al-maqsud min wahdat al-wujud, Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Matba'a al-'Alam,
Damascus, 1969, pp. 17-18).
Second, there is the emergence of what is known as folk sufism. Some people are
baffled by the dress, terminology, or demeanor of the sufis. They imitate the sincere
sufis externally without experiencing spiritual struggle or self-discipline. Rather, they
pounce upon and quarrel over wealth that is unlawful, doubtful, or from rulers, rending
each other's honor whenever they are at cross-purposes. In the words of a Sacred Hadith: My
servant does not cease to approach Me with acts of devotion, until I become the foot with which
he walks, the hands with which he grasps, and the eye with which he sees.' Bayazid
al-Bistami said: For thirty years I went in search of God, and when I opened my eyes
at the end of this time, I discovered that it was really He who sought me.' [p. 380]
The rightly guided sufis very strongly oppose and condemn practices such as excessive
veneration of saints, calling upon saints for aid or protection, praying to saints, annual
celebrations and feasts at the grave of a saint (urs), and observing the syncretic rituals. It is
stressed that the excessive veneration of a saint would probably lead to the worship of
something other than God - to polytheism or associating partners with God (shirk) and that
showy attractions during feasts are definitely contrary to shariah and should therefore be
prohibited. A person who prays to a saint is probably attributing to the saint powers that should
only be attributed to Allah.

Professor William C. Chittick writes, Although the great sufi authorities set down many
guidelines for keeping sufism squarely at the heart of the Islamic tradition, popular religious
movements that aimed at intensifying religious experience and had little concern for Islamic
norms were also associated with sufism. Whether or not the members of these movements
considered themselves sufis, opponents of sufism were happy to claim that their excesses
represented sufism's true nature. The sufi authorities themselves frequently criticized
false sufis.' [The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, vol. 4, p. 104]. It is
noteworthy that more recently hundreds of volumes have been published in the West
on sufism and most of these were written by people who have adopted' sufism to
justify teachings of questionable origin, or who have left the safeguards of right
practice and right thought - Islam and iman - and hence have no access to the ihsan
that is built upon the two.
Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi reiterates the same view : It is the misfortune of the Muslims
that as they sank in knowledge and character with the passage of time, they also
succumbed to the misguided philosophies of nations which were then dominant. They
partook of these philosophies and patched Islam with their perverted ideas. They
polluted the pure spirit of Islamic Tasawwuf with absurdities that could not be justified
by any stretch of imagination on the basis of the Quran and the Hadith. Gradually, a
group of Muslims appeared who thought and proclaimed themselves immune to and
above the requirements of the Shariah. These people are totally ignorant of Islam, for
Islam cannot admit of Tasawwuf that loosens itself out of the Shariah and takes
liberties with it. No Sufi has the right to transgress the limits of the Shariah or treat
lightly the primary obligations (Faraid) such as daily prayers, fasting, zakah and the
hajj.' [Towards Understanding Islam, p. 97]
I
The Sufi philosophy also differed from the ulema. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought
andliberal ideas. They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion. The
Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints,
the Sufis too interpreted religion as love of god and service of humanity. In course of
time, the Sufis were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah having its
own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah
(hospice). A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his work.
The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra in
Iraq became the centre of Sufi activities. The Qur'an often underlines
the importance of invocation in words such as these: "Remember God standing and
sitting. . ." (3:191); " . . . Those who believe and do good works, and remember God
much. . . " (26:227); and "Surely the Remembrance of God is Greatest" (wa
ladhikru-Llahi akbar) (29:45). The principle of reciprocity between God and man is
expressed by God's revealed words: "Therefore remember Me; I will remember you"
(fadhkuruni adhkurum) (2:152).
It must be noted that the Sufi saints were not setting up a new religion, but were preparing a
more liberal movement within the framework of Islam. They owed their allegiance to the Quran
as much as the ulema did.

Historically Muslims themselves have articulated spiritual ideals by using twin-concepts which
sometimes rhyme, such as: shariat-haqiqat, jalal-jamal. These binary terms present seemingly
opposed, but actually complementary, spiritual ideals. Ultimately, Islamic culture can best be
understood as the creative resolution of the tensions between these opposing ideals, one
prescribed by the Islamic orthodoxy--consisting of the ulama, religious lawyers specializing in
sharia, or Islamic lawwhile the other is proposed by Sufis, or the mystics.
 For example, the orthodox ulama have argued that Allah is unique and totally
transcendent above his creation, like a king is powerful over--and removed from--his subjects,
thereby stressing the quality of power and forcein Arabic, jalal, one of the ninety-nine names
of God. The appropriate response to power is awe, and a formality born out of respect; and this
is precisely what the shariah-minded orthodox scholars recommend for a Muslim approaching
God. They have further argued that God is totally formless and cannot be conceived of by being
associated with any human qualities. God cannot be said, for example, to have a son, for this
would imply that he has a biology, which is a human-animal quality.
But Islamic thought also recognizes a complementary aspect of Godsjamal, or
beauty. Just as beauty is one of the foremost qualities in a person we love, so Allah the
beautiful is worthy of being approached with love, and not merely with awe and sober formality.
It is this quality of jamal that Sufi-minded Muslims have emphasized, especially in lyric poetry.
But Sufis have gone a step further, arguing that one who is beautiful can only be aware of that
beauty if the beauty is known and appreciated by someone else. In other words, Beauty needs
a mirror in which to see itself; and Sufis have argued that Creation is the mirror in which God
sees himself, and thus becomes self-aware of his foremost essence, Beauty. In this argument,
its not just Creation that needs God, but God who needs creation for his self-knowledge! The
two are mutually dependent. And in support of this insight Sufis have quoted a hadith (Prophets
saying): I was a hidden treasure, and I desired to be known, so I created creation. It is this
insight that finds its expression in work after work of Islamic artsfrom calligraphy to poetry.
Sufis have always been present in every Islamic culture, and have been organized into
brotherhoods, each with a different genealogy dating back to a particular founding figure who is
revered as a saint. A Sufi saints successors and students form chains of transmission or a
brotherhood, called silsila or tariqa in Persian and Arabic respectively. Each chain has a very
different texture and profile; some silsilas, for example, have chosen to focus on music as a way
of remembering God, while others have specialized in ritualized dance which has then become
the signature of that silsila. Some silsilas have chosen to be closely associated with political
power in order to effect change, while others have shunned all contact with royal patronage
since such contact usually meant compromising their ideals in return for the patronage. It is
often such non-political silsilas that proved to be the most successful, for they became the
clearest symbols of an alternative to royal authority, attracting those who were tired of courtly
machinations and power-play. Needless to say, Muslim kings were especially interested in
seeking out and winning over all silsilas, for this was one way of curbing the power of a local
silsila. Thus, one of the tensions that structured medieval Muslim societies was the tension
between the court and the Sufi silsilas, or brotherhoods. And this tension between political
authority and spiritual authority forms one of the most persistent motifs in Sufi literature as well.
The other tension which has structured Muslim cultures is between Sufis and the Islamic
orthodoxy. In different historical contexts and different places the Islamic orthodoxy--consisting
of canon lawyers, called ulama--has engaged the Sufis in different ways; indeed many famous
Sufis were initially trained as ulama but at some point in their lives they gradually repudiated the
profession of a lawyer and turned to Sufi spirituality with its emphasis on haqiqat or the inner
truth, as opposed to shariat, or the law that governs social roles and obligations.
Sufis have adopted various stances towards shariatsometimes being openly critical of
it, especially in their poetry, and sometimes affirming that it is absolutely necessary for the
smooth functioning of everyday affairs. However, the law, the academic learning, and the
intellect needed to grasp the law, is compared by Sufis to the hard outer shell of a nut. The shell
is necessary for the nut to exist as a nut, but it is not the germ of life that makes the nut viable
as a seed. That germ is haqiqat, or the animating truth within; and this haqiqat can only be
grasped by the heart, the organ of love. Islamic culture has consistently presented two faces:
one, Shariah-minded, concerned with outward, socially recognizable behavior in the care of the
ulama; the other Sufi-minded and concerned with the inward, personal life of an individual who
is nurtured by his or her Sufi master. Sufi masters are called ahl-e-dil, 'people of the heart'. They
teach that religion has no meaning unless warmed by emotions of love, and interpret Sufism as
being the heart of Islam.

The tension between the orthodoxy and the Sufi heterodoxy has never entirely
disappeared. The justification of Sufism in regard to shariah depended on a frank division of
labor: it was generally agreed in Islamic cultures that the Sufis dealt with the inner side of the
same faith and truth of which the ulama scholars were concerned with the outer side. Both were
recognized as being necessary--at least in theory. But in practice this division of labor caused
much wrangling. In fact, one could say that it is this tension and its management by ordinary
Muslims and Muslim governments that makes Islamic cultures a flexible and varying narrative.
Below is a brief sketch of the positions held by each group. The left column presents the
canonically accepted orthodox view which no Muslims, including Sufis, would deny. On the right
is the complementary and additional set of goals and ideals proposed by Sufis. Below that is a
more detailed explanation of each of these twin terms.
Orthodoxy Heterodoxy (Sufis)
Belief that God is one and unique Same
(tauhid)
Muhammad is the last prophet for Same
humanity
Prayers five times a day facing Mecca Same
(qibla)
Fasting during Ramadan Same
Use of Arabic as a divine language Recognition of Arabic, but
use of other languages
 Shariat, Islamic law, as final authority
Allah as Lord, Master, King, Judge
Creation separate and dependent on God.
Approaching Allah through affection: Hubb
Use of music frowned upon. Zikr fine
Use of wine prohibited
Self control, sobriety in religious
expression
Allah alone to be worshipped. Worship of
saints frowned upon
Mosque as the only place of worship
Kaaba as the only focus of pilgrimage: Hajj
Technical Terms: Sufism
Hubb vs. Ishq: Two Arabic words which are both translated into English as love. Hubb,
however, is more like affection, an emotion one might feel towards ones parents or siblings,
Haqiqat, inner reality, as the final authority
Allah as the Beloved who needs be known
God and creation co-dependent for love.
Approach Allah through passionate love:
Ishq
Music and zikr both enthusiastically
pursued
Wine used as a metaphor for higher
knowledge
Self-abandonment permitted and
ecstasy encouraged
Worship of saints the center and focus of
devotions
Saints tombs (dargah) as alternate place
of worship; along with mosque
Saints tomb as alternate focus of
pilgrimage: ziyarat
whereas ishq is what one feels when one is in love with someone. Ishq may be translated as
intense romantic love.

Zikr: the practice of chanting Gods name rhythmically, often accompanied with rhythmic
breathing and rhythmic movements of the head, but without the accompaniment of musical
instruments.

Sama (vs. Quran recitation) : The practice of listening to Gods name in the company of others
and with the accompaniment of rhythmical musical instruments as well as dance. Typically, in a
sama concert musicians dont just recite Gods name, they sing a song that is usually not in
Arabic and may be a song of praise to Allah, but also to one of the Sufi saints. The goal of sama
is to evoke ecstacy (hal). Once a person enters the state of hal the singers are expected to keep
on repeating the verse that caused a person to experience the ecstacy in the first place while
others stand by in respectful silence. Sama may be contrasted to the practice of the recitation
of the Quran which is done without any musical accompaniment but is nonetheless musical
since the reciter uses musical ornamentation to embellish the syllables being chanted.

Haj vs. Ziyarat: Haj is the pilgrimage to the cities of Mecca and Medina, and in particular to the
Kaaba complex in Mecca that is recommended for every Muslim. Ziyarat is the other type of
pilgrimage that is performed by Muslims, and it is to the tomb of a revered saint. The saints vary
from region to region, some may only be known locally in a city or its immediate environs; other
saints are known throughout Islamdom, a famous example being the 10th century Baghdadi
Sufi, Mansur Hallaj who became famous for his bold statement I am the Truth. (ana al-haqq)

Dargah and Mazar: Literally the court, a dargah is the entire complex in which a famous Sufi
Saint lived and taught and in which he is buried. After the death of a particularly revered teacher
his tomb (mazar) becomes the focus of pilgrimage (ziyarat). The mazar is surrounded by
gardens, a library, a kitchen for feeding the poor, dormitories for housing pilgrims, concert halls
for performing both zikr and sama, and finally homes of the saints descendants who are the
caretakers of his tomb. This entire complex is called a dargah. Famous dargahs are endowed
by local politicians and, in the past, by rulers and donations from pilgrims.

Shariat vs. Haqiqat: Shariat is the Islamic law about social matters like marriage, divorce,
inheritance, property etc. It is based as far as possible on the actions of the prophet (sunnah)
and on his sayings, or from inferring what he would have done or said had he been confronted
with an issue. Thus, for example, the shariat stipulates that a man shave all hair on parts of his
body that may be moist and covered with other skin, because moist hair was considered filthy.
This means that Muslim men shave their armpits and genitals as a matter of cleanliness.
Haqiqat is the inner essence of something that is gained by direct experience, and disciplined
intuition. Sufis compare shariat to the tough outer skin of a nut and haqiqat to its soft inner flesh.
The flesh needs the tough outer coating, but the outer coating by itself is just a hull, lifeless and
useless.

Ilm vs Irfan: Two words for knowledge, but very different kinds of knowledge. Ilm can be
acquired by education and training and through the exercise of reason. Irfan is higher
knowledge, or gnosis, that can only be acquired by, first, education, and then contemplation
under the guidance of a master. The guidance would include spiritual training in zikr, music
(sama) and meditation. Ilm is expected to lead to the sober contemplation of God as both
Creator and Judgehis awesome power-- whereas irfan may lead to ecstacy as a person is
simply overwhelmed by Gods immense beauty and falls in love with that Beauty.

Jalal vs. Jamal: Two characteristics of Allah. Jalal is the awesome power and force of God,
faced with which a person feels insignificant and powerless. Jamal is Gods beauty, faced with
which a person falls in love. Jalal reminds us of the distance between God and us, Jamal
reminds us of how intimate and tender he is.

Alim or Shaikh vs Sufi: An Alim (or shaikh) is a specialist in ilm or the use of reason, the
study of the Quran, and the shariat or the Islamic law. Alims approach God through ilm which
leads to a sober contemplation of Gods authority (jalal). A Sufi is a specialist in irfan, or a higher
spiritual knowledge cultivated through religious practice, music, zikr and contemplation. A Sufi
approaches God in his aspect of Beauty and typically expresses himself or herself in ecstatic,
mystical absorption in God. The tension between the Alim and the Sufi has characterized Islam
since its very beginning, with each group claiming it is the true Muslim. The plural for an alim
is Ulama.

While the Kings and ulema often remained aloof from the day to day
problems of the people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people. The
Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. It fact, The Islamic emphasis
upon equality was respected far more by the Sufis than by the ulema. The doctrines of the
Sufis were attacked by the orthodoxy. The Sufis also denounced the ulema. They believed
that the ulema had succumbed to world by temptations and were moving away from the
original democratic and egalitarian principles of the Quran. This battle between the orthodox
and liberal elements continued throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The Sufi saints tried to bring about social reforms too.
 Sufi Practices

It might be helpful to begin with something about the meaning of the term Sufism. Because
Sufism, it should be remembered first of all, is a neologisma newly coined word. Its not only a
neologism but also a misnomer, a badly coined word, and that is because it contains an ism and the
ism subverts the essential meaning of the word, because an ism always suggests a closed community,
an ideology, a doctrineand Sufism, in essence, is none of those things. So if we want to truly know
what Sufism is it would be helpful to go back to the original word in Arabic which is tasawwuf. Its not
quite as easy to pronounce but it contains a more accurate meaning because it is a verbal noun, and so it
refers to a process of becoming. Its not static, but dynamic. Tasawwuf literally means the process of
becoming a Sufi. So from the outset one understands that it is not a club to which you belong or do not
belong, it is a transformative experience.
But then the question is: What is a Sufi? What is the end result of that process? Since the earliest days
when this word came into currency tasawwuf and Sufi the Sufis have given their answers to the
question, what is a Sufi. Each of those answers differ. Each of those answers is a facet of the single reality
that is the meaning of being a Sufi. Here are some of the definitions and I will read them in translation.
The first is from a Sufi named Abul-Hasan Bushanji:
Sufism today is a name without a reality that was once a reality without a name. That was said back in
the eighth or ninth century.
And this from Ibn al-Jalla:
Sufism is an essence, a truth. There is no form, no ritual, no custom in it. It is pure essence.

These two sayings go together. Sufism was a reality that has now become a form, a name that is no
longer a reality.The Sufis have always recognized the process whereby a hidden secret is institutionalized,
commodified and known to the world as a form while the Sufis themselves, in secret, concealed its
essence and carried on. This has happened over the generations. Time after time a transmission has been
passed down from person to person from heart to heart without intermediary, always from heart to heart.
Of course, its not to say that Sufis havent written books. The very same Sufis who said that it could
never be put into words went on to write multi-volume encyclopedias.
Here is the next definition, from Abul-Hasan al-Nuri, a great early Sufi:
Sufism is not rituals and forms and is not bodies of knowledge, not doctrines, not ideas, not theories. But
it is impeccable manner, the manner of the lover in the presence of the Beloved.
That is the very essence of the law. The religious law exists to keep us in check when we are unaware of
the presence of the Beloved. When one is in the awesome intimacy of the Beloved, ones behavior rises to
a degree of perfection that is otherwise unattainable. Probably you have all noticed in your own life that
you behave according to different standards depending on who you are with. And the one that you most
idealize, the one who is most beloved, in the presence of that one, you are on your best behavior. Sufism,
then, is living life in that constant presence.

Regulation
There are certain regulations of Sufism which are called Adraak and Ehsas in Sufi parlance.
They are also known as Arkaan Tasawwuf or Arkaan-Baatani i.e. the rules and discipline for
acquiring the hidden wisdom or knowledge. They are divided into the following three categories:

(1) Knowledge i.e. the divine Knowledge attainable through the rigid discipline of Shariat.

(2) Amal i.e. action under the above discipline with unflinching faith and devotion.

(3) Haal i.e. the resulting reaction from Amal or the action.

A Sufi aspirants first important step to act upon the above course is to seek a religious preceptor
or murshid who should be a practical master of the said Divine Knowledge and its training
experience. His preliminary lessons start with,

(i) Liturgical practices and exercises with unswerving devotion to certain Quranic verses which
are pregnant with the Divine Knowledge in order to grasp their spiritual interpretation and values.

(ii) A rigid control over his soul called Nafswhich starts which renunciation and self-
mortification.

Training In Sufism

A Sufi student enters the faith by seeking a teacher. Sufism emphasises a strong relationship
between the seeker and the teacher. To be considered legitimate by the Sufi community, the
teacher, must have received the authorization to teach (ijazah) from another Master of the Way, in
an unbroken succession (silsila) leading back to Muhammad. To the Sufi, it is the transmission of
divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather than worldly knowledge, that
allows the adept to progress. They further believe that the teacher should attempt to inerrantly follow
the Divine Law.

one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of the "Perfect Man" (al-Insan al-Kamil).
This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a "Qutb" (Pole or Axis, of the
Universe)a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to man and in a state
of wilaya (sanctity, being under the protection of God).

As a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to
serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1,001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual
instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that
instruction.

Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims
and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor. Although approaches to
teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct
personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms
of mysticism
Many Sufi believe that to reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the
disciple live with and serve the teacher for a large period of time .An example is the folk story
about Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi Order. He is
believed to have served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until as-
Samasi died. He is said to then have served several other teachers for long periods of time. He is
said to have helped the poorer members of the community for many years and after this concluded
his teacher directed him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assisting them.

When a person decides to become a mystic or Sufi, he is expected to go to a Sheikh or Murshid

(master) and spend with him as much time as is deemed necessary by the Sheikh for his spiritual
development. During this period of apprenticeship which, in most cases, lasts a lifetime, the
Sheikh instructs the disciple to perform mortification (Mujahedas) so as to gain control over his
appetitive soul, i.e. Nafs. This was done by performing service like hewing of wood, drawing of
water from the wells and so many other menial services in the Khanqah (the monastery or chapel).
Even Hazrat Khawaja Muinuddin Chishty himself had to pass through this hard and rigorous
course of probation when he was under training for a period of 20 years with his Pir-o-Murshid
(master) Hazrat Khawaja Usman Harooni. Every Sufi saint had to perform these hard services for
his Pir before achieving the robe of Khilafat (succession).

Stages Of Mysticism

According to the Islamic standard of judgment, the seeker after Truth, as stated above has to pass
through many stages before he can actually feel himself in commination with the Truth being the
ultimate object. The elementary condition is to have an unshakable faith and a firm resolve in
doing or not doing a thing that is termed niyyat (intention) in Muslim theology which is followed
by repentance and penitence. The next stage is called Mujaheda (probation of striving). When it
reaches its zenith then the revelation process begins which is known as Mukashfa (the uplifting
of veil). At this stage the attainments of the saint (or Sufi) are so exquisite that he emerges his
identify in the will of God, the creator, and the reactions are visible and affect the code and
conduct of human beings. The effort by which each stage is gained is called haal (state). It is a
state of joy or desire and when the seeker is in this condition he falls into wajd (ecstasy).

The Practices
The goal of Sufism is the development of certain noble qualities such as the purification of the self,

purification of the heart, moral etiquette, the state of doing what is beautiful (ihsan), nearness to God,

gnosis (marifat), annihilation (fana) and subsistence (baqa). In short, the true purpose of Sufism is to

transform the seeker into a highly humane and moral person by building the seekers character

through spiritual training.

Todays fast-paced, materially-oriented world challenges us to balance the demands of day-to-day life

with the fulfillment of our inner yearnings. Many choices are available in the pursuit of knowledge.

Among these choices, the Sufi teachings, transmitted through a chain of authorized teachers, offer a

way to lead life in this world within the context of a comprehensive spiritual philosophy. The

Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi line of masters in particular has considered the need for practical techniques

that can be integrated with work, family, and social responsibilities. Their teachings may benefit

seekers of different aptitudes and natures today, as they have uplifted seekers for generations. It is

only by the blessings of respected shaykhs of centuries past that the Sufi teachings have endured.

INITIATION

Initiation into a Sufi order is seen as a necessary ritual that transmits the spiritual grace (barakah,
spiritual power) of the guide (murshid) to the disciple (Mureed). This special grace goes back in an
unbroken line to the Prophet himself. In Sufi thought it is likened to a seed planted in the initiate's
soul, the equivalent of Christian baptism or new birth. At the initiation ceremony the Master who has
experienced union with God and annihilation of self, in addition to giving the disciple the special
garment also gives the him a secret word or prayer to help him in his meditation.
Sufis also believe in Spiritual Guides who reveal themselves to the Sufi in visions or dreams and help
him on his path. Al-Khidr is one well known such guide who is sometimes identified as the prophet
Elijah.
The initiate has to learn spiritual poverty (faqr) which means emptying the soul of self in order to
make room for God. The illusion of the individual ego must be erased by humility and love of one's
neighbour. This is attained by a rigid self discipline that removes all obstacles to the revelation of the
Divine Presence.

Subtle Centres of Consiousness (Lataif)

It is generally thought that the human body contains only one subtle center of consciousness: the

mind or brain. But the elder Sufis, through their spiritual experiences, discovered additional centers of

perception or inner senses which they referred to as lataif (singular: latifah). They further concluded

based on their kashf (intuitive insight) that there are ten such lataif.

The origins of the lataif reflect the origins of the universe as a whole. According to Shaykh Ahmad

Faruqi Sirhindi (r.a.), the Indian master from whom the Mujaddidi lineage descends, God created the

universe in two stages. First came alami amr (the world of Gods command), which emerged instantly

when God said, Be! Then God created alami khalq (the world of creation) through a process of

evolution that lasted many years. After alami khalq, God created the human being. God blessed this

new creation with certain inner faculties or points of light; the lataif. Five of the lataif nafs (self),

bad (air), nar (fire), ma (water), and khak (earth) were part of the world of creation. The other five

qalb (heart), ruh (spirit), sir (secret), khafi (hidden), and akhfa (most hidden) were part of the

world of Gods command.

The lataif were luminous initially. When God connected them to the body, their light started to be

filtered through the influences of the physical world, including human beings tendency to identity with

materiality. The dimming of our natural inner radiance is reflected in the Quranic passage, Surely We

created the human being of the best stature, then We reduced him to the lowest of the low, except

those who believe and do good works, for they shall have a reward unfailing. (Quran 95:4-6).

Through practices that involve concentrating on the lataif the Sufi aspirant becomes able to use them

as means to greater awareness of the Divine Presence. The more the seeker develops this ability, the

less the light of knowledge is obscured.

Like the faculty of memory, the lataif are faculties that we may sense and experience, yet have

difficulty explaining. How would you define memory? You might say it resides in the brain you might

even describe its physiological working but these descriptions fail to convey all its dimensions.

Sometimes, a person loses his or her memory due to injury. He or she becomes even more aware of

its importance, yet is no better able to explain it. Similarly, the lataif cannot be adequately defined in

words; but as a person brings them to light, he or she comes to understand them.

Different Sufi orders have associated the lataif with various locations on the body. The Naqshbandi-

Mujaddidi order places the five centers of the world of Gods command (the lataif of alami amr) in

the chest. The heart or qalb is on the left side of the body, two inches below the nipple. The spirit,

ruh, is in the corresponding position on the right side of the chest. The subtle center known as secret,

or sirr, is on the same side as the heart, but above the breast. Hidden (khafi) is on the right above the

breast. Most hidden (akhfa) is in the middle of his chest, between the heart and spirit.

Shaykhs of the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi order guide the salik (spiritual traveler) in enlightening the

lataif one by one. This is accomplished primarily through muraqabah (meditation). While sitting, the

student makes an intention (niyah) to pay attention to a particular subtle center. He or she focuses

first on the heart (qalb), then, in sequence, the other lataif of the world of Gods command: spirit,

secret, hidden, and most hidden (ruh, sirr, khafi, and akhfa). When these are fully enlightened, the

student pays attention to the lataif associated with the world of creation (alami khalq).

Of the subtle centers connected with the world of creation, only the self or nafs is regarded as

corresponding to a particular point on the human body. Its location is in the middle of the forehead. It

is the first of the lataif of lami khalq that the student refines, for it is considered the sum total of all

the others. After concentrating on the self for some time, the student is guided next to focus on the

four gross elements of which the body is constituted air, fire, water, and earth (bad, nar, ma, and
khak). When these are infused with light, every pore of the body becomes illuminated and starts to

remember God.

Spiritual Transmission (Tawajjuh)

Many scholars consider the angel Gabriels three embraces during the first revelation to the Prophet a

form of transmission. We can conclude that the knowledge that Gabriel brought from God began with

transmission. The Prophet was in the cave of Hira when Gabriel came and asked him to recite. He

said, I cannot recite. Gabriel embraced the Prophet), then pressed the Prophet (S) to him, declaring

Recite. The Prophet replied, I cannot. For the third time Gabriel (as) seized the Prophet (s.) and

said, Recite. The Prophet then recited the message of God (Quran 96:1-5): Recite in the name of

your Sustainer who created. He created the human being from an embryo. Recite! Your Lord is the

most Generous. He taught by the Pen, teaching humans what they did not know.

According to a hadith, one day the Prophet was holding the hand of Hazrat Umar (R). Umar said to

him, O Allahs Apostle! You are dearer to me than everything except my own self. The Prophet said,

No, by Him in whose hand my soul is,you will not have complete faith] until I am dearer to you than

your own self. Then Hazrat Umar said to him, However, now by Allah, you are dearer to me than

my own self. The Prophet said, Now, O Umar, [now you are a believer]. This was without doubt the

result of transmission.

The following incident was related by Hazrat Alja bin Kab When I was in the mosque, a man came in

and started to say his prayers. He recited the Holy Quran in a manner that appeared incorrect to me.

Then another man came in and recited the Holy Quran in yet another way. I went to the Prophet and

told him how these people had recited the Quran. The Prophet asked both men to recite the Holy

Quran and they did. The Prophet then said that both were right. My heart was filled with evil doubt

that was even stronger than that of the period of ignorance (jahiliyya). When the Prophet saw my

state, he struck my breast with his hand. I started perspiring profusely and my state of fear and awe

was such that I felt I was seeing God.

In addition to these examples, there are many other incidents that can be cited as evidence of the

effects of spiritual transmission. However, it is true that spiritual transmission and spiritual affinity are

not the real source of the effect: God said (to Muhammad), You do not guide those whom you like, but

Allah guides those whom he will. (Quran 28:56). The attainment of the final goal is not possible

without Gods grace, but through guidance, following the sunnah, and the sayings, actions, company,

and spiritual attention of saints, shaykhs, and their deputies, it is not impossible.
Spiritual Affinity (Nisbat)

The word nisbat in Arabic means an affinity or connection between two people. In Sufi terminology, it

is the affinity that develops between God and human beings. The essence of Sufism is that a person

should develop some quality or virtue to such a degree, that it should permeate that persons being

utterly. When such a quality becomes an essential part of ones being, it can be termed spiritual

affinity. The objective of the Sufi quest is the attainment of this spiritual affinity.

There are many different types of affinity: the affinity of doing what is beautiful, the affinity of purity,

the affinity of intense love, the affinity of spiritual ecstasy, the affinity of unity, the affinity of peace,

and the affinity of remembrance among others. It would, however, not be correct to assume that

these affinities can only be obtained through Sufi practices. The exercises are only a means of

achieving these. In reality, these are Gods gift that He bestows on whomever He wills without

consideration of spiritual lineage. In this regard, the statement of Hazrat Khwaja Bahauddin

Naqshband is the most comprehensive. Someone asked him about the saints of his lineage, and he

replied, I did not reach God through the saints of my lineage. An attraction to God was bestowed upon

me and that is what took me to God.

The Companions and the followers of the Prophet who came later, used to obtain spiritual affinity

through different means. Consistency and regularity in the performance of the five obligatory daily

prayers, voluntary prayers, constant praise of God, the recitation of the Holy Quran, the

remembrance of death, and the fear of the Day of Judgment lead to the quality of nearness to God

becoming ingrained in their hearts. For the rest of their lives they guard this affinity, for it is the same

path that has come from the Prophet to the shaykhs of different orders.

DHIKR AND SAMA

Sufi masters stress dhikr (remembrance of God), for it grounds the belief, knowledge, and faith of the seeker
by focusing his or her attention on God. One of the fundamental commands of God is to do dhikr as often as
possible until continual awareness of the Divine Presence is established. God revealed to Prophet Moses,
Verily, I I alone am God; there is no deity save Me, Hence worship Me alone and be constant in prayer so
as to remember Me!.(Quran 20:14). This command for dhikr has extended to all generations, although the
forms of dhikr have varied with time and place.
Dhikr may be recited Jalli (aloud) or Khafi (silently in the heart). Some orders stress the former, while others
emphasize the latter. Both types of dhikr offer the same benefits. They differ only in technique. Both forms
also find justification in guidance given by the Prophet Muhammad. Some orders do dhikr while standing,
some while sitting in a certain posture, and some while moving. Shaykhs introduced these variations to
intensify the dhikr.

Through dhikr, Sufi masters train students to purify their hearts and souls. The shaykhs role is to guide
seekers to the original remembrance; to enable them to become continuously and spontaneously aware of the
Divine Presence in the physical, mental, and emotional aspects of life, in the outer and inner realms.

To remember God throughout day-to-day life is far more valuable than periodically making a show of
remembrance. Dhikr is not a ceremony. It is the very object of life. The person who remembers God finds
happiness; the person who forgets finds only desolation. Forgetfulness is the petrifying force that turns a tree
to stone. In contrast, through dhikr, the aspirant achieves the mercy of God and the angels, purity of spirit,
and adornment of the soul. Progress becomes easy, and the seeker draws near to the Almighty, for God has
said, Remember Me and I shall remember you. (Quran 2:152).

This practice consists of simply remembering Allah, usually by repetion of His Name or qualities. The
principal effect of dhikr is to bring the heart back to awareness of God. During remembrance, the
remembrancer invokes the essential light of God. This light fills the heart, eventually returning the Sufi to the
reality of existence.

Quran says: To Allah belongs all the beautiful names, so call out to Him
with them (Surat al-Araaf verse 180).

Sama means "listening", while dhikr means "remembrance". These rituals often includes singing, playing
instruments, dancing, recitation of poetry and prayers, wearing symbolic attire, and other rituals. It is a
particularly popular form of worship in the Chisti order of the Indian subcontinent.Dhikr and Sama' were
based on words attributed to the Prophet: "Whenever men gather together to invoke Allah, they are
surrounded by Angels, the Divine Favour envelops them, the Divine Glory (as-Sakinah) descends upon them,
and Allah remembers them in His assembly." The hospices became centres where lay people from the
countryside would gather together with the members of the order to obey the Quran's injunction to
remember God often.
This was done in the celebration of the Dhikr, which involved the communal rhythmic repetition of a phrase,
usually from the Quran, in which one of the names of God appears. Breath control and body movements were
also used as techniques to aid in achieving concentration and control over senses and imagination. The rosary
with 99 or 33 beads was used since the 8th century as an aid to counting the many repetitions (it entered
Christian Churches from Sufism via the Crusades). This concentrated meditation can lead to a mystical trance
and enlightenment which transforms man's whole being.

Sama' was first developed in the mid 9th century in Baghdad. It is another communal ritual practice, defined
as a concert of music, poetry recital, singing and dance, which leads the participants to a mystical experience
where they seem to hear the music of the heavenly spheres and the voice of God Himself. It attunes the heart
to communion with God and is thought to remove all veils hiding God from man's inner vision. Drugs were
used by some as an aid to reaching the ecstatic state, coffee by the Shadiliya in the 14th century. It often
involves prayer, song and dance.

The origination of Sama is credited to Rumi, Sufi master and creator of the Mevlevis. The story of the creation
of this unique form of dhikr is that Rumi was walking through the town marketplace one day when he heard
the rhythmic hammering of the goldbeaters. It is believed that Rumi heard the dhikr, "la ilaha ilallah" or in
English, "no god but Allah" in the apprentices beating of the gold and so entranced in happiness he stretched
out both of his arms and started spinning in a circle (sufi whirling). With that the practice of Sama and
the dervishes of the Mevlevi order were born. The sama' has roots in Persian and Turkish culture, and is
associated with oriental traditions.

Abu Sa`id, (357 A.H.) (967 c.e.) was born in Mayhana, a town near Sarakhs, which today is in the former
Soviet Republic of Turkmenistan, bordering Iran. He is noted for establishing a rule for conduct in the
khanaqah and also for the introduction of music (sama'), poetry and dance, as part of the Sufi collective
devotional ritual of dhikr.

The Sama represents a mystical journey of man's spiritual ascent through mind and love to perfection.
Turning towards the truth, the follower grows through love, deserts his ego, finds the truth and arrives at
perfection. He then returns from this spiritual journey as a man who has reached maturity and a greater
perfection, so as to love and to be of service to the whole of creation. Rumi has said in reference to Sama', "For
them it is the Sama' of this world and the other. Even more for the circle of dancers within the Sama' who turn
and have in their midst, their own Ka'aba." This relates Sama' to the pilgrimage to Mecca, in that both are
intended to bring all who are involved closer to God.

Sama emphasizes singing, but also includes the playing of instruments, particularly for introductions and
accompaniments. However, only instruments which are symbolic and not considered profane are used. The
most common of these are the tambourine, bells, and flute. It often includes the singing of hymns,
called qawl and bayt. Poetry is often included in the ceremony as well, because while it is inadequate by itself,
it works together with aid in spiritual contemplation. Any poetry, even the erotic, can be applied to God, and
thus used for this ceremony. However, the listener's heart must first be pure, or the dancing components of
sama' will make these people full of lust instead of love for God. Additionally, being in love with a person
rather than with God clouds a person's mind when they are listening to erotic poetry. Verses from the Qur'an
are never used for this purpose, and not only because their meanings are said to be somewhat dulled through
repetition. Qur'anic verses are never to be set to meditation, nor ornamented or improvised in any way, so
that they remain sacred texts.

Sama is a means of meditating on God through focusing on melodies and dancing. It brings out a person's love
of God, purifies the soul, and is a way of finding God. This practice is said to reveal what is already in one's
heart, rather than creating emotions. All of a person's doubt disappears, and the heart and soul can
communicate directly with God.The immediate goal of sama' is to reach wajd, which is a trance-like state of
ecstasy. Physically, this state may include various and unexpected movements, agitation, and all types of
dancing. Another state that people hope to reach through sama' is khamra, which means "spiritual
drunkenness". Ultimately, people hope to achieve the unveiling of mysteries and gain spiritual knowledge
through wajd. Sometimes, the experience of wajd becomes so strong that fainting or even, in extreme
circumstances, death, occurs.

Participants in sama are expected to remain silent and still, and controlled throughout the ceremony, unless
wajd occurs. This way, a higher degree of spiritual contemplation can be reached. Participants must restrain
themselves from movement and crying until they reach a point in which they can no longer hold back. At this
point, wajd can be reached. It is essential that the trance-like experience of wajd be genuine and not faked for
any reason. Also, people must maintain proper intent and actions must be present throughout the sama';
otherwise, they cannot experience the ceremony's intended positive effects.

Muslims are divided into two groups regarding the issue of sama and the use of music in general: 1)
Advocates, which are most Sufis and other mystics, and 2) Opponents.

Advocates view chants as a required practice for spiritual growth. Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali was a firm advocate
for music, and believed that wajd aroused passionate love for God Al-Ghazzali wrote a chapter entitled
"Concerning Music and Dancing as Aids to the Religious Life", where he emphasized how the practices of
music and dance are beneficial to Muslims, as long as their hearts are pure before engaging in these practices.

Opponents find music as an Innovation bidah and associated with infidelity. They compare the physical
sensations experienced by a person in the state of wajd to a state of physical drunkenness, and therefore do
not condone it.

Due to differences in culture between Muslim groups, participation in musical performance is condoned in
some and considered questionable in others. Meditation and Sufi practices are allowed in Islam as long as
they are within the limits of the Shari'ah (Islamic law). All castes can participate, although there is debate
between Sufis and legalists about whether novice Sufis and ones more advanced in their faith are capable of
achieving the same positive results from sama'. The same debate exists for the young, and whether they are
capable of overcoming their lust and clearing their hearts to worship God.

To Sufis, Sufism involves the study and ritual purification of traits deemed reprehensible while
adding praiseworthy traits. This is independent of whether or not this process of religious cleansing
and purifying leads to esoteric knowledge of God. This can be conceived in terms of two basic types
of law (fiqh), an outer law concerned with actions, and an inner law concerned with one's own
actions and qualities. The outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage,
judicial rulings, and criminal lawwhat is often referred to, broadly, as qanun. The inner law of
Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and evil
traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good character.

The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque and taught a small band of disciples. The extent to
which Sufism was influenced by Buddhist and Hindu mysticism, and by the example of Christian
hermits and monks, is disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on God quickly led to the belief
that by quelling the self and through loving ardor for God it is possible to maintain a union with the
divine in which the human self melts away.

Devotional practices
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an acknowledged and authorized
master of the Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker's
impediments to knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker a
course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The consensus among Sufi scholars is that
the seeker cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of these
practices alone and without formal authorization.

Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five
prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be
firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunna
prayers"). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous Hadith
Qudsi:

My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that which I have made obligatory for
him. My servant never ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him.
Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through which he sees, his
hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he walks.

It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (Aqidah), and to embrace with certainty its
tenets. The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of
company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self. (The way
in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed
in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good
deeds which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride,
arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways
later, rather than immediately, here and now).

Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a means for gaining knowledge. The traditional
scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state
generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead
the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper
guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more
important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all habits through
the practice of (in the words of Imam Al-Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.Magic
has also been a part of Sufi practice, notably in India. The most famous of all Sufis, Mansur Al-
Hallaj (d. 922), visited Sindh in order to study "Indian Magic", where he accepted Hindu ideas
of cosmogony and divine descent and also seems to have believed in the Transmigration of the soul.
The practice of magic intensified during the declining years of Sufism in India when the Sufi orders
grew steadily in wealth and in political influence while their spirituality gradually declined and they
concentrated on Saint worship, miracle working, magic and superstition.

Muraqaba
Meditation (Muraqabah)
Experience over the centuries has shown that muraqabah leads to all stages of perfection. For this
reason, although shaykhs of our order also perform dhikr (recitations evoking remembrance of God),
durud (supplications for blessings upon the Prophet SAW), and recitations, muraqabah is the most
important component of their inner work.

The origin of muraqabah lies in the saying of the Prophet Muhammad SAW, Adore Allah as if you are
seeing Him, and if you do not see Him, know that He is seeing you. Literally, muraqabah means to
wait and to guarantee or protect. When used as a Sufi technical term, the meaning of muraqabah is to
detach oneself from worldly pursuits for a period of time with the intention of nurturing the spiritual
guidance that the seeker has received from his shaykh. Another way of putting it is that in a human
beings inner being there are subtle centers of consciousness. If, after receiving guidance, one takes
time from worldly pursuits to focus on these subtle centers, then that is meditation. Meditation leads
to gnosis and paves the path to nearness with God. When the seeker detaches him or herself from
other pursuits and sits and waits for blessings, sooner or later the seeker begins to feel some kind of
activity in the heart, sometimes in the form of heat, sometimes as movement, and at other times as a
tingling sensation. The seeker must not focus on the spiritual form or color of the heart, because the
attention must be directed towards the Divine Essence, who is beyond all qualities. It is necessary to
sit in meditation for at least thirty to forty-five minutes and no particular sitting posture is required. In
the beginning, there is a rush of thoughts in the seekers mind; this is no cause for concern. Hazrat
used to say that we are not trying to concentrate our thoughts, as is the practice in yoga and other
spiritual techniques. We are trying to awaken the heart.
Once the heart is awakened, thoughts gradually subside. Eventually the seeker experiences a drifting
and enters a different dimension. There is a difference between this drifting and sleep. Drifting is the
shadow of annihilation. Hazrat Shaykh Ahmad Faruqi Sirhindi (r.a) said, He comes and He takes you
away. In sleep, the soul is inclined towards the lower realm and takes refuge in the heart. In the
state of drifting the soul is inclined towards the higher realm and takes refuge in the self. When the
seeker is in the state of drifting, the seeker is not aware of individual being. In this state the seeker
can also experience visions (kashf). As it is possible for the seeker to have thought projections, no
importance should be attached to these experiences. Hazrat Shaykh Ahmad Faruqi Sirhindi (r.a.) said,
These experiences are simply there to please the seekers heart. The final destination lies ahead.

Hazrat Alauddin Attar (r.a.) (d. 1400) said that meditation is better than the practice of the
remembrance of negation and affirmation. Through meditation it becomes possible to attain the
station of vice-regency of God in the dominion of the physical world and the world of spirit.

The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices of meditation attested in many faith
communities. The word muraqaba is derived from the same root (r-q-b) occurring as one of the
99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqb, meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4:1 of
the Qur'an. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires
knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is ever vigilant.

While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:

He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all
preoccupation and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his
full consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilah anta maqsd wa-
ridka matlbmy God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". Then he
brings to his heart the Name of the EssenceAllhand as it courses through his heart he
remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains
aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of
his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him,
for if you do not see Him, He sees you". And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most
favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be".

Visitation

Many devotees of a f saint make frequent visits to his shrine to perform such rituals as special prayers to the saint,

circumambulation of his tomb, and kissing its cloth cover. Some of them remain there for a longer period. The main
aim of their visit, as with ordinary supplication (du), is to ask for divine blessing in general, as well as for more
specific benefits such as success in business or study, or recovery from an illness. They may make a vow (nadhr) to
give a suitable donation to the saint if their wishes are satisfactorily realized; many of the items belonging to the

shrine are donations from supplicants. If they break the vow and give nothing to the saint as a reward, it is presumed

that there will be divine retribution for their negligence.

Visits to some shrines can be regarded as a substitute for the pilgrimage to Mecca. Indeed, a visit to the shrine of
Sayyid al-Badaw has been called the pauper's ajj. The shrine of al-Shdhil (d. 1465), the founder of the
widespread Shdhilyah f order, is in a town on the Red Sea coast in southern Egypt. It is said that five visits to his
shrine have an effect similar to that of one ajj. It is noteworthy, however, that the visit is not called ajj but ziyrah.
Visitors apparently make an essential distinction between the two, even though they may think that repeated visits to
a shrine may give them almost the same benefits as the pilgrimage to Mecca. In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional
practices that have achieved currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common
practice is to visit or make pilgrimages to the tombs of saints, great scholars, and righteous people.
This is a particularly common practice in South Asia, where famous tombs include those of Khoja
Afq, near Kashgar, in China; Lal Shahbaz Qalander, in Sindh,Ali Hajwari in Lahore Bawaldin Zikrya
in Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India, and Shah
Jalal in Sylhet, Bangladesh. Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious
visitation is the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the
Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid (which
is usually televised on Moroccan National television). The purpose of such visitations is usually two-
fold, first and foremost the aim is to receive spiritual guidance and blessings from the Saint who
rests in the shrine, which helps the Seeker in his or her own path towards enlightenment. Secondly,
the Saint is also approached for intercession in prayers, be it in worldly matters or religious.

Ritual Activities.

The f saint's shrine is one of the focal points of rituals carried out not only by the members of the f order that

has a special spiritual relationship with the saint but also by common Muslims who simply admire the mystical power
of the saint and venerate him. There are three important types of ritual: visiting the shrine, dhikr rituals conducted

there, and the annual festival of the saint.

Annual festival.

The yearly celebration in honor of a saint has several different names in Arab countries. In Egypt it is called a mawlid;

the word mawsim (season, i.e., for celebrating a saint) is used in the case of a marabout in Morocco as well as for the

festival of the prophet Moses in Palestine. Members of the f orders in Sudan hold annual celebrations of their
founders called lyah in commemoration not of their birthdays but of the anniversaries of their deaths. These

festivals vary greatly in the way in which they are held, the number of participants, and the rituals performed; we will

concentrate on the Egyptian cases.

Unlike for the mawlid of the Prophet, whose tomb is in Medina, Egyptian mawlid feasts for the f or other saints are

celebrated in and around their shrines. The time when these rites are held is an interesting issue. Because the
word mawlid originally meant time and place of birth, the date of the celebration would appear to be fixed by the

birthday of the saint concerned. Many mawlids for famous holy people, including the Prophet and his family, do occur

on or about the days of their birth according to the Islamic lunar calendar, although the feasts themselves generally
start several days or weeks before the birthday: the Prophet's mawlid is on 12 Rab al-Awwal, usayn's on a

Wednesday in the latter half of Rab al-Thn, Zaynab's on the middle Wednesday of Rajab, and Shfi's on the
middle Thursday of Shabn. By contrast, the dates of some mawlids are fixed according to the solar calendar and

may change according to historical and social conditions. The mawlid of Amad al-Badaw is a typical case.

In the early nineteenth century there were three feasts in honor of al- Badaw. The largest of these was held a month

after the summer solstice, which was then the slack season for the peasants in the area. In the second or third
decade of the twentieth century, the date of this mawlid was moved to the latter half of October. The development of

the irrigation system in the intervening period had resulted in fundamental changes in the annual agricultural cycle of

the Nile Delta. Thus October in the Gregorian calendar became the slack season for the peasants, many of whom
were enthusiastic devotees of the saint. The date of the great mawlid of Sayyid al- Badaw, therefore, is based not on

his actual birthday but on the convenience of his devotees.

The space around the shrine of the saint being celebrated naturally becomes a center for the feast and is crowded

with visitors to the tomb. There are a number of stands for food and drinks, amusements, and sideshows. Clusters of
tents are pitched where fs conduct dhikr rituals during the feast days. The number of visitors hoping to receive

divine blessing increases remarkably during this period.

In addition to the dhikr rituals, fs of various orders take part in other events during the feast. Members of some

orders used to demonstrate their miraculous powers in front of crowds in performances involving eating live serpents

or piercing their bodies with spikes. This kind of bizarre performance has often been criticized for deviation from

orthodox belief and proper Sufism. Recently they have tended to disappear, especially in the large cities.

The attractions of a festival also include a procession (mawkib or zaffah) for which various f orders assemble,

forming lines and marching around the town or village. They perform dhikr and other rituals in their own styles, as a

demonstration to the local people. The saint's shrine is often the starting point and/or the destination of these

processions.
Realizations on the Path

The investigations of those who travel the Sufis path are practical and personal, not theoretical, and

the resulting realizations are difficult to convey in words.

Among students first realizations is the awareness of a transcendental dimension. Glimpsing aspects

of the universe that are inaccessible to intellect, they receive a taste of something beyond material

phenomena. A new vision of reality begins to influence their lives and thoughts.

As students awaken the heart and other lataif (subtle centers of consciousness), their understanding

of self deepens. The rational mind expands, and seekers acquire the illumination necessary for the

possibility of seeing all aspects of existence in proper perspective.

Students who continue to do the practices diligently may gain personal experience of the following

assertions:

The phenomenal world of matter and individual consciousness is only a partial reality.

The human being has a self other than the empirical self: the eternal self.

One can have direct experience of the Divine through a carefully nurtured interior which is

superior to reason and intellect alone.

Through faithfully pursuing a discipline with an authorized guide, one can identify ones limited

self with the true self.

Beyond a certain point, realizations become inseparable from a persons way of being. It becomes

clear to students that human beings are not merely slaves to instinct, but have an urge to express

higher values and a will capable of controlling their actions. As students begin to see the Divine

Presence in everything, they become better able to grasp the meaning of human life both of their

personal lives, and of the collective destiny of humanity. Narrow, ego-centered points of view give way

to a broader perspective, encouraging students to make every thought, word, and act a form of

ibddah (worship) and khidmah (service). They approach a state of consciously desiring good, even in

situations involving no personal advantage or external pressure.

Knowing with certainty that everything is governed by the will of God, seekers learn to depend on

God, to be patient and accepting. Through the practices they may also receive confirmation that there

is life after death. As they recognize that this world is preparation for the next, they are further

inspired to adopt a more pious, virtuous lifestyle.

Sufism is a journey from the inner to the outer. Through realizing the self, the seeker realizes God.

Through realizing God, the seeker becomes selfless. Step by step, his or her former being becomes

transformed, until by the grace of God he or she may attain fana and baqa: the experience of unity,

of being annihilated or consumed in the Divine, of abiding in and with the Almighty.

The experience of unity is not the final realization of the Sufi journey. Those who attain this stage

return from it to assist their fellow beings. They are with God and in this world simultaneously,

translating the nearness that they feel to the Creator into service to creation. They keep themselves

attuned, ready to fulfill the duties and responsibilities that God presents in day-to-day life. The world

is like a workshop run by God, and the Sufi at the highest stage of realization is a worker, striving to

fill his or her role in the best way possible, relying always on the mercy and blessings of God.
 Sufi Tariqas: Pathways to the
Divine.

Tariqa is a way or path, is the term for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the
mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking the ultimate
truth (haqiqah ).

Sufi orders or tariqas represent one of the most important forms of personal piety and social
organization in the Islamic world. The term tariqa is used for both the social organization and
the special devotional exercises that are the basis of the order's ritual and structure. As a result,
the Sufi orders or tariqas include a broad spectrum of activities in Muslim history and society.

Sufis gradually became important figures in the religious life of the general population. People
began to gather around thems as groups of followers who were identified and bound together
by the Sheikh.

A tariqa has a Sheikh or Murshid (guide) who plays the role of a leader or spiritual director.
The members or followers of a tariqa are known as Mureedin (singular Mureed), meaning
"desirous", desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God.

The orders are not restricted to particular classes, although the orders in which the educated
urban elite participated often had different perspectives from the orders that reflected a more
broadly based popular piety, and specific practices and approaches varied from region to
region. Tarqas have silsilas (chain, lineage of Sheikhs). Almost all orders except
the Naqshbandi order claim a silsila that leads back to Muhammad through Al.
The Naqshbandi Silsila goes back to Abu Bakr the first Caliph of Sunni Islam.
Sufi orders began to form in the 12th and 13th centuries centering around a master founder
and stressing companionship (Suhbah or fellowship) as essential to the Sufi spiritual path.

This was the time of the terrible Mongol invasions when the Abassid Caliphate in Bagdad was
overthrown. Sufism was one of the forces that helped prevent the downfall of Islam. It helped
convert the conquerors and had a stabilising influence on the community during those troubled
times. This period was actually Sufism's golden age. Sufi orders were characterized by central
prescribed rituals, which involved regular meetings for recitations of prayers, poems, and
selections from the Quran. These meetings were usually described as acts of remembering
God or dhikr. In addition, daily devotional exercises for the followers were also set, as were
other activities of special meditation, asceticism, and devotion. Some of the special prayers of
early Sufis became widely used, while the structure and format of the ritual was the distinctive
character provided by the individual who established the tariqas.

In its first stages Sufism had been the prerogative of a limited spiritual elite. From the twelfth
century onwards it succeeded in involving the Muslim masses on a large scale in its network of
orders. Sufi hospices, (Zawiyas in Arabic, Khanagas in Iranian, Ribat in the Maghreb and Tekkes
in Turkish) were founded all over the Muslim world from Morocco to Central Asia. The Sheikh of
each order, a successor of the original founder, presided over the hospice. In this centre he
taught his disciples (Mureeds) and performed with them the Sufi rituals of Dhikr and Sama.

There was an elaborate initiation ritual for the disciple when he was admitted into full
membership (usually after three years). In this ceremony he received from the Sheikh a special
cloak (Khirqa) which symbolised poverty and devotion to God. Every Mureed (disciple), on
entering the tariqa, gets his course of daily recitations, authorized by his murshid (awrd,
usually to be recited before or after the pre-dawn prayer, after the afternoon prayer and after
the evening prayer). Usually these recitations are extensive and time-consuming, for example,
the awrad may consist of reciting a certain formula 99, 500 or 1000 times a day. One must
also be in a state of ritual purity (as one is for the obligatory prayers to perform them while
facing Mecca). The recitations change as a student (Mureed) moves from a mere initiate to
other Sufi degrees. Sufis had no rule of celibacy and most were married. In most cases
the Sheikh nominates successor (Khalifa) during his lifetime, who will take over the order. In
rare cases, if the sheikh dies without naming a Khalifa, the students of the tariqa elect another
spiritual leader by vote. In some groups it is customary for the khalifa to be the son of the
Sheikh, although in other groups the khalifa and the Shiekh are not normally relatives. In yet
other orders a successor may be identified through the spiritual dreams of its members.

The orders received endowments from sympathetic rulers and rich citizens and some eventually
became fabulously wealthy. Sufi orders had an extensive missionary outreach into Africa and
into Southeast Asia where they are still very influential.

Each order developed its own specific set of techniques for its Dhikr and Sama, used by its
members to attain to the ecstatic state. These rituals also had a social function, helping to unify
people from widely varying backgrounds into a spiritual brotherhood.

The tariqas were thus a unifying force in society, drawing members from all social classes to
their Dhikr and Sama ceremonies as well as to their joyous celebrations of the anniversaries of
the deaths of their founder, Urs. They provided the masses with a spiritual and emotional
dimension to religion which the hair splitting legalists could not supply. The orders have taken a
variety of forms throughout the Islamic world. These range from the simple preservation of
the tariqa as a set of devotional exercises to vast interregional organizations with carefully
defined structures. The orders also include the short-lived organizations that developed around
particular individuals and more long-lasting structures with institutional coherence.

The orders also established trade and craft guilds and provided hospices for travellers and
merchants which were located along the great trade routes (such as the famous silk road).
Between the 13th and the 18th century most Muslims belonged to some Sufi Tariqah.

These groups were distinct from the ulema (the board of officially mandated scholars), and
often acted as informal missionaries of Islam. These mystics, or Sufis, sometimes came into
conflict with authorities in the Islamic community and provided an alternative to the more
legalistic orientation of many of the ulam (scholars). However, they provided accepted
avenues for emotional expressions of faith, and the Tariqas spread to all corners of the Muslim
world, and often exercised a degree of political influence inordinate to their size (take for
example the influence that the Sheikhs of the Safavid had over the armies of Tamerlane, or the
missionary work of Ali-Shir Nava'i in Turkistanamong the Mongol and Tatar people). The most
popular tariqa in the West is the Mevlevi Order, named after Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi .
The four main tariqas in South Asia are: theNaqshbandi Order, named after Baha-ud-Din
Naqshband Bukhari; the Qadiri Order, named after `Abd al-Qdir al-Jilani; the Chishti Order,
named after Khawaja Mawdood Chisti while Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti is the most famous
Sheikh; the Suhrawardi Order, named after Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi. Others can be offshoots
of a tariqa.

Silsila-e-Naqshbandiya :

The Naqshbandiya order stems from the Silsila Khwajagan, which originally developed in
Turkestan.

The Naqshbandiya tariqa named after Hadrat Shah Baha al-Din Naqshband (d.1318-1389
C.E.), a very prominent Sufi Sheikh who continued the tradition of making the spiritual teachings
and practices of Sufism more applicable to the changing times in which he lived,was founded in
Central Asia in the 13th Century in an attempt to defend Islam against the ravages of the Mongol
invasions. Insistence on rigid adherence to Shariat and nurturing love for Prophet was the
essence of this order that established its hold in India under the patronage of Mughal rulers, as
its founder was their ancestral Pir (Spiritual guide). The conquest of India by Babur in 1526
gave considerable impetus to the Naqshbandiya order. It is widely active throughout the world
today. The Naqshbandis tried to control the political rulers so as to ensure that they
implemented God's will. They were politically and culturally active, the great poet Mir Dad
(d.1785) belonged to this order. They were also connected to trade and crafts guilds and held
political power in the 15th century Central Asia and Mughal India. A Naqshbandiya branch, the
Khaltawiyah, had an important part in efforts to modernise the Ottoman Empire during the 18th
and 19th centuries.

The Naqshbandiya developed mainly as an urban order with close links to the orthodox
hierarchy. They recite their Dhikr silently, ban music and dance, and prefer contemplation to
ecstasy. Their middle way between extreme asceticism and extreme antinomianism seemed
acceptable to the orthodox hierarchy. They have been involved in underground movements
against Soviet rule in Central Asia and supported the Afghan Mujahedin against the Russians.

In India, during the later years of Akbars reign, the Naqshbandi order was introduced by Khwaja
Mohhammad Baqi Billah Berang. It was the most cherished spiritual order of the Turks,
particularly the descendants of Timur and Babur. Though, the Sufis of this order were lying low
during the period of Akbar, Khalifa Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624), the favourite disciple of
Baqi Billah achieved increasing importance and popularised this order when Akbar became bed
ridden. Baqi Billah, nicknamed him as Mujaddid (Reformer of Islam for the second millenium).

It attained a position of importance in the sixteenth century. They propounded the unity of
phenomenal world. Besides, this tariqa did not believe in the Chisti attitude of keeping aloof
from politics. They opposed the religious experiments of Akbar, as they feared that in this
process Islam might lose its individuality. The Muslims should follow their religion, and the
Hindus theirs, was what they stood for.

The designation of the Naqshbandiya Golden Chain has changed from century to century. From
the time of Hadrat Abu Bakr as-Siddiq to the time of Hadrat Bayazid al-Bistami it was called as
Siddiqiyya. From the time of Bayazid al-Bistami to the time of Sayyadina Abdul Khaliq al-
Ghujdawani it was called at-Tayfuriyya. From the time of Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani to the
time of Hadrat Shah Naqshband it was called the Khwajaganiyya.

From the time of Hadrat Shah Naqshband through the time of Sayyadina Ubaidullah al-Ahrar
and Sayyidina Ahmad Faruqi it was called Naqshbandiya.

Naqshbandiya means to tie the Naqsh very well. The Naqsh is the perfect engraving of Allah's
Name in the heart of the Mureed .

Silsila-e-Qadiriya :

Qadiriya is one of the oldest Sufi tariqas. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani, a native of
the Iranian province of Jilan. Sheikh Abd al-Qadir Jilani, born in 1077 C.E., mastered the
scholarly disciplines of Islam before dedicating himself to austerities and spiritual studies as a
young man. Eventually he settled in Baghdad (then the capital of the Muslim world), where his
lectures routinely drew listeners by the thousands.

He became an important public figure, overseeing charitable trusts, issuing judicial decisions,
and addressing audiences that included high government officials. Themes he stressed
included virtue, ethical conduct and self-discipline. The popularity of his teachings continued
after his death in 1166, inspiring his followers and subsequent generations of disciples to
establish the Qadiri order.

His contribution and renown in the sciences of Sufism and Sharia was so immense that he
became known as the spiritual pole of his time, al-Gauth al Azam (the Supreme Helper). His
writings were similar to those of al-Ghazali in that they dealt with both the fundamentals of Islam
and the mystical experience of Sufism. By the end of the fifteenth century the Qadiriyya had
distinct branches and had spread to Morocco, Spain, Turkey, India, Ethiopia, Somalia, and
present-day Mali. Established Sufi sheikhs often adopted the Qadiriyya tradition without
abandoning leadership of their local communities. During the Safavid rule of Baghdad, from
1508 to 1534, the shaykh of the Qadiriyya was appointed chief Sufi of Baghdad and the
surrounding lands. Shortly after the Ottoman Turks conquered Baghdad in 1534, Suleiman the
Magnificent commissioned a dome to be built on the tomb of Gilani, establishing the Qadiriyya
as his main allies in Iraq.

Khwaja Abdul Alla, a sheikh of the Qadiriyya and a descendant of Muhammed, is reported to
have entered China in 1674 and traveled the country preaching until his death in 1689. One of
Abdul Alla's students, Qi Jingyi Hilal al-Din, is said to have permanently rooted Qadiri Sufism in
China. He was buried in Linxia City, which became the center of the Qadiriyya in China. By the
seventeenth century, the Qadiriyya had reached Ottoman-occupied areas of Europe.

The Order is the most widespread of the Sufi Orders in the Islamic world and can be found in
Afghanistan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Turkey, the Balkans, China, as well as much of the
East and West Africa, like Morocco.There are even small groups in Europe and the Americas.
The famous traveller and writer Isabelle Eberhardt also belonged to the Qadiri order. Qadiri was
probably the first notable saint of this order to enter India, but it was Syed Gilani who in late
fifteenth century organized it in an effective manner. Its influence is extensively among the
Muslims of south India.

Some of the saints of this order were inclined towards orthodoxy and exotic aspects of religion,
and others leaned towards its liberal and esoteric aspects.
Silsila-e-Chishtiya:

The Chishti Order is a Sufi order within the mystic branches of Islam which was founded in
Chisht, a small town near Herat, about 930 C.E. The Chishti Order is known for its emphasis on
love, tolerance, and openness.

The order was founded by Abu Ishaq Shami who belonged to Syria. He introduced the idea of
Sufism in the town of Chisht, Western Afghanistan. Before returning to Syria, Hazrat Shami
initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local Aamir, Abu Ahmad Abdal (d. 966). Under
the leadership of Abu Ahmads descendants, the Chishtiya as they are also known, flourished
as a regional mystical order.

Four Islamic mystics from Afghanistan namely Khwaja Moinuddin(d. 1233 in Ajmer),
Qutbuddin(d. 1236 in Delhi),Hazrat Nizamuddin (d.1335 in Delhi) and Khwaja Fariduddin
(d.1265 in Pattan now in Pakistan) accompanied the Islamic invaders in India.The most famous
of the Chishti saints is Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti (popularly known as Garib Nawaz meaning
'Benefactor of the Poor') who settled in Ajmer, India. The impact of Chisti order is visible even in
small villages of Indian subcontinent. He oversaw the growth of the order in the 13th century as
Islamic religious laws were canonized. Other famous saints of the Chishti Order are Qutbuddin
Bakhtiar Kaki , Alauddin Ali Ahmed Sabir Kalyari, Mohammed Badesha Qadri, and Ashraf
Jahangir Semnani. Radiating from Delhi under Nizamuddin and following the trail of Muhammad
ibn Tughlaq towards the south, the Chistiya spread its roots all across India

The silsilas Sabiriya, Nizamiya and Ashrafiya are the branches of Chistiya Silsila.

Chishti Hazrat Inayat Khan (18821927) was the first to bring the Sufi path to the West, arriving
in America in 1910 and later settling near Paris, France. His approach exemplified the tolerance
and openness of the Chishti Order, following a custom began by Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti of
initiating and training disciples regardless of religious affiliation and which continued through
Nizamuddin Auliya and Sheikh ul-Mashaikh Kalimullah Jehanabadi. All his teaching was given
in English, and 12 volumes of his discourses on topics related to the spiritual path are still
available from American, European, and Indian sources. Initiates of his form of Sufi practice
now number in the several thousands all over the world.

A number of Chishti family members are now living in Pakpattan and Bahawal Nagar, North of
Punjab, Pakistan.

The extraordinary success of the Chisti order in India was due to the fact that it knew better how
to adapt itself to the usages and customs of the country in which it had copie to settle and it was
also due to the personality of its early leaders. Some of the practices of the Chisti saints come
close to those of Hinduism: control on breathing, meditation, and ascetic exercises performed
with the head on the ground while the legs are tied to the roof or the branch of a tree.
A section of Sufis under Chistiya order was not against adjustment with Hindu saints of Bhakti
cult and used even Hindi language for Islamic devotional songs. However, the orthodox Ulama
with royal support forced the Sufis to raise the slogan of "back to Shariat" Even though Ulama
had certain differences with Sufis over theological and mystic issues, Shariat remained a
cementing force between them. Later both the Islamist groups joined together to woo the rulers
with a view to furthering their self-seeking interest.

Silsila al-Suhrawardiya:

The Suhrawardi tariqa was initiated by Sheikh Najib al-Din Abd'al-Qahir [d.1168 CE] during the
12th century. This sufi order is named the Suhrawardiya tariqa because the founder was born in
Suhrawardinagar in Jibal province in Iran . Najib al-Din Abd'al-Qahir was a Mureed of Ahmad
Ghazali.

Later the Order spread into India through Hazrat Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari and Hazrat
Baha-ud-din Zakariya of Multan. Suharawardiya order of Sufism became popular in Bengal.

After the death of Najib al-Din, the tariqa was substantially developed by his nephew, the hugely
influential Sahib al-Din Abu Hafs Umar ibn Abd'allah Suhrawardi [1234 CE], who is often said to
be the real founder of the order.

The rulers of Persia had a special respect for him. The Persian poet, Shayh Sa'di, also was
his mureed .The principal role in the formation of a conservative new piety and in the initiation
of urban commercial and vocational groups into mysticism was played by the Suhrawardiya
silsila. The Suhrawardiya is a strictly Sunni order, guided by Shafi`i madhab. The Suhrawardiya
trace their spiritual genealogy to Hazrat Ali ibn Abi Talib.

Sheikh Shihab ad-din Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi, took recourse to active life, renounced
reclusion and excessive fasting, maintained close contacts with the authorities, and undertook
diplomatic missions and political settlement of conflicts. His luxurious cloister in Baghdad, with
gardens and bath houses, was specially built for him by Caliph, on whose behalf Abu Hafs
travelled as an ambassador to the Ayyubid Sultan Malik al-Adil I of Egypt, to Khwarezm-Shah
Muhammad of Bukhara and to Kaiqubad I, the Seljuk ruler of Konya.
Shaikh Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi, the author of Awarif al-Maarif, directed his disciples
Hazrat Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari & Shaikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya (1182-1262 AD) to make
Multan the center of his activity. Iltutmish appointed him as "Sheikhul Islam" after the invasion of
Multan and topple its ruler, Qabacha. During the Mongol invasion he became the peace
negotiotor between invaders and muslim army.

Another Suharwardi, Hazrat Fakharuddin Iraqi buried at Konya, Turkey, received formal
initiation into the Sufi way under Sheikh Baha'uddin Zakariya , Hazrat Fakharuddin Iraqi lived in
Multan for 25 years as one of the Suhrawardis, composing poetry. As Sheikh Baha'uddin was
dying, he named Hazrat Fakhruddin 'Iraqi to be his successor.

After the death of Shaikh Ruknuddin the Suhrawardiya silsila declined in Multan but became
popular in other provinces like Uch, Gujarat, Punjab, Kashmir and even Delhi. Suharawardiya
order of Sufism became popular in Bengal with the arrival of Sufis to Maner Sharif. Noted Sufis of
the order in Bihar and Bengal include Makhdoom Yahya Maneri, Makhdoom Shahabuddin Pir
Jagjot, Makhdoom Salah Darwesh Maneri and others. Maner Sharif is still considered a center of the
Suhrawardiya order.

It was popularised and revitalized by Hazrat Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari known as Makhdum
Jahaniyan, the world traveler. He was puritan and strongly objected the Hindu influences to
Muslim social and religious practices.

Another contemporary mystic who is worthy of mention was Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Manairi
(d. 1380 AD). He belonged to the Firdausia order, a branch of Suhrawardiya. He compiled
several books, i.e. Fawaid al-Mureedin, Irshadat al-Talibin,Rahat al-Qulub, etc.

The Mevlevi Tariqa :

The Mevlevi Order, or the Mevlevilik or Mevleviye a Sufi order founded in Konya (in present-day
Turkey) by the followers of Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi, a 13th century Persian poet,
Islamic jurist, and theologian. They are also known as the Whirling Dervishes due to their
famous practice of whirling as a form of dhikr (remembrance of God). Dervish is a common term
for an initiate of the Sufi path; the whirling is part of the formal Sama ceremony and the
participants are properly known as semazens.
The Mevlevi was founded in 1273 by Rumi's followers after his death, particularly by his
successor Hsamettin elebi who decided to build a mausoleum for Mevlna, and then
Mevlna's son, Sultan Veled Celebi (or Chelebi, meaning fully initiated). He was an
accomplished Sufi mystic with great organizing talents. His personal efforts were continued by
his successor Ulu Arif elebi.

The Mevlevi believe in performing their dhikr in the form of a dance and music ceremony called
the Sama, which involves the whirling from which the order acquired its nickname. The Sama
represents a mystical journey of man's spiritual ascent through mind and love to Perfect.
Turning towards the truth, the follower grows through love, deserts his ego, finds the truth and
arrives at the Perfect. He then returns from this spiritual journey as a man who has reached
maturity and a greater perfection, so as to love and to be of service to the whole of creation.

Rumi has said in reference to Sama, For them it is the Sama of this world and the other. Even
more for the circle of dancers within the Sama Who turn and have in their midst, their own
Ka'aba. , and what he is saying is that when, like in Mecca you have come closer to God,
likewise when you perform Sama you are also closer to God. Rumi says, dance until the
dancer dissapears.

Silsila-e-Rehmaniya:

The Rehmani Silsila was founded by Hazrat Maulana Fazl-E-Rehman Gujmuradabadi (1208-
1313 H.). He was the Gaus, Kutub, Imam, Mujaddid of his time and was followed and loved by
evry one. He is one of the most repected Auliya. He was the mureed and Khalifa of Hazrat Arif-
E-Haq Khwaja Afaq Sahab. He had the khilafat from Qadri, Chisti, Naqshbandi and Soharwardi
Silsila. He also shares the blood realtion with all the above four silsilas . He also took the
knowledge of Silsila-e-Madariya from his Pir but his main intrest was in Silsila-e-Naqsbandiya.

Hazrat Shah Abdul Aziz Dhelvi, Haji Waris Pak, Mawlana Sayyid Shah Al'e Rasul Qadri, Barkati
Marahrawi, Sayyad Ahmad Barelwi,Maulana Fazl-e-Haq Khayrabadi, Maulana Mahboob Ali
Dehlawi, Mufti Sadr al-Din Aazurdah, Maulana Muhammad Ali, Sufi Ibrahim Rehmani are some
of the famous Sufis of this order. The Rehmani Silsila is deep rooted in the North India. They
claim to have healing powers and people go to their Khanqahs in hundreds to get solutions for
their problems. Hazrat Fazlu Mian is the present Sheikh of the Rehmani order. This silsila has
adapted itself to the lifestyle of the common people in the states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

Some other Silsilas:

THE JILALIYA - a Qadiri branch in the Maghreb, worship al-Jilani as a

supernatural being, combining Sufism with pre-Islamic ideas and practices.

THE TIJANIYA - founded by al-Tijani in 1781 in Fez, Morocco, extended the

borders of Islam towards Senegal and Nigeria and founded great kingdoms in West
Africa. They taught submission to the established government and their influence is still
an important factor in these countries where it is associated with conservative
businessmen.

THE DARAQUIYA - was founded in the early 19th century by Mulay 'Arabi
Darqawi (d. 1823) in Fez in Morocco. It was the driving force behind the Jihad
movement which achieved mass conversions to Islam in the mixed Berber-Arab-Negro
lands of the Sahel. It is influential today in Mali, Niger and Chad and still widespread
in Morocco.

THE KHALWATIYA - was founded in northwest Persia in the 13th century

and spread to the Caucasus and to Turkey. It was closely associated with the Ottoman
Sultans and had its headquarters in Istanbul. It has also spread to Egypt and Indonesia.
 THE RIFA'IYA - was founded in the marshlands of southern Iraq by al-Rifa'i
(d.1187). They stress poverty, abstinence and mortification of the flesh, and are also
known as the "Howling Dervishes" because of their loud recitation of the Dhikr. They
focus on dramatic ritual and bizarre feats such as fire eating, piercing themselves with
iron skewers and biting heads off live snakes. The order has a marked presence in Syria and
Egypt and plays a noticeable role in Kosovo and Albania. The Rifa'i Tariqa has a notable tendency to
blend worship styles or ideas with those of other orders that predominate in the local area. For
example, the group established by Ken'an Rifa'i in Istanbul reflects elements of the Mevlevi Order,
while more rural Turkish Rifa'is have sometimes absorbed significant influence from the
Alevi/Bektashi tradition.The order spread into Anatolia during the 14th and 15th Centuries and ibn
Battuta makes note of Rifa'i 'tekkes' in central Anatolia. The order however, began to make ground in
Turkey during the 17th to 19th centuries when tekkes began to be found in Istanbul the imperial
capital of the Ottoman Empire, from here the order spread into the Balkans (especially Bosnia (where
they are still present), modern day Albania and Kosovo. During the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II
the Rifa'i order gained even more popularity in Istanbul ranking alongside the Khalwati, Qadiri and
Naqshbandi orders as 'orthodox' Sufi orders.Current manifestations of the order in the United States
include the tekkes (lodges) in Staten Island and Toronto that were under the guidance of the late
Shaykh Xhemali Shehu (d.2004) of Prizren, Kosovo. Each of these orders is ultimately Turkish in
origin.

THE SANUSIYA - are a military brotherhood started by al-Sanusi (d.1837) in

Libya with political and military as well as religious aims. They fought against the
colonising Italians and the former King of Libya was head of the order.

THE NI'MATULAHIYA - developed first in Persia and then in India as a

specifically Isma'ili oriented Sufi order.
 THE AHMADIYA - is the leading order in Egypt with its centre at Tanta. It was
founded by Ahmad al-Badawi (d. 1276).

SARWARI - The Sarwari Qadiri Sufi tariqa was originated by Sultan Bahu in the
seventeenth century. The first part of its name, Sawari, derives from the fact that Sultan
Bahu claimed to have taken the oath of allegiance directly from Muhammad. The
second part, Qadiri, signifies that this order is essentially an offshoot of the Qadiri
order, because Sultan Bahu also claimed to have been a disciple of Abd al-Qadir al-
Jilani. The Sarwari Qadiri order is very similar in its over all philosophy to the Qadiri
order, but distinguishes itself in certain points, the most notable being Sultan Bahu's
stress and extensive reliance on the practice of 'Tasswar-e-Ism-Zaat' for this disciples.
The basic idea of this practice is to visualize the Arabic name of God, Allah as having
been written on the disciple's heart.

RAUSHANIYAH - This was founded by Ansari, a native of Jalandhar, during the

sixteenth century. He inspired his followers with the idea of ascetic self-denial. As their
activities disturbed peace in the Kabul-Indus region, they often came into conflict with
the Mughal emperors.

MADARIYYA - The Madariyya are members of a Sufi order popular in North

India, especially in Uttar Pradesh, the Mewat region, Bihar and Bengal, as well as
in Nepal and Bangladesh. Known for its syncretic aspects, lack of emphasis on external
religious practice and focus on internal dhikr, it was initiated by the Sufi saint
'Sayed Badiuddin Zinda Shah Madar' (d. 1434 CE), called "Qutb-ul-Madar", and is
centered on his shrine (dargah) at Makanpur, Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh.
Originating from the Tayfuriya order, as his Pir, spiritual teacher was Bayazid Tayfur
al-Bistami, Madariya reached its zenith in the late Mughal period between 15th to 17th
century, and gave rise to new orders as Madar's disciples spread through the northern
plains of India, into Bengal. As with most Sufi orders, its name Madariya has been
created by adding a Nisba to the name of its founder Madar, leading to Madariya,
sometimes spelled as Madariyya, though it is also referred as Tabaqatiya.
 MALAMATIYYA - The Arabic word malamatiya means those who are
blamed, and derives from the word malama(blame).This sufi group flourished in
Samanid Iran during the 8th century around the 2nd and 3rd centuries AH.According
to Ibn al Arabi the Malamats are considered as the penultimate Sufis, people whose
deep inward piety is concealed not only from the eyes of men but ultimately from
themselves, the attachment to the perception of ones own piety constituting a
formidable barrier to genuine cardiac self-realisation

YASAWIYA Sufi orders (turuq) crystallized as institutions beginning around the

6th century AH/ 12th century CE. One of the first orders was the Yasawi order,
named after Khwajah Ahmad Yasavi (d. 562 AH/ 1166 AD), from the city of Yasi,
The mausoleum of Khwaja Ahmad Yasawi, the founder of the Yasawiyya Sufi order is
located in the southern Kazakh city of Turkestan. Built during the reign of Mongolian
conqueror Tamerlane (Timur-i Lang) (1370-1405), the construction of the mausoleum
spanned almost sixteen years of his rule from 1389 to 1405, with unfinished portions
remaining until the present day. Yasawi, a Sufi poet and teacher is credited with the
conversion of the Turkish speaking people of Kazakhstan to Islam, and is commonly
known as Father of the Turks. His shrine is a national symbol and one of the most
important historical monuments in Kazakhstan, with its image appearing on every
Kazakh currency notewhere his tomb is located. Today it is called Turkestan and is
situated in Kazakhstan, about a six hour drive northwest from Tashkent, the capital of
Uzbekistan. His shrine is undergoing multi-million dollar renovations, which should be
finished by the Fall of 1998, when a commemorative festival and international
conference in Turkestan on Khwajah Ahmad is planned. A few generations after
Khwajah Ahmad, an important Yasavi shaykh was Ismail Ata. He was from a village in
the vicinity of Tashkent. One of his sayings to his disciples was as follows: Accept this
advice from me: Imagine that the world is a green dome in which there is nothing but
God and you, and remember God until the overwhelming theophany (al-tajalli al-
qahri)overcomes you and frees you from yourself, and nothing remains but God

KUBRAWIYA AND OVEYSSI - The Kubrawiya Sufi Orderoriginating,

like the Yasawiya, in Central Asia was named after Najm al-Din Kubra (d. 618/1221)
(Abu al-Jannab Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Muhammad ibn Abd Allah al-Khiwaqi al-
Khwarazmi), known as the saint-producing (lit. sculpting or chiseling) shaykh
(shaykh-e vali tarash), since a number of his disciples became great shaykhs themselves.
 Although originally from Khiva, located today in western Uzbekistan, he moved nearby
to the capital city, Khwarazm. Shaykh Najm al-Din was killed defending Khwarazm,
which was completely destroyed during the Mongol holocaust. Today, his tomb (and
here as well is another image of Shaykh Najm al-Din Kubras tomb)is in the town of
Konya Urgench, which was built in the area of the ruins of Khwarazm. Apparently, he is
known there as Kebir Ata. Konya Urgench is located in Turkmenistan and is about an
hours drive over the border from the city of Nukus in the Karakalpak region of
Uzbekistan. (If you intend to visit Shaykh Najm al-Dins shrine from Uzbekistan, you
must have a Turkmen visaif you are not Uzbek.)

SHADHILIYA -The Shadhiliya Order, named after Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili (d.
656 AH/1258 CE), whose tomb is at Humaythra on Egypts Red Sea coast, has
branches throughout North Africa and the Arab world. It has also become established
in Europe and the United States. One shaykh who has brought the Shadhiliya to the
U.S. is Sidi Shaykh Muhammad al-Jamal ar-Rifai as-Shadhili whose organization has
established the Sidi Muhammad Press website, which contains information about the
principles of Sidi Shaykh al-Jamals teachings concerning the Shadhili order . The
Shadhiliya derives from the tariqat of Abu Madyan Shuayb (d. 594 AH/1198 CE),
whose tomb is in Tlemcen, Algeria. A recent book, The Way of Abu Madyan, by the
scholar Vincent Cornell, provides his biography, a discussion of his teachings, and a
number of texts written by Abu Madyan and translated into English along with the
original Arabic. One of Abu Madyans disciples was Muhammad Ali Ba-Alawi, from
whom the Alawiya Order, also known as the BaAlawiya Order, derives. See a brief
summary of The Way of the Bani Alawiyah At-Tariqah al-Alawiyah. A branch of the
Alawi Order is the Attasiyah Order. Their new official website is Attasia Tarikah but
only the Arabic is currently functional, the English being under construction. The order
is centered in Yemen but also haszawiyas (hospices) in Pakistan, India, and Myanmar.
The Alawiya order in the Yemen has recently been studied by the anthropologist,
David Buchman. In his article titled The Underground Friends of God and Their
Adversaries: A Case Study and Survey of Sufism in Contemporary Yemen, Professor
Buchman summarizes the results of his six month period of fieldwork in Yemen.
ufi Orders in the Modern Era

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the different Sufi traditions were involved in many
ways in helping to shape Muslim responses to the West and also in defining Islamic forms of
modernity. At the same time, although in changing contexts, many of the main themes of the
older experiences of the orders continue. Among the many aspects of the history of Sufi orders
in the modern era, it is important to examine a number more closely: the Sufi orders continued
to serve as an important basis for popular devotional life; they were important forces in
responding to imperial rule; they helped to provide organizational and intellectual inspiration for
Muslim responses to modern challenges to the faith; and they continued to be an important
force in the mission of Muslims to non-Muslims.

Tariqas remain very important in the life of popular piety among the masses; however, this
important level of popular devotional life is not as visible in the public arena as the more activist
roles of the orders. New orders continued to emerge around respected teachers and saintly
personalities important in the daily lives of common people. Throughout the nineteenth and
twentieth century it is possible to identify such orders in virtually all parts of the Islamic world. It
is especially important to observe that these new devotional paths were not simply the products
of rural, conservative, or so-called traditional people.
 Sufism and Society




,






: Amir Khusrow

Translation
You've taken away my looks, my identity, by just a glance.
By making me drink the wine of love-potion,
You've intoxicated me by just a glance;
My fair, delicate wrists with green bangles in them,
Have been held tightly by you with just a glance.
I give my life to you, Oh my cloth-dyer,
You've dyed me in yourself, by just a glance.
I give my whole life to you Oh, Nijam,
You've made me your bride, by just a glance.

The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti saints
who were engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a
new liberal outlook within Islam. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid
the foundation for more liberal movements of the fifteenth century.The Sufis believed in the
concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being) which was promoted by Ibn-i-Arabi (l165-1240).
He opined that all beings are essentially one. Different religions were identical. This doctrine
gained popularity in India. There was also much exchange of ideas between the Sufis and
Indian yogis. In fact the hatha-yoga treatise Amrita Kunda was translated into Arabic and
Persian.
A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden
sections of society. While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day to day
problems of the people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people.
Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of
religion or caste. It is said that he did not rest till he had heard every visitor at the khanqah.
According to the Sufis, the highest form of devotion to God was the service of mankind.
They treated Hindus and Muslims alike. Amir Khusrau said Though the Hindu is not like
me in religion, he believes in the same things that I do.
The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. It fact, The Islamic emphasis
upon equality was respected far more by the Sufis than by the ulema. Like the Bhakti saints,
the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth of a rich regional literature. Most of the Sufi
saints were poets who chose to write in local languages. Baba Farid recommended the use of
Punjabi for religious writings. Shaikh Hamiduddin, before him, wrote in Hindawi. His verses are
the best examples of early Hindawi translation of Persian mystical poetry. Syed Gesu Daraz was
the first writer of Deccani Hindi. He found Hindi more expressive than Persian to
explainmysticism. A number of Sufi works were also written in Bengali.
The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrow (l 252-1325) the follower of
Nizamuddin Auliya. Khusrow took pride in being an Indian and looked at the history and
culture of Hindustan as a part of his own tradition. He wrote verses in Hindi (Hindawi) and
employed the Persian metre in Hindi. He created a new style called sabaq-i-hindi. By the
fifteenth century Hindi had begun to assume a definite shape and Bhakti saints such as
Kabir used it extensively.

The secondary literature on medieval Indian society frequently portrays the Sufis as a group
that provided a vital link between Hindus and Muslims, to some extent mitigating the harshness
of the Muslim military conquest of the subcontinent. Many writers have advanced the argument
somewhat further by identifying the Sufis as important agents in the conversion to Islam of a
large segment of India's Hindu population, especially Hindus of lower castes. But what is lacking
in this literature is a satisfactory explanation of how such conversions might have taken place,
of how an essentially esoteric mystical tradition might have filtered down to commoners in
some sort of comprehensible and appealing form. It would be hard to imagine, for example,
how depressed and illiterate Hindu castes such as the cotton cleaners or the barbers could have
been attracted to an abstract system of mystical stages and states requiring an immense
degree of intellectual and spiritual discipline. Moreover, the Sufis of medieval India, as
elsewhere, frequently stressed the elitist nature of their circles and the necessity of keeping
their most esoteric knowledge to themselves. Indeed, one distinguished scholar has argued that
Sufis in general felt a certain distrust of the common man and that this feeling was evidenced
by their separation of the initiated Sufi from the noninitiated layman. One likely reason for the
failure to explain the attraction of Hindu nonelites to Sufis has been the tendency among many
scholars of Sufism to concentrate almost exclusively on the mystical literature, as opposed to
the folk literature, as representing the sum and substance of the Sufi movement. The mystical
literature, which can be said to represent the "high tradition" of the Sufi movement in India and
elsewhere, consisted of treatises on the abstract stages and states originally formulated by such
mystical thinkers as Ibn al-'Arabi. This literature was written for the edification of fellow Sufis
and does not seem to have circulated among the lower elements of Hindu India, nor was it
intended to. Moreover in India, as in most of the non-Arab Muslim world, such literature was
usually written in Persian, which was certainly not a vernacular language among the nonelite
Hindu population. Hence if it is true, as R. A. Nicholson has noted, that "Sufism is at once the
religious philosophy and the popular religion of Islam," the link between the two has not been
clearly established,at least as far as concerns Indian Islam.
Based on research on the medieval Deccan city-state of Bijapur (1490-1686), it is also an
opinion that such a link was supplied in atleast one sector of the Indian subcontinent by the folk
literature of certain local Sufis. Consisting of a number of short poems written in one of the
vernacular languages of medieval Bijapur, Dakani, this literature employed indigenous themes
and imagery for the propagation not of complex mystical doctrines of the sort mentioned
above, but of a simpler level of Sufi and also of Islamic precepts. Written mainly in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by Bijapur Sufis belonging to the Chishti order, or by
their descendants scattered elsewhere in the Deccan, this literature has been preserved in the
oral tradition of Dakani-speaking villagers throughout the Deccan plateau. It has been
suggested that until the twentieth century, when radio and cinema took its place, folk poetry of
Sufi origin had occupied a dominant position in the folk culture of Deccan villages. What, then,
was the nature of this literature, to whom did it appeal, and what was its relation to Islam or to
Sufism? The bulk of the folk poetry written by Sufis was sung by village women while engaged
in various household chores. The most common types included the chakki-nama, so called
because it was sung while grinding food grains at the grindstone or chakki, and the charkha-
nama, sung while spinning thread at the spinning wheel, or charkha. Other types of such folk
poetry included the luri-nama or lullaby, the shadi-nama or wedding song, the suhagan-nama
or married woman's song, and the suhaila or eulogistic song.It is evident that most of these
poetic forms appealed especially, and probably exclusively, to women. For in the villages of the
Deccan it was the women who for centuries spun the cotton into thread, ground the juwar into
meal, and rocked the children to sleep. Each of these activities involved a steady moving of the
hands which the singing of songs composed in aregular meter could easily assist. This is
especially true for the chakki-nama and the charkha-nama, the most widespread forms of
Dakani folk poetry, both of which involved the turning of a wheel by hand. Such village poetry
appealed to women not only because it accompanied the household chores that they in
particular performed, but also because its content was permeated with imagery especially
meaningful to them. Female love and its manifestations were typical themes in this literature,
and metaphors frequently drew on the two worlds of a young bride: the parental home she had
left and her new father-in-law's home.
The few studies that have been made of Dakani folk literature trace it to the efforts by Sufis to
expand their teachings among the unlettered folk of the Deccan plateau. This is no doubt true
so far as the written tradition of this poetry is concerned. But it does not mean that Sufis
originated the idea of singing songs while grinding jwar or while spinning thread. Some sort of
folk poetry relating to work at the spinning wheel or the grindstone undoubtedly existed in the
Marathi and Kannada oral traditions long before Islam penetrated the Deccan plateau and is
probably as old as the ubiquitous grindstone or spinning wheel themselves.
What Sufis did was to adapt the simplest elements of Sufi doctrine to the already existing
vehicles of folk poetry and to substitute vernacular Dakani for vernacular Marathi or Kannada.
Since the Sufism injected into this literature carried with it the essentials of Islam, the Sufis' use
of this vehicle may be said to represent a major development in the cultural history of the
Deccan. Sufi folk literature can be found today in both written and oral traditions. Despite the
intrusion of modern media in the villages, folk poetry relating to household chores is still sung,
though apparently less so today than formerly. In the written tradition, chakki-namas and
charkha-namas have appeared in various cheap lithograph editions which can still be found in
the Deccan countryside. There also exist manuscript versions of this poetry. These manuscripts
indicate that most of the folk poetry discussed here originated with Bijapur Sufis of the Chishti
order.
All eleven of these manuscripts, most of which are chakkinamas, are undated copies of poetry
which, judging from the style of Dakani used, can be ascribed to the seventeenth or early
eighteenth century. One such chakki-nama is attributed to Amin al-Din A'la (d. 1675), an
important seventeenth-century Sufi of notably heterodox tendencies.
Certain conclusions emerge from this discussion. In the first place, there is no doubt that all of
the manuscripts, even those whose authorship is most dubious, are the work of Sufis.
Devotion to God and respect for one's pir, or spiritual guide, are their constant themes. Second,
most of these manuscripts originated in Bijapur and are the work either of resident Sufis of the
Chishti order or of lay members of the order who had studied there and then migrated
elsewhere in the Deccan. In one of his works the mystic Burhan al-Din Janam alluded to the
central symbol of the chakki-nama, the grindstone, in the same way that popular writers
alluded to it:
"In the case of the chakki, some other power is required somebody's hand must be applied to
move the wheel. There are
many people who use the chakki, yet only the power hidden
in the hand actually turns the wheel. That hand is 'arif al-wujud
['knower of existence,' i.e., God], and those who see that the power
is in the hand are witnesses of the light; thereby they witness the
essence, which is God."
If one analyzes the content of the chakki-nama or the charkhanama, three interwoven themes
can be found: (1) an ontological link established between God, the prophet Muhammad, one's
own pir, and the reciter herself; (2) the use of the grindstone or the spinning wheel, or the
mechanical parts thereof, to illustrate the above; and (3) the use of the mystics' zikr, or spiritual
exercise,to accompany and even to regulate the various phases of the
woman's work.
In the following chakki-nama of Shah Hashim Khudawand Hadi the first theme, the ontological
link between God, the Prophet, the pir, and the woman at the grindstone, is clearly stated. In
this passage are also explicated in simplified form the essential elements of the Chishti theory
of Creation and of God's relationship to the material world, a theory which can be traced
directly to the writings of the great Spanish-Arabic mystic, Ibn al-'Arabi:
First was God's name,
And then His qualities.
In my mind I keep the name,
And with each breath
(refrain): Say "La-illah" [There is no god]
Dwell in "il-Allah" [But Allah]
God Himself from the hidden treasure
The theology here is as simple as the language. The devotee is not asked to master either the
doctrinal knowledge of the theologian or the fine points of the Sufi's esoteric knowledge, but
only to feel comfort in God's unity and majesty.
These simple Islamic precepts were reinforced by parallels and metaphors drawn between them
and the various parts of the grindstone or spinning wheel at which the woman was working. "As
the chakki turns, so we find God," concludes the above poem; "it shows its life in turning as we
do in breathing.

A third feature of this literature is its incorporation of the mystical zikrs, which are the spiritual
exercises intended to bring aSufi closer to God. For practicing mystics the zikrs had a
specializeduse, certain ones being associated with certain stages on the traveler's path toward
God. In the popular literature, however, the zikrs were largely divested of their mystical content
and became more devotional. Although the various zikrs were still differentiated, they did not
correspond to the stages of the path, as they did for the mystics, but to different functions
being performed at the grindstone or the spinning wheel. Furthermore, all of the zikrs
in this literature seem to be of a similar type-repetition of the names of God out loud-which in
the mystic tradition would correspond only to the first and most elementary zikr, the
zikr-i jali. The result was quite comparable with the non-Muslim bhakti poetry of the
contemporary Deccan-the Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats or the Marathi abhangs of the
poetsaints of Pandharpur-in its use of a vernacular medium, its
special appeal to women, and its devotional character.
The role that this Sufi folk literature has played in the spread of Islam in the Deccan, though
impossible to measure with precision, seems to have been related to the phenomenon of pir
worship and the devotionalism at pirs' tombs which historically succeeded the worship of pirs
themselves. One important reason that Sufis wrote the literature, apart from their general
desire to expand their teachings among a constituency of commoners, was the object of
securing for themselves the role of mediator Ibid.
All available evidence indicates that in the seventeenth century a sizable nonelite constituency
clustered around famous pirs, believing in their miraculous powers (karamat) and their ability to
intercede with God, taking blessings from them, lighting candles at the dargahs, or tombs, of
departed pirs, and participating in festivals at the dargahs. This was the outer circle of a pir's
following, as distinguished from his inner circle of Mureeds, or initiates, and it was to this outer
circle that the folk literature seems especially to have appealed, serving as the litany
of what may legitimately be called Indian folk Islam. The dominant role played by women in
this Indian folk Islam cannot be underestimated. One seventeenth-century account of a
Sufi's conversations (malfuzat) noted that women were allowed to enter even the inner circle of
a Sufi's followers.This would mean that at one time women, along with men, were instructed in
the religious exercises of living Sufis. Later, as the Sufis became replaced by their tombs as
objects of popular veneration, women came to comprise the great majority of devotees at any
given dargah. Their motivation for participating in the dargah's various functions seems to have
been primarily votive in nature. That is, flowers, coins, or prayers would be offered up to the
spirit of the pir buried at a particular dargah in the belief that the latter would redress some
specific grievance or provide some specific fortune that had become associated with that
dargah. Women originally attracted to the Sufis of the seventeenth century were probably of
the same social origins as those presently
participating in the social life of the dargahs. One could speculate that nonelite women living on
the fringes of Hindu society would have gravitated toward Sufis and their tombs as places of
religious refuge from any number of worldly concerns. These women would certainly have
included widows of most castes, for organized Hindu society has little room for such individuals.
Then, too, one could expect that barren women of various castes would have been attracted to
the dargahs because of the latter's association with fertility. What all such women probably
shared in common was an eclectic religious attitude on account of which they would have
perceived no great theological or social wall existing between Islam and Hinduism. For them the
village dargah formed only one more facet of an already diffuse and syncretic religious life.
The pervasive influence of women in the life of the dargahs provides an important clue in
tracing the role of Sufi folk literature in the expansion of Islam. Judging from the content of the
folk literature described above, it seems likely that the women who had come into contact with
the folk traditions of the dargahs transmitted this tradition to the children living in their
households by constantly repeating the poetry. Children would be rocked to sleep at night or
day by lullabies (luri-nama) that had originated in the dargahs; they would hear chakki-namas
or charkhanamas recited daily in their own households each time grain was ground or thread
was spun. Hence, just as one's first language is frequently termed one's "mother tongue," so
also the motheror indeed any household woman in the proximity of children-has doubtless been
instrumental in the transmission of religious practices and attitudes at rural levels. Through this
rather insidious medium, though perhaps not intended as such by its authors, Sufi folk literature
invaded rural households and gradually gained an established place amidst the eclectic religious
life of the rural Deccan.

Pirs and Hindu rulers

The patronage of Muslim mystics by non-Muslim rulers seems to have been a widespread phenomenon,
if one relies on the data collected by various scholars in different parts of South Asia. The regular and
close interactions between Sufis and Hindu mystics in present Maharashtra, under Maratha rule, has
been studied by several authors.Most of them have come to the conclusion that the exchange of
spiritual knowledge between the two groups was so intense that many Hindu saints had chosen Sufis as
their spiritual guides, while the former could also become the gurus of Muslim mystics. Without denying
the fact that a non-Muslim ascetic could accept the teaching of a Sufi without converting.
Contrary to a common prejudice which sees South India as a stronghold of Hinduism that has
successfully resisted Muslim influences and domination, this region of the subcontinent has a very rich
tradition of religious pluralism and Hindu-Muslim interactions, offering many examples of Hindu rulers
patronising Muslim saints. Trichy had become an active Sufi centre during the medieval period. Its main
dargah, dedicated to Nathar Wali remains an important centre of piety and a shared space where different
communities come to worship and receive the blessing of the saint buried within the tomb-shrine.
Tradition has it that Mama Jigni, a Hindu princess of the royal family of Trichy, became a disciple of the
famous Sufi saint of Karnataka, Dada Hayat, whose shrine is located near Chikka Magalur in Karnataka.
Over the centuries, various Muslim as well as Hindu rulers patronised the dargah, endowing it
withconsiderable wealth and land.. Dada Hayat and his successors have also had another prestigious
patron in the person of Shri Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, the Hindu ruler of Mysore. The king not only
revered the pir but also received spiritual instruction from the then sajjada nashin.
One could add the interesting case of the martyr-saint Vavar, a Muslim disciple of the Keralite warrior
king Ayyappan, who is believed to have been an incarnation of a Dravidian deity. Vavars shrine and
mosque have continuously been protected by local Hindu rulers. At present, its caretakers continue to
enjoy certain privileges in spite of the efforts of some fundamentalist organisations that are unhappy with
this remarkable example of Hindu Muslim interface in South India.
Rajasthans shared spaces
In order to understand better let us now turn our attention to Rajasthan which has been the focus of our
field research.
A few states, such as Ajmer, Nagaur, Jhunjhunu and Fatehpur, have been administrated at times by Sunni
Muslim rulers or governors and had become important Sufi centres. However, numerous tomb-shrines of
Muslim mystics and martyrs have also been patronised by local Hindu rulers. We can mention here but a
few, not to speak of the fact that most of these sacred places have hardly been noticed or described by
scholars.
Marwar
The history of this independent kingdom between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries, is of particular
interest for our subject. The legend connected with the foundation of his kingdom had already attracted
the attention of the British Resident, Colonnel James Tod, the celebrated author of Annals and Antiquities
of Rajasthan, the first European who took interest in the history of that region.

This kingdom, which became very powerful under the Rathore dynasty, used to welcome Muslim saints.
Let us first mention the dargah located in the former capital of Mandore which until today is visited by
devotees of all communities; the main centre of worship is the tomb of Ghulam Shah Qalandar, who is
said to have been a follower of Khwaja Muin al-Din Chishti. The mosque and the shrine have been
renovated at various times under the patronage of the Hindu Rathore rulers.

Amber Jaipur
The shrines that will be described in this part have failed to attract the attention of historians and
anthropologists who have written on Jaipur. The details given below, which are conspicuously absent
from history books, are the result of a fresh field research.
First of all, we will mention the oral tradition connected with the sixteenth-century reign of Raja Man
Sing I of Amber who had become the faithful ally and commander-in-chief of the emperor Akbar. It is
believed that Man Singh, who had fought on behalf of the Mughal ruler in Bengal, had brought from
there a statue of the fierce goddess Kali which he installed within the fortress of Amber.Today, the
temple which has been rebuilt in marble and silver by the last ruling Maharaja of Jaipur, Man Singh II, is
still an important centre of pilgrimage, particularly during the Navratra festival. On the tenth day or Vijay
Dashmi, goats are sacrificed as a part of the traditional royal ceremony. One of the peculiarities of the
sacred image of Kali, who is known locally as Shila Devi, is that she has her head slightly bent. The
inhabitants of Amber account for this detail in the following way. According to an oral tradition, human
sacrifices were regularly performed until, in the sixteenth century, a Sufi saint appeared in front of an old
woman whose only son was going to be sacrificed. Seeing her distress, he offered to take his place, but,
instead of submitting himself to the cruel ceremony, he approached the goddess and slapped her in the
face. It is said that Kali instinctively turned her head to avoid being slapped again. In this way, he taught
her a lesson, after which the custom was abandoned. Gebi Pir, as the mysterious Muslim mystic is
currently referred to, has his shrine at Amber where he is worshipped by Muslims and Hindus alike.
Tradition has it that Man Singh, the very ruler who installed the sacred image and once allowed human
sacrifices, became a devotee of the Muslim saint.
In 1727, Maharaja Jai Singh II, who was the faithful ally of Aurangzeb, founded the new capital of
Jaipur. It was, as usual in those times, a fortified city which was surrounded by massive walls.
Traditionally, the ruler of Jaipur and his royal guests entered the palace complex through two huge gates
respectively known as Bandarwal Darwaza and Nakkarkhane ka Darwaza. On top of these gates, two
Muslim shrines have been built according to oral tradition at the same time when the gates of the
city were erected.As the small tomb-shrine lying at the entrance of the Jodhpur Fort, the Muslim saints
in whose memory the cenotaphs have been built, act as the sacred protectors of the city. The first gate
which owes its name to the custom of decorating the entrance of a house or palace with a colourful
festooned cloth referred to as vandarmal (or bandarval) for marriages, has on its top the chilla now
painted green dedicated to a Muslim dervish, Mastan Ali Shah who is supposed to have been the
disciple of Gebi Pir. He seems to have been a Malang fakir, connected with the Madari order of
Qalandars.33 His present caretaker is himself a Malang or Madari. The chilla is said to be have been built
at the very spot where he used to meditate, sitting on the top of a chattri (a small pillared stone pavillion).

"Is there any difference between men and women in terms of their faith?

"Since in the Ocean of Divine Unity neither "I" or "You" exists, what possible
meaning can man or woman have?"

Since the beginning of consciousness, human beings, both female and male, have walked the
path of reunion with the Source of Being. Though in this world of duality we may find ourselves
in different forms, ultimately there is no male or female, only Being. Within the Sufi traditions,
the recognition of this truth has encouraged the spiritual maturation of women in a way that
has not always been possible in the West.
From the earliest days onward, women have played an important role in the development of
Sufism, which is classically understood to have begun with the Prophet Muhammad.
Muhammad brought a message of integration of spirit and matter, of essence and everyday life,
of recognition of the feminine as well as the masculine. Though cultural manifestations have
covered over some of the original purity of intention, the words of the Qur'an convey the
equality of women and men before the eyes of GOD. At a time when the Goddess-worshiping
Arabian tribes were still quite barbaric, even burying infant girls alive in favor of male offspring,
this new voice of the Abrahamic tradition attempted to re-establish the recognition of the Unity
of Being. It tried to address the imbalances that had arisen, advising respect and honour for the
feminine as well as for the graciousness and harmony of nature.

In the early years of this new revelation, Muhammad's beloved wife, Khadija, filled a role of
great importance. It was she who sustained, strengthened, and supported him against his own
doubt and bewilderment. She stood beside him in the midst of extreme difficulty and anguish
and helped carry the light of the new faith. It was to Muhammad's and Khadija's daughter,
Fatimah, to whom the deeper mystical understanding of Islam was first conveyed, and indeed
she is often recognized as the first Muslim mystic. Her marriage with Ali bound this new
manifestation of mysticism into this world, and the seeds of their union began to blossom.

As the mystical side of Islam developed, it was a woman, Rabi'a al-Adawiyya (717-801 A.D.),
who first expressed the relationship with the divine in a language we have come to recognize as
specifically Sufic by referring to GOD as the Beloved. Rabi'a was the first human being to speak
of the realities of Sufism with a language that anyone could understand. Though she
experienced many difficulties in her early years, Rabi'a's starting point was neither a fear of hell
nor a desire for paradise, but only love. "GOD is GOD," she said, "for this I love GOD... not
because of any gifts, but for Itself." Her aim was to melt her being in GOD. According to her,
one could find GOD by turning within oneself. As Muhammad said, "He who knows himself
knows his Lord." Ultimately it is through love that we are brought into the unity of Being.

Throughout the centuries, women as well as men have continued to carry the light of this love.
For many reasons, women have often been less visible and less outspoken than men, but
nevertheless they have been active participants. Within some Sufi circles, women were
integrated with men in ceremonies; in other orders, women gathered in their own circles of
remembrance and worshiped apart from men. Some women devoted themselves to Spirit
ascetically, apart from society, as Rabi'a did; others chose the role of benefactress and fostered
circles of worship and study. Many of the great masters with whom we in the West are familiar
had female teachers, students, and spiritual friends who greatly influenced their thought and
being. And wives and mothers gave support to their family members while continuing their own
journey towards union with the Beloved.

Sufi women around the world today continue to teach and share their experience personally as
well as in written form. In the Sudan, for instance, there continue to be sheikhas (female
sheikhs) who are particularly adept in the healing arts. In the Middle East, women continue to
mature in many Sufi orders. In Turkey in particular, the teachings continue through women as
well as men, perhaps even more so now than in the past because of Ataturk's proscription of
the sufi orders early in the century, which drove much of Sufi practice into private homes. One
luminous lady, Feriha Ana, carried the Rifai tradition in Istanbul until her recent death; Zeyneb
Hatun of Ankara continues to inspire people in Turkey and abroad with her poems and songs.

Sufi schools spread from the Middle East to Europe long ago, and new waves continue to arrive.
Irina Tweedie, author of Daughter of Fire, recently conveyed an Indian branch of the
Naqshbandi line back to her native England. Her work is being continued here in America
through the Golden Sufi Centre of California.
A popular strain of Sufism that has been very welcoming of women is the Chishti Order, which
was brought to America by Hazrat Inayat Khan. Of the many women involved, Murshida Vera
Corda is perhaps the best-known; her work with children in particular has been a great
inspiration to many parents.
One branch of Sufism that has become better-known in the West in recent years is the Mevlevi.
Within this tradition, which was founded upon the example of Mevlna Jalluddn Rumi, women
have always been deeply respected, honoured, and invited to participate in all aspects of the
spiritual path. Rumi's family itself had a long tradition of recognizing the spiritual beauty and
wisdom of women. It was his grandmother, the princess of Khorasan, who first lit the spark of
inquiry in Rumi's father, Bahaeddin Weled. Under her care, he grew to be the "sultan of the
learned" and a great spiritual light in his time. Rumi's mother, Mu'mine Hatun, a devout and
saintly lady, was very dear to him. She died shortly after Rumi's own marriage to Gevher Hatun,
the daughter of one of Bahaeddin's closest disciples. Gevher Hatun had grown up beside Rumi,
listening to his father's discourses. This beautiful woman, who was known to have the heart of
an angel, was the mother of Sultan Weled, to whom Rumi's own teacher, Shams-i-tabriz,
conveyed many mysteries. In his Conversations (Maqalat), Shams himself stressed the equal
capacity of women to be intimate with the Ineffable and to "die before death."

Mevlevi shaikhas have often guided both women and men. Rumi had many female disciples,
and women were also encouraged to participate in sema, the musical whirling ceremony of the
Mevlevis. (Women usually had their own semas, though they sometimes performed together
with men.) One of Rumi's chief disciples was Fakhr an-Nisa, known as "the Rabi'a of her age."
In recent years, seven centuries after her death, it was decided to reconstruct her tomb.
Shaykh Suleyman Hayati Dede, who was then the acting spiritual head of the Mevlevi Order,
was asked to be present when she was exhumed. He later told of how, when her body was
uncovered, it was totally intact and the fragrance of roses filled the air.

Of course such women have always existed and have brought much light into this world; one
might ask how anyone could think otherwise. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world and
many spiritual traditions, this has been questioned. Within Sufism, however, women and men
have always been respected as equals on the spiritual path. Everyone is expected to establish
his or her own direct connection with the divine, and women are no different from men in this
capacity.

Within Sufism, the language of the Beloved and the recognition of the feminine helps to balance
some of the old cultural stereotypes that were sometimes used in expository writing and which
the Western media have chosen to highlight. Rumi often speaks beautifully of the feminine,
presenting woman as the most perfect example of GOD's creative power on earth. As he says in
the Mathnawi, "Woman is a ray of GOD. She is not just the earthly beloved; she is creative, not
created."

It is precisely this creativity and capacity for love and relationship that suits women so well for
the Sufi way of opening to relationship with the divine. As we come to recognize the
magnificence of the benevolent Source of Life, we can come to see ourselves in harmony with
it. Each surah (chapter) of the Qur'an begins with Bismillah ar-Rahman ar-Rahim, which means
"In the name of GOD, the Beneficent, the Merciful." Rahman speaks to the fundamental
beneficence inherent in the divine nature, Rahim to the particular mercy that manifests. Both
words come from the same root, which is the word for "womb." GOD's mercy and benevolence
is always emphasized as being greater than His wrath; the encompassing generosity and
nurturance of the divine is the milieu in which we live.

As women, we come from the womb and carry the womb. We give birth from the womb and
can find ourselves born into the womb of Being. Mary, the mother of Jesus, is very much
revered in Sufism and Islam as an example of one who continually took refuge with the divine
and opened to receive divine inspiration within the womb of her being. As women, we have
great capacity for patience, for nurturing, for love. A contemporary male Sufi teacher once
described an ideal guide as one who is like a mother -- one who is always there, without
demands, willing to instruct and set limits, but also willing to stay up all night to nurse a
suffering child.

Sufism recognizes that committed relationship and family are not contrary to the flowering of
spirituality, but rather are wonderful vessels for spiritual ripening. The beauty of partnership,
children and family are great blessings, containing the inspiration, the breathing in, of the
divine. As we deepen our capacity for relationship and fidelity in the human sphere, we also
increase our capacity for relationship with GOD.
There is a significant obstacle to writing a history of early Sufi women: women
are substantially missing from the major sources. The texts that have come to
define the history, practice, and thought of Sufism from the early period
onward contain few female figures.2 Some reports of pious and Sufi women
survived orally and in written form over the intervening centuries in collections of biographical
notices of noted individuals. Kashf al-mah. jb only mention by name the near legendary
Rabqa al-qAdawiyya (Basra, d. 185/801) and a few other pious and Sufi women. While a
number of women do appear in these texts, they are most often anonymous, and moreover are
depicted as supporting players in accounts of more famous men.In al-Sulam and Ibn al-Jawzs
works, a few of these men are depicted making an effort to transmit womens knowledge
with women at the centre of the accounts. Individual women are mentioned in some early Sufi
texts, such as al-H. akm al-Tirmidhs (d. 320/910) account of his wifes extraordinary spiritual
station. Certainly, mens names have been dropped from the sources. But the sheer number of
extant reports of men compared to women in the formative literature means that women are
read as marginal to the development, transmission, and preservation of Sufi practices,
knowledge, and teaching. Most surviving accounts of women in the formative period
(namely,between the 1st/7th and 4th/10th centuries) concern those in the early piety
movement that is, prior to the rise of Sufism in the late 3rd to9th century.
These vigorous worshippers (mutaqabbidt) were known for their intense ritual practice,
scrupulous ethics, and ability to inspire a sense of intimacy with God, but cannot be called Sufis
in the historical sense of the term.
Rather, pious women such as the famous Rabqa al-qAdawiyya were cast as Sufis when
Sufism was said to be a reality without a name.Likewise, Sufi literature tended to co-opt
individuals identified with other mystical movements, such as the Malmatiyya, as their own.
The Hanbal scholar Ibn al-Jawz did the same, sharing the contributions of these women in
keeping with his own perspective on worthy piety. Despite the authors agendas,
these sources offer valuable insights into the diverse pious and mystical movements of the early
period. This acts as a summary of the reported thought and practices of early pious, mystical,
and Sufi women in the contexts of the theological movements of their day, their social lives,
and their teacherstudent relationships.

SUFISM AND MODERN WORLD

We live in an age when science and technology have brought mankind not only great material
advances, but also a deep cynicism towards the religious and spiritual aspects of life. On the
one hand, the success of the scientific method has set limitations on what are considered to
be useful and practical fields of study. We are taught to believe that only that which the outer
senses can perceive, and which the rational mind can analyze, are worthy of being called the
truth. And on the other hand, it is very easy to become disillusioned with the various religions
claims that they have access to absolute truth and goodness, when these claims are rarely
actualized by experience.
Yet human nature is such that questions regarding the deep mysteries of life continue to arise
in individuals, and there will always be some for whom the thirst to find answers to these
questions is so great that it will not easily be quenched by rationalistic philosophical constructs
or by literal readings of religious texts.

Sufism teaches that it is possible for us to see beyond the veils of darkness which enclothe our
belief systems. One who sincerely devotes himself or herself to a program of Sufi training may
eventually approach the state where one can see things as they truly are, when one can
worship God as as though you can see Him, and when can truly realize that one is in the
world, but not of the world.

For many people in the modern world it may seem that such teachings are alien to their culture
or are a thing of the past if indeed they ever existed! Others may instinctively recognize that
their destiny lies in the unfolding of these teachings in their lives, but are faced with
overwhelming difficulties in finding a trustworthy and authoritative teacher who can show them
the way out of the darkness.
One of the aims of the School of Sufi Teaching is to make tried and tested methods of gaining
enlightenment accessible to people who are living ordinary lives in the modern world.

In this modern world as everyone is so busy in his life and believes that money,
possession, physical comfort and many more that happens are more important
than spiritual value of life. We forget that what happens to us are not because of
our ideas and plans but are our rewards as god blessings. Our egos make us
imagine that we are the cause of action. We need to control our arrogance and
vanity because what God gives us he can also take away in a flash. As Sufism
teaches that it is possible for us to see beyond the veils of darkness which
enclothe our belief systems. One who sincerely devotes himself or herself to a
program of Sufi training may eventually approach the state where one can see
things as they truly are, when one can worship God as as though you can see
Him, and when can truly realize that one is in the world, but not of the
world.
For many people in the modern world it may seem that such teachings are alien
to their culture or are a thing of the past if indeed they ever existed! Others
may instinctively recognize that their destiny lies in the unfolding of these
teachings in their lives, but are faced with overwhelming difficulties in finding a
trustworthy and authoritative teacher who can show them the way out of the
darkness.
Being healthy does not imply to show happiness. Happiness can be defined as a
state of mind free from anger, sorrow, fear, that wealth cannot purchase. For
example in this materialistic world man money and time also to spend the time
according to his choice. At one side he may enjoy what he wants in his life as he
spend money according to his choice but on the other side if he passes through
some kind of tension , at this particular stage he will face total failure even if he
spend a lot of money. At this particular stage we become more spiritually
mature and desire for god increases.
At this stage I want to add that god has one aim that is to help us on the spiritual
path to return back to him. Everything in this world is immaterial and is only a
spiritual illusion. God teaches us through the opposites i.e. pain /pleasure,
happiness/ sorrow.
As Rumi says:
God turns you from one feeling to another and teaches by means of opposites,
so that you will have two wings to fly not one.
Our achievements, positions are spiritual illusions which are designed to distract
us from the path. If you want something from god than first shed your ego, is the central
messge of sufism.
 SUFISM IN INDIA
Sufism can be described broadly as the intensification of Islamic faith and practice, or the
tendency among Muslims to strive for a personal engagement with the Divine Reality. The
Arabic term Sufi, however, has been used in a wide variety of meanings over the centuries,
by both proponents and opponents of Sufism, and this is reflected in the primary and
secondary sources, which offer diverse interpretations of the term. Western observers
have sometimes obscured the issue by referring to Sufism as Islamic mysticism or
Islamic esotericism. Such terms are vague and often imply a negative value judgment, and
they encourage people to consider as non-Sufi anything that does not fit into preconceived
categories.The original sense of Sufi seems to have been one who wears wool (f ). In the
eighth century the word was sometimes being applied to Muslims whose ascetic
inclinations led them to wear coarse and uncomfortable woolen garments. Gradually it
came to designate a group who differentiated themselves from others by stressing certain
teachings and practices of the Qurn and the sunnah. By the ninth century the gerund
form taawwuf, which means literally being a Sufi or Sufism, was adopted by some
representatives of this group as an appropriate, though by no means the only, designation
of their own beliefs and practices. Other terms were and continued to be used (on the
Western preference for Sufism, see Ernst, 1997, chapter 1).

Initially launched by God fearing people of Perso-Arab world. They renounced the world
and devoted themselves to Gods service. As the seekers of Tawhid (Unity in God) they
helped in spread of Islam through mystic movement with intellectualisation of Sunnah
(The orthodox customs of Islamic world) as one of its basic principles (Encyclopaedia of
Islam). The Sufis either in their lifetime or their tombs after death became a symbol of
supernatural power. The disciples of Sufis adopted the path of peace or even armed jehad
for Shariatisation of the whole world as a mission of holy duty. "Seekers of Tawhid should
strive to dedicate themselves to the Prophet Muhammad, so much so that their entire
selves, including their hearts and their spirits, were free of thoughts other than of God"
(History of Sufism in India by Saiyied Athar Abbas Rizvi, Volume 2, 1992, Page 178).

"Mysticism is a practical spiritual discipline based on the insight of illuminated seekers

after truth". It is in fact a mission of higher religious order of any faith, which disdains strife
and conflict in any form. Joy of self-realisation being the essence of religion is experienced
after a long spiritual practice. The mystics discard outward form of religion once they
attain such joy. The concept of Sufism was therefore, to focus the mystic power on the
spiritual dimension of Islam with a view to shield the believers from the outwardly and
unrealistic dogma of the faith.

Sufism has a history in India evolving for over 1,000 years. The presence of Sufism has
been a leading entity increasing the reaches of Islam throughout South Asia. Following the
entrance of Islam in the early 700s, Sufi mystic traditions became more visible during the
10th and 11th centuries of the Delhi Sultanate. A conglomeration of four chronologically
separate dynasties, the early Delhi Sultanate consisted of rulers from Turkic and Afghan
lands. This Persian influence flooded South Asia with Islam, Sufi thought, syncretic values,
literature, education, and entertainment that has created an enduring impact on the
presence of Islam in India today. Sufi preachers, merchants and missionaries also settled in
coastal Bengal and Gujarat through maritime voyages and trade.
Various leaders of Sufi orders, tariqa, chartered the first organized activities to introduce
localities to Islam through Sufism. Saint figures and mythical stories provided solace and
inspiration to Hindu caste communities often in rural villages of India. The Sufism teachings
of divine spirituality, cosmic harmony, love, and humanity resonated with the common
people and still does so today. The following content will take a thematic approach to
discuss a myriad of influences that helped spread Sufism and a mystical understanding of
Islam, making India a contemporary epicenter for Sufi culture today.
Muslims entered India in 711 A.D. under the Arab commander Muhammad ibn Qasim, by
conquering the regions of Sindh and Multan. This historical achievement connected the
South Asia to the Muslim empire. Simultaneously, Arab Muslims were welcomed along the
Hindustani (India) sea ports for trade and business ventures. The Muslim culture of the
caliphate began to permeate through India.
Muslims conquered Multan, the capital of Sindh, and thereby expanded the Islamic empire
into India.
This trade route linking India to the Mediterranean world and even Southeast Asia lasted
peacefully until 900 A.D. During this period, the Abbasid Caliphate (750 A.D. 1258 A.D.)
was seated in Baghdad; this city is also the birthplace of Sufism with notable figures such as
Hazrat Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Ali ibn Abu Talib, Hasan al-Basri, and Rabiah.
The mystic tradition of Islam gained significant ground spreading from Baghdad (Iraq) into
Persia, commonly known today as Iran and Afghanistan.
Once reason why Islam became more favorable in India was due to the establishment
of khanqah. A khanqah is commonly defined as a hospice, lodge, community center, or
dormitory ran by Sufis. Khanqahs were also known as Jama'at Khana, large gathering halls.
Structurally, a khanqah could be one large room or have additional dwelling
space. Although some khanqah establishments were independent of royal funding or
patronage, many received fiscal grants (waqf) and donations from benefactors for
continuing services. Over time, the function of traditional Sufi khanqahs evolved as Sufism
solidified in India.
Initially, the Sufi khanqah life emphasized a close and fruitful relationship between the
master-teacher (sheikh) and their students. For example students in khanqahs would pray,
worship, study, and read works together. Sufi literature had more academic concerns
besides just the jurisprudential and theological works seen in madrasa. There were three
major categories of mystical works studied in South Asia: hagiographical writing,
discourses of the teacher, and letters of the master. Sufis also studied various other
manuals describing code of conduct,adab (Islam). In fact, the text (trans.) "Path of God's
Bondsmen from Origin to Return" written by a Persian Sufi saint, Najm al-Din Razi, spread
throughout India during the authors' lifetime. Sharing that Sufi thought was becoming
increasingly favorable to study in India. Even today, preserved mystical literature has
proved invaluable as a source of religious and social history of Sufi Muslims in India.
The other major function of a khanqah was of a community shelter. Many of these facilities
were built in low caste, rural, Hindu vicinities. The Chishti Order Sufis in India, especially,
crystallized khanqahs with the highest form of modest hospitality and generosity. Keeping
a "visitors welcome" policy, khanqahs in India offered spiritual guidance, psychological
support, and counseling that was free and open to all people. The spiritually hungry and
depressed caste members were both fed with a free kitchen service and provided basic
education. By creating egalitarian communities within stratified caste systems, Sufis
successfully spread their teachings of love, spirituality, and harmony. It was this example of
Sufi brotherhood and equity that drew people to the religion of Islam. Soon these khanqahs
became social, cultural, and theological epicenters for people of all ethnic and religious
backgrounds and both genders. Through a khanqah's humble services, Sufis presented the
true form of Islam and forged a way for voluntary large scale conversions of lower class
Hindustanis.
Muslims of South Asia prominently follow
the Chishtiyya, Naqshbandiah, Qadiriyyah and Suhrawardiyyah orders. Of them the Chishti
order is the most visible. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, a disciple of Khwaja Usman Haaroni,
the propounder of this order, introduced it in India. He came to India
from Afghanistan with the army of Shihab-ud-Din Ghuri in 1192 AD and started living
permanently in Ajmer from 1195. Centuries later, with the support of Mughal rulers, his
shrine became a place of pilgrimage. Akbar used to visit the shrine every year.
Turkic conquests in South Asia were accompanied by four Sufi mystics of the Chishtiyya
order from Afghanistan: Moinuddin (d. 1233 in Ajmer),Qutbuddin (d. 1236
in Delhi), Nizamuddin (d.1335 in Delhi) and Fariduddin (d.1265 in Pakpattan now
in Pakistan) . During the reign ofMuhammad bin Tughluq, who spread the Delhi
sultanate towards the south, the Chistiya spread its roots all across India. The Sufi shine at
Ajmer in Rajasthan and Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, Ashraf Jahangir Semnani in Kichaucha
Shariff belong to this order.
Some Sufis under the Chishtiyya order were not against absorbing ideas from
the Hindu Bhakti movement and even used Hindi for their devotional songs. However, the
orthodox Ulama with royal support insisted that the Sufis go "back to Shariat". Even though
the Ulama had certain differences with Sufis over theological and mystic issues, the Shariat
remained a cementing force between them.
The Suharawardi order was started by Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi, a Persian Sufi born in
Sohrevard near Zanjan in Iran, and brought to India byBaha-ud-din Zakariya of Multan.
The Suhrawardiyyah order of Sufism gained popularity in Bengal. In addition,
the Suhrawardiyyah order, under the leadership of Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi (d.
1234), also bequeathed a number of teachings and institutions that were influential in
shaping other order that emerged during later periods.
The Khalwati order was founded by Umar al-Khalwati, an Azerbaijani Sufi known for
undertaking long solitary retreats in the wilderness of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran.
While the Indian Subcontinent branches of the order did not survive into modern times, the
order later spread into the Ottoman Empire and became influential there after it came
under persecution by the rise of the Safavid Shahs during the sixteenth century.
The Qadiriyyah order founded by Abdul Qadir Gilani whose tomb is at Baghdad. It is
popular among the Muslims of South India.
Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (1318-1389) of Turkestan founded Naqshbandi order of
Sufism. Khwaja Razi-ud-Din Muhammad Baqi Billah whose tomb is in Delhi, introduced the
Naqshbandi order in India. The essence of this order was insistence on rigid adherence to
Shariat and nurturing love for the Prophet. It was patronized by the Mughal rulers, as its
founder was their ancestral Pir (Spiritual guide). "The conquest of India byBabur in 1526
gave considerable impetus to the Naqshbandia order" . Its disciples remained loyal to the
throne because of the common Turkic origin. With the royal patronage of most of the
Mughal rulers, the Naqshbandi order caused the revival of Islam in its pure form.

Sufism- was it spiritual or politics?

Contrary to the spiritual mission of Sufism, the cult was primarily introduced in India for
spread of Islam with a view to help the Muslim rulers for political domination. By and large
the spiritual successors of mystic Islamic saints enjoyed the royal favour of Muslim rulers
and gave moral support to the atrocious Muslim invaders and looked other way to ignore
the growing social conflict. They also guided the State in political affairs with their
experience of regular interaction with common people.

The way Sufis' tombs emerged as a place of pilgrimage suggests that the missionary
objective of the Islamic mystics was formulated mainly for conversion and to establish the
Perso-Arabian cultural domination in South Asia. Even though the Sufi saints got convinced
with non-Islamic worldview on metaphysics in course of their interaction with non-Muslim
saints, they did not allow their followers to accommodate it in the straight jacket of Islamic
theology. Sufi saints commonly viewed as symbol of secularism however, never opposed
Jejiya (Tax imposed on non-believers) levied on Hindus in Islamic India.

Sufis had accompanied the Muslim marauders in their conquest and brought Islam in
contact with Hindu priests and saints. They were receptive to some of the local Hindu
traditions may be for a tactical reason to entice the locals towards Islam but ensured that
local norms are not accommodated against the watertight Islamic belief, dogma and
practice of Quran, Hadith and Sharia which were the fountainheads of Sufism. Their deeply
rooted belief and practice of Islamic norms within Perso-Arabic traditions remained the
bedrock of the mystic movement. Therefore, in stead of advising the Muslim marauders
against their inhuman deeds, the Sufis overlooked the plight of Hindu priests and saints,
who were forced to flee and hide themselves.

Passion to the essential spirituality of life was hardly found in any Muslim ruler or Prince
except Dara Shikoh (1615-1659). He was perhaps the only sincere Muslim prince, whose
"effort was to find a common ground between Hindu and Muslim religious thought"
(Islamic Mysticism in India by Nagendra Kumar Singh, Page 179). For this he was accused
of heresy.

Under the patronage of the State under Muslim rulers, the Sufi mystics while offering
spiritual guidance and support to the Hindu subjects allured them for adoption of Muslim
identity, superiority of Arbo-Persian-Turkish tradition and accordingly transplanted them
in the cultural tradition of India. "The establishment of Sufi orders in India coincided with
the rising political power of Muslims (Muslim-Almanac edited by Azim A.Nanji, 1996, Page
61).

Despite the fact that except Prophet Muhammad, the sainthood in Islam has been a
debatable issue, Sufism of various orders in the name of their founder saints has become a
universal aspect of Islam. Sufis are known as Islamic spiritualists and the Muslims
commonly view them as intermediaries between God and individuals.

Sufism is the sultanate period:

During the period of Sultanate in India these mystics were supposed to guarantee the
prosperity to Islamic kingdom. They were patronized by the state for spreading Islam
among the non-believers with their acclaimed spiritual influences in the mass. The gift and
land provided to the Islamic mystics were used for hospice and their tombs became a place
of pilgrimage after their death.

"On paper, the Sultanate seemed to be a perfectly Islamized state (but) religious leaders
often of Arab origin and the religion (Islam) were subordinated to the political exigencies
of the Turko-Afghans, who were in power" (A History of Modern India edited by Claude
Markovitz, Anthen Press, 2002, Page 30). "No document attests to the peaceful preaching of
the Sufis that most defenders of Islam put forward today" (Ibid. Page 33). "The attraction
exercised by the politico-economic benefits that Islam offered seemed to have been the
primary motivation for conversion, which particularly affected the middle strata of society"
(Ibid.page 33).

Even though the majority of Sufi orders have a Sunni orientation, early Shia Imams were
also revered commonly in Sufi circles. However Nakshbandi order of Sufism, which reached
the Prophet via Abu Bakra was notably known for anti-Shia views. Suhrawardiyya and
Naqshbandia orders of Sufism had more support of Muslim political powers in India." The
numerous Sufi religious establishments in India were the major means of spreading Islam
and adapting it to indigenous cultural tradition" (Islamic Mysticism in India by Nagendra
Kumar Singh, former Chairman, Islamic Research Foundation, Delhi).

Various Sufi Orders:

Of the various Sufi orders, Muslims of India prominently follow Chistiya, Naqshbandia,
Qadiriyya and Suharabardiyya. Of them the impact of Chisti order is visible even in small
villages of Indian subcontinent. Kwaja Moin-ud-Din Chisti, a disciple of Khwaja Abu Abdal
Chisti, the propounder of this order introduced it in India. Born in Afghanistan in 1142 AD,
he came to India with the army of Shihab-ud-Din Ghuri in 1192 AD and selected Ajmer as
his permanent abode since 1195. His shrine became a place of pilgrimage largely with the
support of Muslim rulers. Akbar used to have annual pilgrimage there (Indian Islam by
Murray T.Titus, 1979, Page 117).

Four Islamic mystics from Afghanistan namely Moinuddin(d. 1233 in Ajmer), Qutbuddin(d.
1236 in Delhi), Nizamuddin (d.1335 in Delhi) and Fariduddin (d.1265 in Pattan now in
Pakistan) accompanied the Islamic invaders in India (A History of Modern India edited by
Claude Markovitz, Anthen Press, 2002, Page 30). All of them were from the Chistiya order
of Islamic mysticism. Radiating from Delhi under Nizamuddin and following the trail of
Muhammad ibn Tughlaq towards the south, the Chistiya spread its roots all across India ( A
History of Modern India edited by Claude Markovitz, Anthen Press, 2002). Internationally
famous Sufi Shine at Ajmer Sharif in Rajasthan and Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi belong to
this order.

A section of Sufis under Chistiya order was not against adjustment with Hindu saints of
Bhakti cult and used even Hindi language for Islamic devotional songs. However, the
orthodox Ulama with royal support forced the Sufis to raise the slogan of "back to Shariat"
Even though Ulama had certain differences with Sufis over theological and mystic issues,
Shariat remained a cementing force between them. Later both the Islamist groups joined
together to woo the rulers with a view to furthering their self-seeking interest.

Suharawardy order of Sufism was founded by Shihabud-Din Suharawardy of Baghdad and

introduced in India by his disciple Baha-ud-Din Zakariya of Multan. Suharawardiyya order
of Sufism became popular in Bengal (Contemporary Relevance of Sufism, 1993, published
by Indian Council for Cultural relations). Qadiri order founded by Abdul Qadir whose tomb
is at Baghdad. Its influence is extensively among the Muslims of south India.

Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (1318-1389) of Turkistan founded Naqshbandi order of Sufism.

Insistence on rigid adherence to Shariat and nurturing love for prophet was the essence of
this order that established its hold in India under the patronage of Mogul rulers, as its
founder was their ancestral 'Pir' (Spiritual guide). "The conquest of India by Babur in 1526
gave considerable impetus to the Naqshbandia order" (History of Sufism in India by Saiyied
Athar Abbas Rizvi, Volume 2, 1992, Page 180). Its disciples remained loyal to the throne
because of the common Turk origin. With the royal patronage of most of the Mogul rulers
Naqshbandi order served the cause for revival of Islam in its pristine form.

Khwaja Mohhammad Baqi Billah Berang whose tomb is in Delhi (E.I.Rose ) introduced
Naqshbandi order in India. Though, the Sufis of this order were lying low during the period
of Akbar, Khalifa Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, (1564-1624), a favourite disciple of Baqi Billah
achieved increasing importance and popularised this order when the Great Mogul became
bed ridden. Baqi Billah, nicknamed him as 'Mujaddid (Reformer or reviver of Islam for the
second millenium). Muslims of South Asia prominently follow
the Chishtiyya, Naqshbandiah, Qadiriyyah and Suhrawardiyyah orders. Of them the Chishti
order is the most visible. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, a disciple of Khwaja Usman haaroni,
the propounder of this order, introduced it in India. He came to India
from Afghanistan with the army of Shihab-ud-Din Ghuri in 1192 AD and started living
permanently in Ajmer from 1195. Centuries later, with the support of Mughal rulers, his
shrine became a place of pilgrimage. Akbar used to visit the shrine every year.

Turkic conquests in South Asia were accompanied by four Sufi mystics of the Chishtiyya
order from Afghanistan: Moinuddin (d. 1233 in Ajmer),Qutbuddin (d. 1236
in Delhi), Nizamuddin (d.1335 in Delhi) and Fariduddin (d.1265 in Pakpattan now
in Pakistan) . During the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq, who spread the Delhi
sultanate towards the south, the Chistiya spread its roots all across India. The Sufi shine at
Ajmer in Rajasthan and Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, Ashraf Jahangir Semnani in Kichaucha
Shariff belong to this order.

Some Sufis under the Chishtiyya order were not against absorbing ideas from
the Hindu Bhakti movement and even used Hindi for their devotional songs. However, the
orthodox Ulama with royal support insisted that the Sufis go "back to Shariat". Even though
the Ulama had certain differences with Sufis over theological and mystic issues, the Shariat
remained a cementing force between them.

The Suharawardi order was started by Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi, a Persian Sufi born in
Sohrevard near Zanjan in Iran, and brought to India by Baha-ud-din Zakariya of Multan.
The Suhrawardiyyah order of Sufism gained popularity in Bengal. In addition,
the Suhrawardiyyah order, under the leadership of Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi (d.
1234), also bequeathed a number of teachings and institutions that were influential in
shaping other order that emerged during later periods.

The Khalwati order was founded by Umar al-Khalwati, an Azerbaijani Sufi known for
undertaking long solitary retreats in the wilderness of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran.
While the Indian Subcontinent branches of the order did not survive into modern times, the
order later spread into the Ottoman Empire and became influential there after it came
under persecution by the rise of the Safavid Shahs during the sixteenth century.
The Qadiriyyah order founded by Abdul Qadir Gilani whose tomb is at Baghdad. It is
popular among the Muslims of South India.

Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (1318-1389) of Turkestan founded Naqshbandi order of

Sufism. Khwaja Razi-ud-Din Muhammad Baqi Billah whose tomb is in Delhi, introduced the
Naqshbandi order in India. The essence of this order was insistence on rigid adherence to
Shariat and nurturing love for the Prophet. It was patronized by the Mughal rulers, as its
founder was their ancestral Pir (Spiritual guide). "The conquest of India byBabur in 1526
gave considerable impetus to the Naqshbandia order" . Its disciples remained loyal to the
throne because of the common Turkic origin. With the royal patronage of most of the
Mughal rulers, the Naqshbandi order caused the revival of Islam in its pure form.

Sufi Thinkers:

The Sharia-guided mystic influence of Sufis produced the Muslim thinkers like Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi, Shah Wali Ullah, Sayied Ahmad Barelavi, Karamat Ali, Sir Sayed Ahmad
Khan, Allama Iqbal and Maulana Maududi. They used the mystic philosophy befitting to the
political exigencies of the time for revival of political supremacy of Islam. Of them the Sufis
like Sirhindi and Wali Ullah, who politicised the mystic ideology for political domination of
Islam. They were projected as Islamic reformists for purifying Islam from any extraneous
influences. They conveyed the political aspect of Islam to Muslim masses so aggressively
that it created a permanent imprint on their psyche. It is therefore said that the Sufi
Islamists saved the Islam but failed to save the downfall of Mogul Empire.

The mission of Shaikh Sirhindi popularly know as Mujaddid was to purify Islam from the
influence of Akbar with a view to counter his policy of "the Hindu wielding the sword of
Islam" and "Peace with all". Unhappy with the regime of Emperor Akbar for withdrawal of
Jejia tax imposed on the Hindus, Sirhindi made hectic effort to purge Islam of all extraneous
influences. He viewed Hindu mystics like Guru Nanak and Sant Kabir contemptible, as they
did not follow Sharia.

With contempt against old schools of mysticism for tolerance, Sirhindi condemned the
reign of Akbar for his 'broadmindedness' and policy of 'peace with all'. Propagating against
the contemporary socio-cultural situation Sirhindi, felt that the attitude of Akbar "sullied
the purity of Islam and the political social and cultural life of Muslims" (History of Sufism in
India by Saiyied Athar Abbas Rizvi, Volume 2, 1992, Page Page 212). During the closing
years of Akbar reign, when his son Salim had revolted against him, Sirhindi spread the
virus of communalism with some success "in the beginning of Jehangir's reign". He strongly
criticised freedom of worship granted to the Hindus. Hate-Hindu syndrome was so deep in
him that "death of Akbar (1605) filled Shaikh Ahmad with hopes that the pristine purity of
Islam would be implanted in India" (Sufism in India by Saiyied Athar Abbas Rizvi, Volume
2, 1992, Page 204). "Misguided and greedy Ulama, he (Sirhindi) believed, were responsible
for the alleged downfall of Islam in Akbar's regime" (Ibid. Page 365.)

With his strong contempt against Shia and the Hindus, Sirhind wrote several letters to the
nobles in the court of Jehangir for guiding the emperor on the path of Shariat, and for
removal of Qafirs (Shias and Hindus) from the administration. He was dead against any
honourable status of Hindus in Islamic government. Sirhind wanted the religious freedom
enjoyed by the Hindus during Akbar regime to be curbed. Enraged with his too much
interference in administration, Jehangir imprisoned him in Gwalier (A History of Sufism in
India by Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, Vol. II, 1972, Page 178) but released him after one year.
Sirhind not only "injected communal virus into the body politic of the country but also
generated hatred, mutual distrust and discord among the various sections of
Muslims"(Ibid. page XII). Despite this anti-Hindu tirade of Sirhindi, Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad in 1919 eulogiged the role of Mujaddid (Sirhind),"who did not see eye to eye with the
policy of state" (Ibid. Page215).

Shah Wali Ullah, a prominent Muslim thinker of eighteenth century who shaped the destiny
of Indian Muslims was also a Sufi of Naqshbandi order. His contempt against the Hindus
was identical to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. The rise of two Hindu rebellious groups namely
Marathas and Jats against the Muslim rulers in 1750s stirred the mystic spirit of Wali Ullah
and he invited Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Afghan ruler to invade India to save the Muslims
from the subjugation of Hindus. While formulating the contours of his mystical ideology, he
transformed the Islamic mysticism to a theo-political concept for supremacy of Islam and
for political power to the Sunnis.

Wali Ullah started a tradition of reformed Sufism in which Islamic mysticism was far
superior to other form of mystic philosophy. His reform in Sufi cult made the spirituality of
Islam subservient to Political Islam. His doctrine for internal unity of Muslims through
complete adherence to pure Islam was only to fight against the infidels and for
reestablishment of assertive Islamic political power. His ideology had no scope to
accommodate any order of non-Islamic mysticism, which he regarded unhealthy. He tried
to comb out all the foreign influences, such as neo-platonism and Vedantism from Islamic
mysticism. Carving out a new path for Sufism he became an active Islamist with a sole
objective for resurgent Sunni political power in Delhi. (A History of Sufism in India, Vol. II,
Rizvi, Page 259).
Bridging the gulf between the Islamic clerics and Sufis, Wali Ullah infused new vigour in
practice of Naqshbandi Sufi order. He synthesised the disciplines of the three major Sufi
orders namely Qadari, Chisti and Naqshbandi with a view to unite the Muslim society
against the Hindus. Like Shaikh Ahmad Sirhind he was also against the presence of Hindu
employees in the administration of Muslim rulers as he viewed it detrimental to the purity
of Islam. His attempt was to purify Islam from the mystic influence of Hinduism. Under the
influence of Serhindi whose belief that Islam is a complete way of life stirred the Muslims to
retrieve the medieval glory of the faith in this sub continent. The exclusivist Ideology of
Wali Ullah, which sowed the seed of Muslim separatism in South Asia had nothing to do
with the secular intellectual approach towards spiritualism.

Against the total rejection of Sufism by his contemporary radical Islamist Wahhab of Saudi
Arabia, Waliullah used his mystic ideology for political domination of the Muslims in the
region. However, the spirit and aim of both were for adherence to pure Islam. He was the
main guiding source for Muslims after the decline of Islamic rule in Indian subcontinent.
Contrary to the commonly viewed Sufi tradition he was not receptive to the spiritual
tradition of local Hindus in any form. His main spiritual concerns if any was for revival of
Islamic India.

The Muslim ruler under the influence of the doctrine of Shah Wali Ullah patronised Islamic
learning and "took away the administrative and economic power that had passed into the
hands of Hindus" (Islamic Mysticism in India by Nagendra Kumar Singh, Page 185). "For
Shah Wali Ullah, the decline of Mogul political power and the spiritual decadence of Indian
Islam were closely related "(The Sufi Orders in Islam by J. Spencer Trimingham, Oxford,
1971, Page 196).

Sayyid Ahmad Barelavi, a disciple of Abd al Aziz, (the son of Shah Wali Ullah) continued the
tradition of Waliullah by synthesising the three major Sufi orders" (The Sufi orders in Islam
by Spencer Trimingham, Oxford, 1971, Page 129). He launched armed jehad against the
non-Muslims but was killed in the battle of Balkot against Sikh leader Ranjit Singh. Karamat
Ali, a disciple of Sayed Ahmad Barelavi further developed the ideology for purifying Islam
from the influences of Hindu custom and tradition. "His work largely paved the way for the
establishment of the organisation which has more recently been developed under the name
of Ahl-I-Hadith" (Indian Islam by Murray T Titus, 1979, Page 186). It was a neo-Sufi
concept of Islam interpreted by Shah Wali-Ullah.

The leaders of Deoband movement were also under the influence of both Wali Ullah and
Wahhab and accordingly they resisted against the British and were critical of Aligarh
movement because of its leader Sir Sayed Ahmad being loyal to it. Protracted struggle with
the concept of greater jehad was the basic creed of Deoband movement, which is a
synthesis of Wahhab and Wali Ullah. Deobandis extreme austere approach towards
Wahhab and harsh condemnation of the much popular practice of Sufism in India are being
viewed as a totally anti-Sufi movement. Ahmad Riza Khan Barilavi(1856-1921), the
founder of Barelavi movement was the defender of traditional Sufi movement but
Muhammad Ilyas, a pietistic missionary group though, appropriated the ethical emphasis of
Sufism rejected its ritual, metaphysics and sainthood (M.A.Haq - The Faith Movement of
Maulana Ilyas, London, 1972 - Quoted from Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol. X, page 336).

Influence and Impact of Sufism:

Sufism had a very deep influence and and far reaching impact on Indian society and the life
of common man.

1. Indian People, were attracted by the simple living, ethics of life and sense of
brotherhood. For these things people came close to each other. It reduced the social and
other types of excitement.
2. Sufi philosophy was based on social mobility. The idea of social equality as expressed in
Sufism lifted several people of the lower castes to higher grade.
3. Sufism was very much behind the advancement of learning and progress of literature in
India. The Khankas were the centre of education. Many poor men came there and
learned about many things.
4. Their tolerant religious outlook brought many Hindus towards Islam. Patience of Islam,
as explained in Sufism, paved the backdrop of peaceful coexistence.
5. By coming into contact with Sufism many Muslim rulers and aristocrat accepted the
ethics of toleration. So, the unity of the country became very well-established. Mughal
emperorAkbar took clue of religious toleration from the Sufism of Sultan Shahi.
6. Sufi saints wrote lyrics in Hindi and sang Hindi songs. This has popularized the
language.

Sufi during British Rule:

Sufi movement became dormant with the decline of Muslim power in India. With the failure
of armed resistance against the British and Sikh- Hindu combined, the followers of hard
line Sufism were forced to adjust with the ground reality of non-Muslim occupation of
Indian subcontinent but did not reconcile with it. The failure of Sepoy mutiny and
consolidation of British power in Indian subcontinent was a further jolt on the radical
Islamists but all the Islamic revivalist movements like Deoband, Aligarh and Pakistan drew
their inspirations from the anti Hindu syndrome of Sufi saints like Sirhind and Shah Wal
Ullah. Khilafat movement and subsequent Pakistan movement were the outcome of the
jehadi interpretation of Walli Ullah brand of neo-Sufi jehad against the political domination
of non-believers. The resistance of Muslims against the British and subsequently against
the Indian National Congress was due to deep and hard line influence of Shah Wali Ullah
over them.

Before the failure of 1857 Sepoy mutiny Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan was a follower of the neo-
Sufi cult of Shah Waliullah.. Elizabeth Syrriyeh (Sufis and Anti-Sufis, 1999) maintained that
Syed Ahmad Khan gradually distanced himself fro Shah Wali ullah. But firmly rooted in the
Indian Islamic mysticism he was deeply pained with the plight of Muslims after the collapse
of Sepoy mutiny of 1857. He therefore, took up the challenge of modern education and
transformed the revolutionary mystic ideology of Shah Wali Ullah for revitalisation of
Islamic glory through western education. Had he distanced himself from Wali Ullah, he
would not have initiated the two-nation theory on the line of this Sufi Islamist to promote
the movement of Muslim separatism through his Aligarh movement.

Sir Sayeds philosophy was a synthesis of progressive and orthodox Islam. On one hand he
favoured modern education on European pattern and on the other he supported Islamic
orthodoxy for superior religious identity of Muslims. He reinterpreted the cultural heritage
of Islam within the mystic ideological frame of Wali Ulla, His Aligarh movement was a
tactical but a hidden alliance of the Muslims with British under latter's sovereignty to
revive the supremacy of Muslims. He advocated for free discussion on Islam but due to his
communal obsession he did not strive hard to prove his point for the socio-religious
integration of Indian society. His excluvist belief of Muslims' superiority was based on the
mystic ideology of Wali Ullah. It was against the unity of Indian society.

According to Allama Iqbal, "he (Wali Ullah) was the first Muslim to feel the urge for
rethinking the whole system of Islam without in any way breaking away from its past" (The
Sufi Orders in Islam by J. Spencer Trimingham, Oxford, 1971, Page 198). In fact Wali Ullah
and Abd al Wahhab recommended religiously approved jehad against unbelievers (non-
Muslims) but rejected the commonly viewed difference between lesser jehad and greater
jehad. "This physical armed struggle had commonly been termed 'lesser jihad' (al-jihad-al -
asghar), the greater jihad (al-jihad-al akbar) being the struggle for the interior
spiritualisation of individual battle waged against the base self rather than exterior armies"
(Sufis and anti-Sufis by Elizabeth Surriyeh, 1999, Page 29).
Iqbal was a known follower of Islamic mysticism of Qadiriyya order. He, synthesied the
mystic ideology of Wali Ullah and the modern view on Islam of Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan and
made his Islamic mystic approach completely subservient to political domination of the
Muslims. Applying modern philosophy in his intellectual exploration of Sufism he gradually
turned to an anti-Sufi philosopher. He said, "The present day Muslims prefer to roam about
aimlessly in the dusty valleys of Hellenic -Persiam mysticism, which teaches us to shut our
eyes to the hard reality around, and to fix our gaze on what it describes as 'Illuminations' a
blue, red and yellow reality springing up from the cells of an overworked brain" (Sufis and
anti-Sufis by Elizabeth Syrrieh, 1999). "Sufi shaikhs constituting a spiritual aristocracy,
Iqbal appealed to Muslim youth to cast off the Sufi noose from their neck" (Ibid. Page133).
For Iqbal Sufism was a formulation of Islamic Persianism. It was contrary to the purity of
Arabic faith in its original version. His rejection of Sufism was influenced by Wahhabi
movement of Saudi Arabia, which was more concerned with Islamic power following the
decline of Muslim power in eighteenth century.

CONCLUSION

The concept of Tawhid (Unity in God), which is the real formulation of Sufism suggests that
Islamic mysticism has no difference with the formulations of other non-Islamic faiths about
the oneness of God. On this basis Sufism became popular in India during the period of
Muslim rule. But when the Sufis supported the Muslims in their political conflict with the
Hindus and played important role in conversion of indigenous people to Islam, it gave birth
to politicisation of religion, which generated communal tension between the two major
religious communities. The movement for purifying Islam from extraneous influences,
which was launched by the Sufis like Saikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Shah Wali Ullah was against
the spiritual doctrine of 'Tawhid' (Unity in God). Creating a far-reaching impact on the
psyche of Indian Muslims it continues to keep the Muslim mass away from the modern
global changes.

Sufism in India has commonly been viewed as a secular attempt for eternal quest of the
soul for its direct experience of the ultimate Super power. For centuries the Hindus
accepted Sufi shrines as symbol of communal harmony. A large number of them have been
offering prayers in Sufi shrines without any reservation but this liberal gesture has not
been reciprocated Muslims.

Had Sufism as commonly been viewed as an attempt to adapt Islam in Hindu tradition, the
philosophy of two-nation theory would not have emerged. The Hindu revivalist movement
like Arya Samaj was a reaction to politicisation of the doctrine of Sufism, which widened
the gap of mistrust between the two major religious communities of South Asia.
Contrary to the common perception that Sufism tried to unify the Hindu-Muslim
spirituality for a communal harmony, the political Islamists of Sufi background used the
doctrine of Tawhid to accelerate the process of Muslim separatism in Indian subcontinent.
Their movements were the by-products of Sufi tradition of Islam. They were basically the
mystics for the political domination of Islam activists.

The basic creed of mystic movements is unity of God irrespective of religious connotation.
Unity of God denotes social unity and universal brotherhood. But these political mystics not
only divided the society on the basis of religion but their doctrine created a permanent
Hindu-Muslim conflict in the region. The spirit of mysticism is to resolve any dilemma
confronting the society. But Sufi movement failed to resolve confronting Hindu-Muslim
dilemma in Indian society. In practice they launched a movement for systematic
dehumanisation of Islam and negated the concept of Islamic spiritualism of Tawhid (Unity
of God). A critical study of the tenets of Sufism indicates that it was acquainted with
Hinduism and Hindu thought and had imbibed certain elements of Indian idealism and
adopted many Yogic practices and also was influenced by Upanishadic idealism and
Vedanta.

The early Sufis were not only ascetics but also lived a life of voluntary poverty shunning all
types of worldly pleasures. Khwaja Fariduddin, popularly known as Baba declared, The
main purpose of this path is the concentration of heart which can be achieved only by the
abstination from prohibited means of livelihood and association with kings. Thus, most of
the Sufis in India conceived and preached divine unity in terms of idealistic monoism while
many Hindus found the Sufi ideas very similar to those of Vedantic philosophy.

The lower strata of Hindu community appear to be greatly attracted by the ideas of social
equality and fraternity of Islam. Thus the simplicity, toleration and liberation of the Sufis in
India released syncretic forces and led to a sort of cultural synthesis.

The Sufi sages changed Indian history forever. The mystical, ethereal Sufi orders, not the
Turk-Afghan warrior dynasties of the Delhi sultanate and definitely not the state financed
Mughal ulama and qazis, inspired the mass conversions to Islam in India for a millennium.
Ibn Batuta, the legendary Arab traveller, was stunned by the power of the Sufi holy men in
the court of the Tughlak sultans when he visited Delhi in the 1340s. Even now, the tombs
of Amir Khusro (the founder of qawwali or Sufi devotional music), Nizamuddin Auliya,
Moinuddin Chishti and Baba Farid evoke the fervour and passions of the Middle Ages.

No wonder Sufism left such an indelible imprint on Indian Islam and Muslim nationalism.
The Mughal emperors extended royal patronage to the Nakshbandis, whose founder was
the ancestral pir of the House of Taimur. Akbar, who tried his best to synthesise Islam and
Hinduism to consolidate the power of the empire, was opposed by the ulama and the Sufi
sheikhs of Agra. Yet not even the great Mughals dared challenge the power of the Sufi
brotherhood. It is ironic that Sufi ideas not only inspired mass conversions to Islam but also
accelerated the idea of Muslim separation in India after the Mughal empire was vanquished
by the Jats, Marathas and John Company.

Both Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Allama Iqbal adapted Sufi mysticism to geopolitical
concepts of a Muslim renaissance in Indian power politics. After all, the failure after the
1857 Mutiny destroyed the Muslim landowning elite in India, reinforced Muslim alienation
from the ideals of Macaulay and Lord Canning, started the ideological process that was to
culminate in the creation of Pakistan. It is undeniable that Sufi mystics spread Islam at a
popular level, reduced the psychological comfort zone between the religions of the ruling
class and the Hindu masses to a degree impossible for the orthodox ulama of the Mughal
empire.

After all, the hospices of the Sufi orders fed and lodged millions of poor Hindus too, offered
a template of compassion that was often irresistible to people who never knew any concept
of human brotherhood in the grim prison of caste hierarchies. Had the Sufi Prince Dara
Shikoh won the war of imperial succession, the history of the world would have been so
radically different.

Lenin wrote that religion was the opium of the masses but the comrade was dead wrong in
this, as in so much else. Sufi brotherhoods turbo-charged Turkmen ethic nationalism
against Stalinist terror in Central Asia, as they had countless uprisings against the
imperialist aggression of the Romanov Tsars. The KGB executed thousands of Uzbek Sufis,
destroyed 25,000 mosques in Uzbekistan alone and infiltrated the Sufi dervishism but
could never end the moonlit secret pilgrimages to the tomb of the saints, could never end
the link between Muslim identity and opposition to Bolshevik totalitarian terror.

The Sufi message is of a tolerant, cosmopolitan Islam that once defined Arab culture from
Baghdad and Yemen to Fez and Seville. A thousand years ago, Abdul Qadir Jilani warned
Muslims never to use violence, never to accuse each other of kufr (disbelief), to never
forget that Allah is above all else compassionate and merciful. I do not find it coincidental
that the Sufis, whose saints include Bibi Rabia Basri and Fatima Nishapuri emphasis
equality between men and women.
 SOME FAMOUS SUFIS

Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani

Order Qadiri (founder)

Madh'hab Hanbali

Born 1077 AD / 470 AH

Jilan, Iran

Passed away 1166 AD / 561 AH

Baghdad, Iraq

Resting place Baghdad, Iraq

Title(s)
Al-Ghawth al-A'zam

Al-Hasani wal Husseini

Piran-e-Pir

Sultan al-Awliya

The Rose of Baghdad

Al-Sayyid Muhiyudin Abu Muhammad Abdal Qadir Al-Jilani Al-Hasani Wal-Hussaini (born 11 Rabi al-
Thani), 470 Hijri, in the town of Na'if, district of Gilan, Ilam Province Or Amol of Tabarestan, Persia,
died 8 Rabi al-Awwal 561 AH, in Baghdad,[1] (10771166 CE), was a Persian Hanbali jurist and Sufi
based in Baghdad. Qadiriyya was his patronym. Al Gilani spent his early life in Na'if, the town of his
birth. There, he pursued the study of Hanbali law. Abu Ali al-Mukharrimi gave Al Gilani lessons in
Fiqh. He was given lessons about Hadith by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar. He was given lessons about
Tafsir by Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. In Tasawwuf, his spiritual instructor was Abu'l-
Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent
twenty-five years as a reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, Al Gilani returned to
Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to
his own teacher, al-Mukharrimii,and was popular with students. In the morning he taught hadith and
tafsir, and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of the heart and the virtues of the
Qur'an. He was said to have been a convincing preacher and converted numerous Jews and
Christians. His strength came in the reconciling of the mystical nature of the Sufi and strict nature of
the Qur'an. He felt it important to control egotism and worldliness in submission to God.

Abul Hasan al-Shadhili

Order Shadhili (founder)

Born 593 AH/1197 AD

Ghumarah, near present-day Ceuta, Morocco

Passed away 656 AH/1258AD

Humaithara, Egypt

Resting place Humaithara, Egypt

Predecessor Abd as-Salam ibn Mashish

 Successor Abu'l Abbas al-Mursi

Abul Hasan al-Shadhili (died 1258 CE), the founder of the Shadhiliyya Sufi order,
introduced dhikr jahri (The method of remembering Allah through loud means). Sufi orders generally
preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self (nafs) and its worldly desires. This is sometimes
characterized as the "Order of Patience-Tariqus Sabr". In contrast, Imam Shadhili taught that his
followers need not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God has
bestowed upon them. This notion, known as the "Order of Gratitude-Tariqush Shukr", was espoused
by Imam Shadhili. Imam Shadhili gave eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies) to his followers out of which
the notable Hizbul Bahris recited worldwide even today.

Bayazid Bastami

Bayazid Bastami (died 874 CE) is considered to be "of the six bright stars in the firmament of
the Prophet", and a link in the Golden Chain of the Naqshbandi Tariqah. He is regarded as the
first mystic to openly speak of the annihilation (fan') of the base self in the Divine, whereby the
mystic becomes fully absorbed to the point of becoming unaware of himself or the objects around
him. Every existing thing seems to vanish, and he feels free of every barrier that could stand in the
way of his viewing the Remembered One. In one of these states, Bastami cried out: "Praise to Me,
for My greatest Glory!" His belief in the unity of all religions became apparent when asked the
question: "How does Islam view other religions?" His reply was "All are vehicles and a path to God's
Divine Presence".

Ibn Arabi

Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn 'Arabi AH 561- AH 638 (July 28, 1165 November 10, 1240) is
considered to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never founded any order
(tariqa). His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied
within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine Unity), though because of
theirrecondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching
became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his
writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his
legacy is that 'you should never ever abandon your servanthood ('ubudiyya), and that there may
never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing'.

Junayd Baghdadi

Junayd Baghdadi (830910 CE) was one of the great early Sufis, and is a central figure in the
golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of
God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of al-
Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued this
fatwa: "From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to the outward
appearance and God knows better". He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifai.e., the leader of
the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.

Moinuddin Chishti

Order Chisti

Born 530 AH/1136 AD

Isfahan or Sistan (Modern-day Iran)

Passed 627 AH/1230 AD

away Ajmer, India

Resting Ajmer, India

place

Title(s) Qutb-ul-Mashaikh Barro Behr (Lord of

the land and the sea)
Habib Allah (Beloved of God)
Ata-e-Rasul (Gift of the Prophet)
 Khwaja-e-Ajmer (Khwaja of Ajmer)
Khwaja-e-Buzurg (Great Khwaja)
Hind-ul-Wali (Saint of India)
Gharib Nawaz (Patron of the poor)
Sultan-ul-Hind (Spiritual Sovereign of
India)
Naib-e-Rasul-fil-Hind (Deputy of the
Prophet in India)
Aftab-e-Jahan (Sun of the World)
Panah-e-Bekasan (Shelter of the
Helpless)
Daleel-ul-Arefeen (Argument of the
Enlightened)

He was born in 1141 and died in 1236 CE. Also known as Gharb Nawz "Benefactor of the Poor",
he is the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order of the Indian Subcontinent. Moinuddin Chishti
introduced and established the order in the subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the
Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya
(each successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of
Indian history. Moinuddin Chisht turned towards India, reputedly after a dream in which Prophet
Muhammad blessed him to do so. After a brief stay at Lahore, he reached Ajmer along with Sultan
Shahb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori, and settled down there.[4] In Ajmer, he attracted a substantial
following, acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of the city. Moinuddin Chisht
practiced the Sufi Sulh-e-Kul (peace to all) concept to promote understanding between Muslims and
non-Muslims. He is addressed by various titles, amongst which are:

Jalaluddin Rumi

Order Mevlevi
 Madh'hab Hanafi

Born 6 Rabi-ul-Awwal 604 AH/

30 September 1207 AD

Wakhsh (present-day Balkh Province, Tajikistan)

Passed away
6 Jumada al-Thani 672 AH/

17 December 1273 AD

Konya (present-day Turkey)

Resting place
Konya, Turkey

Predecessor Burhanuddin Muhaqqiq al-Tirmidhi

Successor Hazrat Husamuddin Chelebi

Mawlana Jalaluddin Muhammad Rumi also known as Jalaluddin Muhammad Balkhi (30 September
1207 17 December 1273), often known respectfully as Mawlana ("our Master"), is a thirteenth-century
Persian Sufi saint, jurist, theologian, poet and one of the greatest spiritual masters of Islam. He was
known as Rumi ("Roman") because he spent most of his life in the region known by Muslims as "Rum,"
the Anatolian peninsula most of which had been conquered by the Seljuq Turks after centuries of rule by
the Roman Empire. He is acknowledged as the father of one of Islams major Sufi orders,
the Mevlevi order although its actual inception came about through his disciples. He was also often
referred to by the Persian title, Khodawandgar ("great Master").

Mawlana is widely regarded as not only one of the greatest Sufi poets but has also been described by
Western orientalists as "the most eminent Sufi poet whom Persia has produced", "the greatest mystical
poet of Islam" and even "the greatest mystical poet of any age."

He is the author of the famous Mathnawi, a poem of 25,700 couplets, considered his greatest work that
was composed in his later years, containing a great number of stories and anecdotes of diverse styles.
His second best known work is the Diwan-i Shams-i Tabriz, totaling some 40,000 couplets, which is a
collection of poems describing the mystical states and expounding various points of Sufi doctrine. The
Diwan is a collection of ecstatic utterances, with most of the ghazals (or "lyric poems of love") composed
spontaneously by Mawlana during the sama (whirling meditation), a practice still performed today by the
Sufis of the Mevlevi order.

Nizamuddin Auliya

Order Chisti

Born 636 AH/1238 AD

Badaun, Uttar Pradesh, India

Passed away 725 AH/1325 AD

Delhi, India

Resting place Delhi, India

Title(s)
Sultan-ul-Mushaikh

Mahboob-e-Elahi (beloved of God)

Hazrat Shaikh Khwaja Syed Muhammad Nizamuddin Auliya was the fourth Spiritual Successor (Khalifa)
of Hazrat Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer the founder of the illustrious Order of Chishti saints in this
country. He was specially selected by his Pir-o-Murshid Hazrat Khwaja Fariduddin Ganjshakar, for this
onerous responsibility because of his unique merits as a learned scholar, an able and diligent
administrator and a perfect Spiritual Master, on the recommendation of a "basharat" (revelation) from the
Holy Prophet.

After the demise of Hazrat Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Hazrat Khwaja Nizamuddin Aulia, therefore,
succeeded him as the fourth Sajjadanashin (highest spiritual leader) of India; Hazrat Allauddin Ali Ahmed
Sabir of Kalyar being the third in the order of precedence. During his primary years, he performed
mujaheda for 30 years continuously. In his declining years, he performed harder mujahedas. He fasted
daily throughout his life. During the 24 hours of day and night, it is reported that he offered 200 to 300
rakats of Namaz. He used to stay in a hujra at the roof of his Khanqah but, even at the age of 80, he used
to come down to perform Namaz with the congregation punctually. Daily, after all the 3 morning prayers
(fajr, Chaasht and Ishraaq) he used to sit in his jamaatkhana (congregation hall) to impart religious
teaching to the aspirants, when all the Ulema and Suffis of his group were also present. During this
period, the poor and the needy from the city visited his Khanqha, and everyone of them was provided with
food, money and clothing. It was his strict standing order that everything in the Khabqha's kitchen must be
given away to the poor and that nothing should be stored for the morrow.

Amir Khusro

Order Chishti

Born 651 AH/1253-4 AD

Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, India

Passed away 18 Shawwal 725 AH/27 September 1325 AD

Delhi, India

Resting place Delhi, India

Urs Date 17 to 19 Shawwal

Predecessor Nizamuddin Auliya

Abu'l Hasan Yaminuddin Khusro, better known as Amir Khusro (also Khusrau, Khusrow) Dehlavi,
was the poet laureate of the Indian subcontinent and enjoys ever-lasting fame as one of the most
versatile poets and prolific prose-writers of the 13th and 14th centuries.

He is traditionally considered to be the founder of qawwali and lyrical poetry in Hindustani (Urdu), credited
with enriching Hindustani classical music by introducing Persian and Arabic elements in it. The invention
of the sitar and the musical styles known as khyal and tarana are also attributed to him. His poetical
composition, the amalgamation of Persian and Hindi in particular, was aimed at cementing the bonds of
culture and friendship between the Hindus and Muslims of India.

He was an intellectual giant of many languages, with knowledge of Turkish, Arabic, Persian and the
vernaculars of northern India - the Khariboli, (Urdu and Hindi both being developed forms of it), Braj
Bhasha and Awadhi. It was during his stay in Awadh, Delhi and Punjab that he learned these northern
languages. He also learned Sanskrit which he placed before all other languages, except Arabic, the
language of his religion.

Above all, he was a most dutiful and devoted mureed of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, the spiritual monarch
of his day in the subcontinent. During the past 600 years, India has not produced such an intellectual
giant. To tell the truth, even Iran and Greece, in the past few millenia, have produced only two or four
individuals of such intellect, combining so many qualities in one being, as Amir Khusro possessed. Apart
from his many other rare qualities, if we take his poetical genius exclusively, we are astonished at the
multiplicity of the varied subjects upon which he had attained masterly command. Firdausi, Anwari, Saadi,
Haafiz, Urfi and Nazeeri, although they were undoubtedly intellectual giants of their own "subjects" and
fields of poetry, their achievements were confined only to one particular subject. Firdausi could not go
beyond masnavi, Saadi could not touch qaseeda , Anwari had no command over masnavi or ghazal,
while Haafiz, Urfi and Naseeri could not get beyond ghazal. It was, however, Khusro who commanded
complete mastery over ghazal, masnavi, qaseeda and rubayee, besides thousands of other smaller
poetical compositions on a variety of subjects and common topics. If we calculate the huge number of
Khusro's voluminous compositions, we find no match to him in terms of quantity in the history of poetry.
The number of Firdausi's verses in Shahnama is supposed to be 70,000. Saadi's number of poetical
compositions is no more than 100,000 but Amir Khusro's number exceeds 450,000.

Fariduddin Ganjshakar

Order Chisti

Born 569 AH/1179 AD

Khotwal, Multan District, Pakistan

Passed away 661 AH/1263 AD

Pakpattan, Pakistan

Resting place Pakpattan, Pakistan

Title(s) Ganjskahar (treasury of sweetness)

 Predecessor Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki

Hazrat Khwaja Fariduddin Masood Ganjshakar was one of the most brilliant personalities of the Chishti
Order of Sufis in India. After the untimely death of Hazrat Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, the
mantlepiece of India's spiritual leadership within the illustrious Chishti Order fell upon the shoulders of
Hazrat Khwaja Fariduddin Masood Ganjshakar of Pakpatan, popularly known as "Baba Farid" and "Baba
Ganjshakar". Hazrat Baba Fariduddin reached the pinnacle of spiritual glory through extremely hard
"Mujahedas" and persistent "Riyazaat" in order to gain complete mastery over the Nafs (apptetive soul).

It is reported that Baba Farid, under his Pir-o-Murshid's command, performed many awe-inspiring
'Mujahedas' (strivings) which drained his vitality although he persevered through spiritual nourishment
and determination.

Hazrat Baba Fariduddin fasted daily throughout his life and yet he regularly maintained his nightly
programme of prayers and devotion. So great was his spiritual vitality that he never gave up fasting even
when he was sick. During the nights of Ramadan, he used used to finish two readings of the Holy Quran.
Fear of God always dominated him and very often he used to weep penitently, sometimes loudly, out of
God's fear.

Hazrat Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar was one of the biggest 'Mujaheds' of Sufism. He performed many
mujahedas both before and after getting Khilafat.
The mazar is located in the city of Pakpattan and was first constructed under the supervision of Hazrat
Khawaja Nizamuddin Auliya. The shrine is now made entirely of marble. It is open all day and night and it
is visited by thousands from all walks of life. Charity food known as Langar is distributed during the day.

Rabia Basri

Order Unknown

Born Circa 95-99 AH/713-717 AD

Basra, Iraq
 Passed away Circa 180-85 AH/796-801 AD

Resting place Basra, Iraq

Hazrat Rabi'a al-Adawiyya al-Qaysiyya (ra) also known as Rabi'ah al-Basri was a Sufi saint from Iraq
and is considered to be the first female Sufi Saint of Islam, the first in a long line of female Sufi mystics.
She lived during the 8th Century and was born in Basra, a seaport in southern Iraq where she spent the
vast majority of her life. Much of her early life is narrated by Hazrat Fariduddin Attar (ra), a later Sufi saint
and poet, who used earlier sources. She did not leave any written works herself.

Hazrat Rabia Basri (ra) is remembered to this day as one of the greatest saints of the 8th century and is
remembered with devotion and affection for her faith, piety and patience. The great woman mystic, saint
and Qalandar of Islam had conquered herself (Nafs) through devotion, meditation, contemplation,
patience (Sabr) as well as fear and trust in God. (Tawwakul). Hazrat Rabia Basri (ra) was constantly
absorbed in the thought of God and had reached the pinnacle of mystic path i.e Fina-Fillah.

Bahauddin Zakariya Suhrawardi

Order Suhrawardi

Born 566AH / 1170AD or 587 AH/1192 AD

Kot Karor, near Multan, Pakistan

Passed away 666 AH/1267 AD

Multan, Pakistan

Resting place Multan, Pakistan

 Predecessor Shihabuddin Suhrawardi

Hazrat Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya Suhrawardi was the leading Sufi saint of his time in North Western
India and belonged to well known Suhrawardi silsila originating in Baghdad. He was a contemporary of
Hazrat Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar of Ajodhan and Hazrat Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi. All
three great saints had a close friendship and mutual regard for each other. Hazrat Bahauddin is said to
have passed away after a prolonged illness. He died in mysterious circumstances. One day a disciple
brought a letter, and gave it to his son, Hazrat Sheikh Sadruddin , saying: A man gave me this letter and
said, "Take it to Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya". Sheikh Sadruddin, when he read the address on the letter,
turned pale. He went and gave that letter to Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya. The Sheikh, on reading the
letter, turned aside and uttered loud cries. That night Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya may God have mercy
upon him died. Thus, came to an end to a noble and illustrious career on Thursday the seventh of Safar
in 666 AH/1267 AD .' The mausoleum is reported to have been constructed at Sheikh's own expense
during his lifetime. The tomb consists of two tiers, with the lower one having a traditional square base,
whereas the upper one is octagonal. The material and dcor are made of bricks and blue ceramics. It
features the earliest example of blue tilework in the subcontinent. In the year 1848, during the siege of
Multan, the cupola and part of the upper tier weredestroyed by the British cannon shells, but were
restored later. In 1952 a spacious brick verandah with a painted wooden ceiling was added to the
mausoleum, from where the massive carved wooden doors lead into the small burial chamber. There,
under a fretted wooden canopy the mortal remains of the saint and his son Hazrat Sadruddin are laid to
rest. Behind the tomb a mosque has also been built.

Bahauddin Naqshband

Order Naqshbandi

Born Muhurram 717 AH / March 1389 AD

Qasr al-Arifan, Bukhara (present-day Uzbekistan)

Passed away 791 AH/1391 AD

Resting place Qasr al-Arifan

Map of Burial Place

Predecessor Hazrat Sayyid Amir Kulal

 Successor Hazrat Alauddin al-Bukhari al-Attar

Hazrat Muhammad Bahauddin Shah Naqshband is a 14th century Central Asian Sufi saint after whom
the Naqshbandi order takes its name. The name Naqshband is sometimes understood in connection with
the craft of embroidering, and Hazrat Bahauddin is said to have in fact assisted his father in weaving
cloaks (kimkha) in Bukhara. More commonly, however, it is taken to refer to the fixing of the divine name
of God to the heart by means of dhikr.

To the people of Bukhara, whose patron saint he became, he was known posthumoulsy as khwadja-yi
bala-gardan ("the averter of disaster"), referring to protective powers bestowed on him during his training
period. Elsewhere, especially in Turkey, he is popularly called Shahi Naqshband.

In his youth he experienced visionary revelations and before the age of 20 was recognized as a brilliant
Islamic scholar. He is said to have received training through the spirit (ruhaniyat) of earlier masters of the
lineage including Hazrat Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani, the well known khalifa of Hazrat Yusuf al-
Hamadani and by Hazrat Khidr (alaihis salam).

Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi

Order Chisti

Born Circa 672 AH/1274 AD

Ayodhya/Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India

Passed away 757 AH/1356 AD

Delhi, India

Resting Delhi, India

place
Map of Burial Place

Title(s) Chiragh-e-Dehli (Light of Delhi)

Predecessor Nizamuddin Auliya

 Successor Various, the most prominent being Khwaja Bande

Nawaz

Nasiruddin Mahmud Chirag-e-Delhi (or Chiragh-e-Delhi) was a prominent saint of the Chishti Order.
He was a mureed (disciple) of the great saint, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and later his khalifa (successor).
He was the last recognised khalifa of the Chishti Order from Delhi and was given the title, "Roshan
Chirag-e-Delhi", which in Urdu means "Illuminated Lamp of Delhi".

In his lifetime Khwaja Nasiruddeen Chiragh witnessed the final ruin of the kingdom of Delhi and the
fragmentation of the Chishtia silsila. Under his guidance, the sacred order managed to stay true to its
principles of remaining above politics and the whims of kings, even though in his haste to combat the
popularity of the silsila, the reigning sultan destroyed Delhi itself.

Fatima bint ibn al-Muthanna

Nunah Fatima bint ibn al-Muthanna more commonly known as Fatima of Cordoba was a twelfth centry
Andalusian Sufi saint and shaykha (spiritual guide) of the famous Hazrat Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi. Although
she lived in extreme poverty and was very old when she met the young Hazrat Ibn Arabi, her beauty was
that of a young woman, so replenished was she by the love of God. Hazrat Fatima was born in Cordoba
in Spain and chose to embark on the spiritual path while still a young girl living with her family. She later
moved to Seville and married a righteous man who was afflicted with leprosy, whom she happily and
dutifully served for twenty-four years until he passed away.

She earned her living through hand-spinning but was soon forced to give up this profession after she
injured her spinning finger. She took this as a sign and from then on lived in very impoverished
circumstances, subsisting on offerings and food that had been discarded by others.

When she became hungry and had no food to eat, she would nevertheless remain cheerful and thank
God for His favour in that he was subjecting her to the same circumstances to which He had subjected
his prophets and saints. She would say, "Lord, how can I deserve this great position in that You treat me
as You treated Your loved ones?"

Jahanara Begum
Together with her brother Dara Shikoh, she was a disciple of Mullah Shah Badakhshi, who initiated
her into the Qadiriyya Sufi order in 1641. Jahanara Begum made such progress on the Sufi path that
Mullah Shah would have named her his successor in the Qadiriyya, but the rules of the order did not
allow this.
She wrote a biography of Moinuddin Chishti, the founder of the Chishtiyah order, titled Munis al-
Arw, as well as a biography of Mullah Shah, titled Rislah-i ibyah, in which she also described
her initiation by him. Her biography of Moinuddin Chishti is highly regarded for its judgment and
literary quality. In it she regarded him as having initiated her spiritually four centuries after his death,
described her pilgrimage to Ajmer and spoke of herself as a faqrah to signify her vocation as a Sufi
woman.

Jahanara Begum stated that she and her brother Dr were the only descendants of Timur to
embrace Sufism. However, Aurangzeb was spiritually trained as a follower of Sufism as well. As a
patron of Sufi literature, she commissioned translations of and commentaries on many works of
classical literature.

Bulleh Shah
Baba Bulleh Shah was a revered Sufi saint of India whose real name was Abdullah Shah. He
preached his teachings and principles in Punjab. During the time he was at his peak, there was
much unrest between Muslims and Sikhs. He preached nothing but the truth and his words of
wisdom pacified those affected by the constant tiffs between Muslims and Sikhs. Through his
poems, he criticized the orthodox religious systems that were prevalent during his time. His poems
were written in Punjabi and Sindhi as these were languages that common people could read and
understand.

Lal Shahbaz Qalandar

Sayed Hussain Shah (11771274), known as Lal Shahbaz Qalandar was a Sufi philosopher-poet of
present-dayPakistan. He was tr to trained in the Suhrawardi order of Sufis. Shah Abdul Latif
Bhitai, Makhdoom Bilawal and Sachal Sarmast were noted disciples of his.

Called Lal (red) after his usual red attire, Shahbaz to denote a noble and divine spirit
and Qalandar for his Sufi affiliation, his mysticism attracted people from all religions and he
preached brotherhood among Muslims and Hindus. Thousands of pilgrims visit his shrine
in Sehwan every year on the anniversary of his death. He lived when
the Ghaznavid and Ghurids ruled in South Asia. A contemporary of Rumi, he travelled around
the Muslim world and settled inSehwan where he was eventually buried.There is evidence of his
presence in Sindh in 1196 when he met Pir Haji Ismail Panhwar of Paat and he is believed to have
arrived in Sehwan around 1251. There he established a meeting house (khanqah), taught in the
Fuqhai Islam Madarrsah and wrote his treatises Mizan-us-Surf, Kism-e-Doyum, Aqd and Zubdah.
Lal Shahbaz lived a celibate life and died in the year 1274 at the age of 97.

In Multan he met Baha-ud-din Zakariya of the Suhrwardiyya, Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar of

the Chishtiyya and Syed Jalaluddin Bukhari. The friendship of these four became legendary, they
were known as the Chahar Yar (In Persian "the four friends"). According to some historians the four
friends visited various parts of Sindh, Punjab (in present day Pakistan and southern part of India)

Shahbaz became a profound scholar of religions, fluent in many languages

including Pashto, Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Sindhi and Sanskrit.

Waris Ali Shah

Sarkar Waris Pak (1819-1905) was a Sufi saint from Dewa, Barabanki, India, was the founder of
Warsi order of Sufism, he travelled widely in the west and admitted people to his spiritual order.His
shrine is situated at Dewa, India. Waris Ali Shah belonged to the Quadira and Chistaya schools of
Sufism, he was initiated in traditional Sufi order of Chishtia but he adopted more liberal view. He
went to Mecca for pilgrimage many times. During his extensive travel to Europe he visited Sultan of
Turkey and Bismarck of Berlin.He also traveled to England and had an audience with Queen
Victoria.An urs locally known as Dewa mela is observed in OctoberNovember, it is attended by
nearly a million Muslims and Hindus.An urs locally known as Dewa mela is observed in October
November, it is attended by nearly a million Muslims and Hindus.
 SUFI ESOTERIC
TERMINOLOGY

Ahadiya - unconditioned unity.

Ahwal - mystical states.
'Aql - reason, Intelligence.

Baqa' - abiding union with God.

Barakah - transferable spiritual power of Saint.
Bast - expansive ecstasy.

Dhawq - taste, personal mystical experience.

Dervish - Persian for Sufi, meaning beggar, (faqir).
Diwan - collection of poems.

Fana' - mystical annihilation of self, union with God.

Faqir - Sufi disciple, dervish. (means poor).

Hijab - veil.
Hikmat-il-Ishraq - doctrine of illumination.

Ikhlas - absolute sincerity.

Al-Insan al-Kamil - the perfect man.

Khalwah - spiritual retreat.

Karamat - Grace, also miracles of saints.
Khanaqah - Sufi lodge.
Khirqah - patched cloak of Sufi.

Mahabbah - love.
Mathnawi - long mystical poem.
Mahfuz - protection of saints from serious sin.
Malak - angelic force.
Maqamat - stages in mystical journey.
Ma'rifah - secret knowledge, gnosis;
Mureed - disciple;
Murshid - spiritual guide;

Nafs - lower soul;

Pir - Spiritual Master or guide;

Qalb - heart.
Qutb - pole, axis around which the world revolves, perfected human beings, especially great Sufi
Sheikhs;

Ribat - Sufi hospice, training centre.

Sahw - path of sobriety.

Suluk - the spiritual walk.
Shatahat - ecstatic utterances.
Sukr - path of intoxication.
Suhbah - companionship.
Silsilah - chain, spiritual lineage.

Talib - seeker, disciple.

Tawakkul - trust in God.
Tariqah - way, Sufi order.

Uns - mystical intimacy.

'Urs - festival celebrating anniversary of Saint's death.

Wahdat al-Wujjud - unity of being.

Wahidiyah - unity in plurality.
Wali - friend of God, saint.

Zawiyah - Sufi hospice.

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Themes in Indian History Part 2, NCERT

2.A Very Short Introduction to Islam, Malise Ruthven

3.The Big Five of India in Sufism

4.Encyclopedia of Sufism

5.Shrine and Cult of Moinuddin Chisti, P. M. Curie

6.The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, edited by Professor

John L. Esposito (Oxford University Press, Oxford, May 1995, 4 vols.) vol. 4,

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7.The Cultural Atlas of Islam, Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1986 [vol.

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9.Maktubat Iman Rabbani, vol. II, Page. 1041.

10.Ibn Khaldun's al-Muqaddimah, translated from

the Arabic into English by Franz Rosenthal, 3 Vols., Princeton University

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11.Idah al-maqsud min wahdat al-wujud, Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Matba'a al-

'Alam, Damascus, 1969, Page. 17-18,380

12.Towards Understanding Islam, Page. 97

13.History of Sufism in India by Saiyied Athar Abbas Rizvi, Volume 2, 1992,

Page. 178, 180, 204, 212, 259.

14.Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. X, Page. 336

15.Islamic Mysticism in India by Nagendra Kumar Singh, Page. 179, 185

16.Muslim-Almanac edited by Azim A.Nanji, 1996, Page. 61

17.A History of Modern India edited by Claude Markovitz, Anthen Press, 2002,

Page. 30

18.Indian Islam by Murray T.Titus, 1979, Page. 117, 186

19.Contemporary Relevance of Sufism, 1993

20.The Sufi Orders in Islam by J. Spencer Trimingham, Oxford, 1971, Page.

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Websites:

http://rumiforum.blogspot.com/

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Sufism

http://www.nizamuddinaulia.com/

http://sufiway.org/about-us/the-origins-of-sufism

www.sajjadanashinajmer.com

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sufism_1.shtml

http://www.khwajamoinuddinchishti.com/