The NCS MMPI-168 847

OVERALL, J. E., A GOMEZ-MONT, F. (1974). The MMPI-168 for psychiatric screening. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 34, 315-319.
OVERALL, J. E., HIOOINS, W . , A D E SCHWEINITZ, A. (1976). Comparison of differential diagnostic discrimina-
tion for abbreviated and standard MMPI. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 32, 237-245.
WARD, L. C . (1980). Conversion equations for modified scoring of the MMPI-168. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 44, 644-646.
WARD, L. C , WRIGHT, H . W . , A TAULBEE, E . S . (1979). An improvement in the statistical validity of the
MMPI-168 through modified scoring. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 618-619.

MMPI PROFILES OF WOMEN AND MEN CONVICTED OF

DOMESTIC HOMICIDE
SETH C. KALICHMAN
University of South Carolina

The present study investigated the psychological characteristics of men and

women convicted of domestic homicide. Demographic information and
MMPIs were collected from women (jn = 16) and men {n = 20) convicted
of murdering their partners and men {n = 19) convicted of murdering
strangers during the course of a crime. Analyses of variance indicated that
women had significantly higher elevations on MMPI scales PA and Si than
both groups of men, while men convicted of murdering strangers had higher
elevations on scale MA than men convicted of domestic murder. These
findings suggest different patterns of psychopathology among homicide
offenders depending on the offender's relationship to the victim. Results are
discussed with reference to previous research on domestic murderers and
female offenders.

Domestic violence is a serious and prevalent social problem that has increased at
alarming rates (Browne, 1984). Murders within families constitute one-third of all
homicides, and 50% of intrafamilial murders involve spouses (Daniel & Holcomb, 1985).
Although intrafamilial homicide has been investigated extensively by criminologists, few
studies have reported information on the psychological characteristics of persons who
commit domestic murder.
In one study of domestic murderers, Daniel and Holcomb (1985) conducted
psychiatric interviews which indicated that men who killed their wives or girlfriends
presented more signs of psychological disturbance, as defined by higher rates of substance
abuse and a greater tendency to show signs of psychosis, than men convicted of murdering
strangers. In contrast, studies that used the MMPI report that spouse murderers appear
less disturbed than stranger murderers. For example, Holcomb, Adams, Ponder, and
Anderson (1984) found moderate, but significant correlations (rs ranged from .18 to
.27) between homicide offender-victim relationships and MMPI scales F, PD, PA, PT,
and Sc. Holcomb et al.'s (1984) results suggested that men who murder acquaintances

The author wishes to thank David Szymanowski, Mac Warren, Glenn Curtiss, and Syd Kalichman for
their support in this project and Mary E. Craig for her comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.
This study was conducted with the support of the South Carolina Department of Corrections, Parker Evatt,
Commissioner.
Please address all correspondence to Seth C. Kalichman, Department of Psychology, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208.
848 Journal of Clinical Psychology, November 1988, Vol. 44, No. 6

show lower levels of psychopathology than men who murder strangers. In a recent study,
Cornell, Miller, and Benedek (1987) found that adolescents who committed murder in
the context of an interpersonal conflict presented lower elevations on MMPI scales F,
Hs, HY, and Sc than did adolescents who killed strangers during the course of a crime.
Taken together, these studies suggest that patterns of psychopathology in homicide
offenders are related to the offender-victim relationship.
Wolfgang (1967) reported that about half of all domestic murders involve women
killing their husbands. However, there is little information in the literature about female
homicide offenders. In one study. Cole, Fisher, and Cole (1968) presented several case
studies of women convicted of murder. Cole et al. (1968) suggested that women who
murder their partners may be characterized as masochistic and overtly hostile, as com-
pared to women who murdered children, friends, and strangers. Although this study
was based solely on qualitative data, it does suggest that there may be a relationship
between the psychological characteristics of women who murder and the offender-victim
relationship. Studies that have discussed the MMPI profiles of women convicted oi
murder consistently report elevations on scales PD and PA and low scores on scale MF
(Hannum <& Warman, 1964; Panton, 1974; Widom, 1978). Unfortunately, these studies
did not provide information on the relationships between the offenders and their victims.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the psychological characteristics,
based on the MMPI, of men and women convicted of murdering their partners.

METHOD
Subjects and Procedure
Subjects were 16 women convicted of murdering their husbands/boyfriends, 20 men
convicted of murdering their wives/girlfriends, and 19 men convicted of murdering a
stranger during the course of another crime. A group of women convicted of murder-
ing strangers was obtained, but the sample size {n = 3) was not large enough to allow
for a meaningful analysis. Subjects were all incarcerated within state correctional facilities
at the time of the study. Demographic characteristics and MMPIs were obtained from
subjects as a part of evaluations to determine eligibility for a work release program.
Table 1 presents the mean demographic characteristics for the three offender groups.
The three groups of offenders did not differ significantly in age, race, years of educa-
tion, length of sentence, and amount of time incarcerated at the time of the study.

Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of the Three Offender Groups

Level of Length of
Race education sentence Time
Group Age White) (years) (years) incarcerated

Females/
Domestic 36 63% 11 46 7.3
in = 16)
Males/
Domestic 37 60% 9 54.9 8.2
in = 20)
Males/
Strangers 34 45% 11 54.7 9.3
in = 19)
 MMPIs of Domestic Murderers 849

RESULTS
Figure 1 presents the mean MMPI profiles for the three groups of offenders.
Multivariate analysis of variance indicated a significant multivariate effect of offender
group on the MMPI scales (F [2, 821 = 2.19, p < .004). Bartlett-Box tests indicated
heterogeneity of variance for scales Hs and PA using/? < .1 as the critical level. Further
analyses were corrected for heterogeneity of variance.
Univariate analyses of variance indicated significant differences among the three
offender groups on four MMPI scales: P D (F [2, 52] = 3.87, p <.O3),
MF {F [2, 52] = 7.61, p <.OO1), MA ( F (2, 52] = 3.35, p < .043), and
Si {F [2, 52] = 6.05, p < .004). In addition, differences among the three groups ap-
proached significance on two MMPI scales, K (F [2, 52] = 2.46, /? <.O9) and
PA ( F [2. 52] = 2.49, p < .09).

FIGURE 1 (continued on p. 850)

MEAN MMPI PROFILES FOR FEMALE DOMESTIC HOMICIDE OFFENDERS

FEMALE DOMESTIC
100^ (N =

1 1 "I 1 r r T T
K Hs D Pa Pt Sc Ma Si
Hy Pd Mf

MMPI SCALES

Planned pairwise comparisons were conducted to evaluate differences among groups.

Results indicated that the female offenders were significantly higher on scale PA than
850 Journal of Clinical Psychology, November 1988, Vol. 44, No. 6

male domestic offenders (/ [34] = 2.08, p < .04) and were significantly higher on scale
SI than men convicted of murdering strangers (/ [331 = 3.45, p <.OO2). The women
did not differ from either group of men in any of the other comparisons.
Planned comparisons between the two groups of men indicated that the group con-
victed of murdering strangers was significantly higher than male domestic murderers
on scale M A (/ [37] = 2.72, p < .01). In addition, male domestic offenders were
significantly higher on scale Si than were those who murdered strangers {t [37] = 2.4,
p < .02).
Because mean profiles may obscure characteristics of individual profiles (Butcher
& Tellegen, 1978), patterns of scale elevations for the three groups were investigated.
Frequencies of scale elevations over T scores of 70 for the three offender groups are
given in Table 2. Sixty-nine percent of the female homicide offenders presented profiles
without any significant scale elevations. In contrast, 15% of the male domestic murderers
had normal profiles. The most common profile in the men who had committed domestic

FIGURE 1 (com.)

MEAN MMPI PROFILES FOR MALE HOMICIDE OFFENDERS

- MALE DOMESTIC
(N = 20)

- MALE'STRANGER
100-1 (N =

90-

80-
M
E
A
N 70-

60-
O
R
E
50-

40-

"T I 1 r "T" "T" T

K Hs D Pa Pt Sc Ma Si
Hy Pd Mf

MMPI SCALES
 MMPIs of Domestic Murderers 851

murder was a single elevation on scale P D (35O7O). Twenty-six percent of the men con-
victed of murdering strangers showed normal profiles. Single elevations on scale P D or
a high-point pair of scales P D and MA composed 37% of the profiles of men convicted
of murdering strangers. Thus, men convicted of murdering strangers had more scale
elevations than men convicted of domestic murder, and both groups of men showed
a greater number of scale elevations than the women.
DISCUSSION
The present study indicated differences on the MMPI between women and men con-
victed of domestic murder and between domestic and non-domestic murderers. The group
of men convicted of murdering strangers presented stronger indications of sociopathic
tendencies on the MMPI than did male and female domestic offenders. This finding is
consistent with previous research that has used the MMPI (Cornell et al., 1987; Holcomb
et al., 1984).
Men convicted of murdering strangers during the course of a crime showed a greater
tendency toward psycopathic characteristics, as reflected by scale MA elevations and a
higher frequency of PD-MA high-point pairs (Graham, 1987). Also, men who murdered

Table 2
Frequencies and Percentages of Scale Elevations Over T scores of 70 for the Three Offender Groups
Offender Group
Female domestic Male domestic Male stranger
MMPI scales murderers murderers murderers

L 1 4 2
(6%) (20%) (11%)
F 1 1 0
(6%) (5%)
K 0 2 2
(10%) (11%)
Hs 2 3 1
(13%) (15%) (5%)
D 1 2 0
(6%) (10%)
HY 1 2 2
(6%) (10%) (11%)
PD 3 7 7
(19%) (35%) (37%)
MF 0 1 1
(5%) (5%)
PA 3 1 1
(19%) (5%) (5%)
PT 2 3 2
(13%) (15%) (11%)
Sc 2 2 3
(13%) (10%) (16%)
MA 3 3 7
(19%) (15%) (37%)
SI 1 1 0
(6%) (5%)
852 Journal of Clinical Psychology, November 1988, Vol. 44, No. 6

strangers had higher levels of social extraversion and impulsivity, as reflected by low
scores on scale Si (Graham, 1987). These characteristics were the most salient differences
between the domestic and non-domestic groups. An implication of these differences is
that men convicted of murdering strangers may have a poorer prognosis for long-term
functioning than domestic homicide offenders (Graham, 1987). Non-domestic offenders
also may display a tendency toward manipulating others and developing superficial rela-
tionships (Greene, 1980).
The women convicted of domestic murder in this study presented a mean MMPI
profile similar to those reported in previous research on female offenders, specifically,
high elevations on scales PD and PA and low scores on scale MF (Hannum, Menne, Betz,
& Rans, 1973; Hannum & Warman, 1964; Panton, 1974). Thus, it seems that female
offenders may be characterized as presenting difficulties in social relations while experienc-
ing high levels of dependency in their relationships (Graham, 1987; Greene, 1980). Other
studies have reported that women with this profile are demanding of attention and affec-
tion in their relationships (Walters & Solomon, 1982).
While the present study attempted to obtain a sample of women convicted of murder-
ing strangers, too few were available to allow for their inclusion. This follows the finding
that women most frequently murder persons with whom they are intimately involved
(Browne, 1984; Ewing, 1987). The women in this study also displayed significantly less
psychological disturbance than either group of male offenders, as indicated by their high
frequency of normal MMPI profiles. This tendency toward normal profiles, along with
the characteristics of the mean profile described above, is consistent with the relation-
ship reported between the "battered woman syndrome" and domestic homicide in women
(Browne, 1984; Ewing, 1987). Browne (1984) reported that the majority of women who
have been convicted of murder were being abused by their victim in an intimate rela-
tionship. Further research is needed to investigate the interaction of offender-victim rela-
tionship dynamics and the psychological characteristics of homicidal women.
The MMPI profiles observed in the present study consisted of significantly lower
scale elevations than in previous studies of convicted murderers (Anderson & Holcomb,
1983; Panton, 1974). This difference may be attributable to sampling procedures, in
that previous research has investigated primarily the characteristics of persons who were
undergoing pre-sentence evaluations (Cornell et al., 1987; Daniel & Holcomb, 1985;
Widom, 1978) or who were detained in forensic units (Holcomb et al., 1984). Therefore,
the sample used in the present study may be more representative of the better-adjusted
inmates who have been incarcerated for a period of time. The results of the present
study, therefore, have implications for the clinical treatment of incarcerated offenders
and correctional decisions that concern custody and parole. Future research with larger
sample sizes is needed to clarify patterns of psychological functioning in male and female
homicide offenders and to investigate how these patterns are related to situational
characteristics of the crime.

REFERENCES
A^^DERSON, W., & HOLCOMB, W . (1983). Accused murderers: Five MMPI personality types. Journal of Clinical
Psychology. 39, 761-768.
BROWNE, A. (1984). Assault and homicide at home: When battered women kill. Paper presented at the Second
National Conference for Family Violence Researchers, Durham, NH.
BUTCHER, J., & TELLEGEN, A. (1978). Common methodological problems in MMPI research. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 620-628.
COLE, K., FISHER, G., & COLE, S. (1968). Women who kill. Archives of General Psychiatry, 19, 1-8.
CORNELL, D., MILLER, C, A BENEDEK, E . (1987). MMPI profiles of adolescents charged with homicide.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York.
 MMPIs of Domestic Murderers 853

DANIEL, A., A HOLCOMB, W . (1985). A comparison between men charged with domestic and nondomestic
homicide. Bulletin of the Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 13, 233-240.
EwiNG, C. P. (1987). Battered women who kill: Psychological defense as legal justification. Lexington, MA:
Heath.
GRAHAM, J. (1987). The MMPI: A practical guide, second edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
GREENE, R . (1980). The MMPI: An interpretive manual. New York: Grune & Stratton.
HANNUM, T . , MENNE, J . , BETZ, E . , & RANS, L . (1973). Differences in female prisoner characteristics: 1960
to 1970. Corrective and Social Psychiatry and Journal of Applied Behavior Therapy, 19, 39-41.
HANNUM, T . , A WARMAN, R. (1964). The MMPI characteristics of incarcerated females. Journal of Research
in Crime and Delinquency. 1, 119-126.
HOLCOMB, W . , ADAMS, N . , PONDER, H . , & ANDERSON, W . (1984). Cognitive and behavioral predictors of
MMPI scores in pretrial psychological evaluations of murderers. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40,
592-597.
PANTON, J . (1974). Personality differences between male and female prison inmates (measured by the MMPI).
Criminal Justice and Behavior, 1, 40-47.
WALTERS, G . D . , & SOLOMON, G . S . (1982). Methodological note on deriving behavioral correlates for MMPI
profile patterns: Case of the female 4-5-6 configuration. Psychological Reports, 50, 1071-1076.
WiDOM, C. S. (1978). An empirical classification of female offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 5, 35-52.
WOLFGANG, M . (1967). Studies in homicide. New York: Harper & Row.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE SHORT FORM BECK DEPRESSION

INVENTORY WITH OLDER ADULTS
FORREST SCOGIN
University of Alabama

LARRY BEUTLER, ANNE CORBISHLEY AND DAVID HAMBLIN

University of Arizona

This study investigated the reliability and validity of the short form Beck
Depression Inventory with older adults. Sixty-one clinically depressed older
outpatients and 57 non-patient older volunteers comprised the sample. The
patient group completed the BDI prior to and at completion of depression
treatment. Estimates of internal reliability suggest that the short form BDI
possesses adequate Spearman-Brown and alpha coefficients. Congruent
validity estimates were less satisfactory, as the correlation between the BDI
and the HRSD was statistically significant, but low. Criterion group validi-
ty, diagnostic sensitivity, and sensitivity to change estimates were all accept-
able. Thus, the short form BDI is adequately reliable to suggest its use as
a research and clinical tool with older adults, although further study of the
instrument's validity is needed.

The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh,
1961) is an extremely popular 21-item self-report measure of depression. A shorter ver-
sion of the BDI also has received some attention in the literature (Beck & Beck, 1972;

This research was supported in part by a grant from Upjohn Pharmaceuticals.

Request for reprints should be sent to Forrest Scogin, Department of Psychology, University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487.