An integrated approach to environmental management in Bangladesh

Raquib AHMED
Institute of Environmental Science, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh, raquib_ahmed@yahoo.com
Chandan ROY
Department of Computer and Information Science
Linkping University, Sweden

Abstract: Bangladesh is subject to a variety of environmental stressors and is

characterized by large imbalances in the distribution of natural resources. These in turn
are often in a critical status due to poor or lack of environmental management. In
addition, current and future climate change impacts are likely to yield even more
significant consequences, including potentially an exodus of population that could
destabilize domestic as well as international demographic structure. The main challenges
are (i) shrinking natural resources and ecological systems that are stretched beyond their
capacities, (ii) increasing population with expanding needs for economic development,
and (iii) pressure due to the interaction between the two, causing environmental stress
and degradation of bio-physical resources. The effort to minimize the gap between policy
and implementation is targeted at grass-root level in physical aspects for conservation,
and to increase optimum use of resources as well as socio-cultural awareness building
programs. Government plan and policies provide legal coverage to strengthen
management, occasionally ratifying international protocols for global linkages. There is
limited indication of the increasing use of an integrated approach for addressing sectoral
issues and for enhancing sustainability. It is argued here, however, that success depends
significantly on a cross-cultural, trans-disciplinary approach. The environmental sectors
are identified by scientists and government, but it is not a limited list of generalized
issues. A large number of local and international non-governmental organizations have
been working with government agencies for the integration of government policies which
were directly addressing environmental management mainly during 1995 to 2010. Many
partial/indirect laws and policies relating to environmental management were inherited
from British rule since the late nineteenth century. Although presence of overall
intellectual infrastructure at local level is reasonably good, a significant amount of week
coordination between different government agencies is identified as a priority matter. The
major setbacks arise from local poverty, lack of alternative methods of development,
slow growth of quality education, and poor international/cross-cultural partnership. The
case study is particularly related to the availability of international funds and the weak
role of developing nations in the forum of the North-South Dialogue.

Introduction
Historically Bangladesh is a densely populated country, mostly because of large flows of
migration from other parts of south and south-east Asia. The major pull factors are the
fertile soil, the stable climate conditions, and easy agricultural practices. But due to rapid
population growth, Bangladesh has turned into an environmentally degraded land and
now appears as an indirect threat to other parts of the world (United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) 2001). It has a population of 150 million on an area of 147,000 km,
with an ever-increasing high person/land ratio a potential threat to land and the physical
environment more generally. In addition to aggravating poverty, inappropriate
managerial/governance skill has become an added factor (Streatfield & Karar 2008).
Bangladesh has so far developed a social and political system of governance and
education which is functioning, despite the burden of its colonial legacy of a blind
1
bottom-down decision system partly mismatched to present day newer socio-political
systems of south Asia (Reed 2008). Due to intensive economic activities environmental
problems are surfacing with newer nature and frequently pose significant challenges to
policymakers and policy-implementing authorities. All issues are linked to each other.
Addressing them separately often brings unsustainable, short-term results and indicates
the need for a wider integration of different management approaches that is geared
towards optimizing resource efficiency and policy effectiveness. The environmental
problems in Bangladesh are addressed both from spatial and from sector-wise
perspectives by government agencies partly based on traditional mechanisms and non-
governmental organizations with modern methods of stakeholder participation (Reed
2008; Sultana & Thompson 2004).

Environmental problems in Bangladesh

Environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources are often observed in Formatted: Justified
Bangladesh due to poverty, over-population, poor and/or limited access to education, and
ineffective communication about the causes and consequences of environmental
problems. They are manifested by deforestation, destruction of wetlands, and depletion of
soil nutrients to name but a few natural calamities like floods, cyclones, and storm surges
also result in severe socio-economic and environmental damage. While major
environmental problems are centered on a few aspects, in detail their range is almost
unlimited. For example, the key environmental issues identified by the Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF) are (i) top soil degradation, (ii) surface and ground
water contamination and toxicity, (iii) urban air pollution, (iv) coastal biodiversity loss,
and (v) deforestation (Ministry of Environment and Forest 2005; Islam, Xue & Rahman
2009).

It is observed that all the environmental problems are related to or originate from the
major prevalent issue: top soil degradation from continuous use of soil for crop
production. This does not allow for a replenishment of soil nutrients, ultimately leading
to a bio-chemical imbalance. Soil productivity gradually declines leading to food
insecurity. The use of high-yield varieties of crops to support the rapidly growing human
population results in farmers becoming dependent on commercial seed and fertilizer
providers. This in turn may set in motion a vicious economic cycle where farmers are
maneuvering themselves into a position where they are basically forced to buy seeds and
fertilizer (and maybe also herbicides and pesticides) from large global players in the
agro-industry. In addition, to reducing biodiversity by limiting crops to a small number of
selected varieties, the cultivation of such high-yield varieties comes with other
environmental problems. These include the need for irrigation which causes shortages of
surface water and a lowering of the ground water table resulting in wide spread arsenic
contamination. Population growth results in rapid urbanization and hence land use change
that reduces the land available for crop production at a rate of 1% annually. Excess
pressure on land resources causes people to turn to marine resources to meet their
nutritional needs. This again causes large-scale, unmanaged biodiversity loss. Around
27% of Bangladeshs land area was covered with natural forest about 100 years ago. This
has dropped to about 8-12% today depending on the definition. Now the natural forest is
almost at a critical level. Forest margins are getting transformed into agricultural lands
and getting deforested due to illegal logging. A list of environmentally stressed regions in
Bangladesh is given below (Rashid 1996).

2
 Mahanada Basin: Frequently flooded, also subject to frequent drought.
West-central Barind: Being desiccated through improper land use. Low water
table and poor soils affect crop agriculture.
Middle Karatoa floodplain: Affected by drying up of Karatoa river. Double
cropping of High Yield Variety (HYV) rice lead to severe Sulpher and Zinc
deficiencies.
Brahmaputra-Jamuna floodplain: Entire stretch affected by Brahmaputra right
bank embankment, which have been breached four out of five years.
Chalan Bill: One of the richest wetlands now almost ruined by development
activities and agriculture expansion.
Atrai-Hurasagar drainage basin: Drainage has been impeded and water-logging
has becoming a serious problem.
South-west Jessore: Fresh water flow decreased and salinity has increased.
Northern Khulna: Large scale shrimp farming has increased salinity, conflicts
among farmers has reduced rice production.
Khulna city and Mongla town: Problem due to industrial pollution, oil spills from
ships and urban congestion.
Sundarban: Increased salinity and surrounding agriculture pressure causing forest
degradation.
Potuakhali-Bhola-Noakhali Char areas: Water logging, salinity increase,
diluvion. Excessive use of pesticides affecting humans.
Garo Hill piedmont: Erosion, flash floods, loss of tree cover led to decrease in
crop production.
Tangail: Silting of rivers, more frequent flash floods.
Modhupur Tract: Deforestation and improper use of sloping land has led to top
soil erosion.
Shitalakhya river: Industrial plants around discharge toxic chemicals into river,
loss of fisheries and toxic fish create hazard in public health.
Dhaka city: Industrial pollution, urban expansion destroying surrounding fertile
agricultural and horticultural land.
Haor basin: Reduction in fish spawning areas.
South Sylhet: Affected by deforestation, flash floods, and soil erosion.
Lalmai Range: Deforestation, erosion and soil removal.
Lower Meghna: Affected by floods, erosion, stagnant productivity, loss of
fisheries, population pressure.
Central Noakhali: Water logging, lack of irrigation, salinity, decreasing crop
production and increasing population.
Sandwip: Dense population, erosion and accretion of land, land formation not
consolidated, frequently affected by coastal cyclones and storm surges.
Shitakundu Range: Deforestation, erosion, loss of productivity.
Chittagong city and the port: Industrial pollution, oil spills, ship breaking
industries, hill cutting.
Chandraghona: Industrial/chemical pollution into the river destroying river
biodiversity.
Hill Tracts: Slash and burn cultivation and improper use of hill slopes by ethnic
local people has greatly increased erosion and flooding of valleys with consequent
loss of productivity. Serious and extensive deforestation.
3
 Chakaria Sundarban: A mangrove forest totally destroyed by shrimp farming,
soils becoming acidic.
Chittagong coast-Kutubdia Island: Severe bank erosion, loss of land, increase in
salinity.
Coxes Bazar: Tropical moist forest and unique bio-diversity destroyed through
deforestation and planting operations.
St. Martins Island: Coral reef ecosystem damaged due to intensified tourism.

Government policies, rules, acts, and plans for environmental management

In recent years, the government has taken some important steps towards conservation,
environmentally sound use of natural resources, and pollution control. These include the
adoption of a National Environment Policy, the formulation of the National Conservation
Strategy and the National Environment Management Action Plan. It is hoped that this
will help integrate environment and development actions within a coherent policy
framework (Ministry of Planning (MoP) 2010). Due to the limited availability of land,
virtually all land areas are utilized in one way or another for crop production, forestry,
fisheries, and for urban and infrastructure development. The distribution of land
ownership is skewed towards the comparatively wealthier. In such prevailing situation
and being repeatedly affected by disasters, small land owners become economically
weaker and at one stage found no alternative other than to sell their land and migrate to
other location preferably bigger urban areas where there are some opportunities for
their marginal survival. This indicates poorer stakeholders weak resilience to natural
disasters. Policy changes have so far contributed little to reverse this process. For several
generations the steady increase in the proportion of landless people has been compounded
by the occurrence of natural disasters, land fragmentation, river meandering, and changes
to river courses. Together, these factors have resulted in uneconomic farming which does
not even provide for the bare subsistence level of the families concerned. Much land has
also been lost due to river erosion at the time of seasonal flood and immediately after
flood. The list of socio-ecological problems goes on, and this is only a partial description
of the context within which strategic planning and policies have to be developed.

Basis for the laws and policies:

There is currently no formal framework for policymaking, monitoring, and enforcement.
The country lacks a comprehensive land use policy for an appropriate and productive
uses of land. This refers to optimum economic return from the land and sustainable
management of environmental condition. Despite general shortage of land in the country
a mentionable amount of abandoned and unused land exists in both urban and in rural
areas. Land is being converted to shrimp farming in the coastal regions, and this has
adversely affected agricultural production, caused loss of productive trees, and has led to
large-scale depletion of mangrove forests. Traditional land use patterns are being changed
with the introduction of HYV rice and irrigated agriculture. Agricultural land is being
taken up by the expansion of urban settlements, for sand and gravel mining, development
of communication infrastructure, brick fields and industrial developments. Erosion of
agricultural land exacerbates problems of land consumption and rural poverty. Land
fragmentation through vertical property inheritance system continues to increase the
number of landless families. Short-term leasing and share cropping system preclude the
right to land purchase by the poorer people over the long term as absentee land owners
can easily continue their ownership to the lands. Land tenure and ownership patterns are
unclear in many areas preventing long-term investment in land productivity. Inadequate
4
land use planning based upon an assessment of land capabilities constrains land
productivity. Unregulated encroachment into forest lands leads to unsustainable
agricultural exploitation of the land in the short term due to uncertainty of the future of
the investment. Keeping the fact in consideration, laws are being prepared. Given below
are a few landmark measures taken (Disaster Management Bureau (DMB) 2010;
Government of Bangladesh (GoB) 2010; MoP, 2010).

Environment Policy, 1992 and Environment Action Plan, 1992

National Environment Management Action Plan, 1995
Environmental Conservation Act (ECA), 1995
Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR), 1997
Environmental Courts Act, 2000

The key objectives of the Environment Policy (1992) and Environment Action Plan
(1992) are as follows:
Maintain ecological balance and overall development through protection and
improvement of the environment,
Protect the country against natural disasters,
Identify and regulate activities which pollute and degrade the environment,
Ensure environmentally sound development in all sectors of the economy,
Ensure sustainable, long-term and environmentally sound base of natural
resources, and
Actively remain associated with major international environmental initiatives to
the maximum possible extent.

The Environmental Conservation Act (ECA) of 1995 is the main legislative framework
document relating to environmental protection in Bangladesh. This umbrella act includes
laws for conservation of the environment, improvement of environmental standards, and
control and mitigation of environmental pollution. The Act established the Department of
Environment (DoE), and provided its Director General with the discretion to instigate
inquiries, prevent probable accidents, advise the Government, coordinate with other
authorities or agencies, and collect and publish information about environmental
pollution. According to the Act, no industrial unit or project shall be established or
undertaken without obtaining an Environmental Clearance Certificate (ECC) from the
Director General of DoE.

The Environment Conservation Rules, 1997 were issued by the Government of

Bangladesh in exercise of the power conferred under the Environment Conservation Act
(Section 20), 1995. Under these Rules, the following aspects, among others, are covered:
Identification of ecologically critical areas.
Classification of industries and projects into four categories (from 1 highly
polluting to 4 low environmental impact) referring their contribution to
environmental damage.
Procedures for issuing the Environmental Clearance Certificate.
Determination of environmental standards.

The Environment Court Act, 2000 has been enacted in order to establish environmental
courts in each administrative division of Bangladesh. Under this Act, the court has

5
concurrent jurisdiction for both civil and criminal cases. The basis for instituting a case is
a violation of the Environment Conservation Act, 1995 (ECA) and rules made there
under. In particular the environment court is empowered to:
Impose penalties for violating court orders.
Confiscate any object, equipment, and transport vehicle used in the execution of
the offence.
Pass any order or decree for compensation.
Issue directions to the offender or any person who violate the law (a) not to repeat
or continue the offence; (b) to take preventive, mitigative, or remedial measures
with relation to any injury, damage, or harm specifying the time limit and
reporting to the DoE regarding the implementation of the directions.

Introduction to land and environmental management

In Bangladesh only very limited areas of land are still available for further development
and agriculture or are suitable for land use change from an ecological perspective. Land
areas under anthropogenic influence are already under intense pressure that adversely
affects the carrying capacity of local ecosystems and ultimately leads to the degradation
of terrestrial ecosystems. This stress is expected to increase as population growth
continues. A key problem is the sub-optimal and/or inappropriate use of land, such as
Government forested areas, coastal areas, and deciduous hill forests. Agriculture is still
the economic mainstay in Bangladesh where still majority of the population is involved
but its contribution to the GDP has declined to reach at a level of 18% only as the other
sectors have grown significantly. For example industry shares 28.6% and service sector
shares 53% (Global Finance). Given the only trivial government commitment to policy
modifications, this basic pattern is likely to continue. It is apparent that lands available
for cropping is taken up by other sectors. Therefore, population pressure on land is still a
crucial factor in the management of terrestrial natural resources in the country. Land use
planning in the past has privileged food crop production sacrificing the interest of forest,
cash crops, fish, cattle feed etc. Almost all sectors compete for the use of land. Issue like
continual erosion of land by rivers (as the flood plain bears a thick network of rivers
many of which has a tendency to change course cause erosion), increasing landlessness
and land fragmentation, unclear status and pattern of land ownership particularly with
regard to 'new' land, a low level of year-round land utilization and the lack of land use
planning need a decisive solution for sustainable economic growth.

Existing Policies on Land

The Fourth Five Year Plan (FFYP) outlines a number of policies with regard to land
resources and land use planning. These are aimed at improving land availability to the
rural population and improving its productive use (economically). Points to mention are:
- Systematic and comprehensive analysis of optimal land use (in terms of long term
productivity and related cost) is to be undertaken.
- Enforcement of zoning laws to limit loss of agricultural land to urban development.
- Possible further reductions in land ownership ceilings which is expected to lower land
fragmentation.
- Enforcement of laws to enable share croppers to purchase land through the provision of
long-term loans.
- Distribution of Khas (public/government) lands.
- Improving land use based on an assessment of its optimal cropping pattern.
- Promoting the use of marginal and homestead land for intensive cultivation that adds
6
 total productivity.
- Formulation and execution of a land use policy to prevent wasteful resource use. Such
as conflicts (e.g. about shrimp and rice farming). The policy will take into account
physical and environmental aspects of conflict areas. Leasing of inland open waters will
be increased to a minimum of four years to promote.
- Higher production and resource conservation.
- Creation and maintenance of a permanent green belt along the coast and of participatory
forestry (social forestry) along roadside etc.

Focus on Environmental Policy 1992

The Government's Environment Policy makes four specific statements on land issues. (i)
formulate a environmentally balanced sound national land use policy and plan, (ii)
prevent and reduce/mitigate soil erosion, (iii) preserve and increase soil fertility and
stress the need for protection of reclaimed land for environmentally sound management
of newly accreted land, and (iv) encourage the adoption of land use practices that are
compatible with various ecosystems. They also emphasize the need for reducing the
impact of salinity and alkalinity on the land.

Agencies working in environmental management sectors

The government agencies working in these sectors are mostly working under government
plans and often found to response to immediate need of the situation. Most of their efforts
are supported by foreign donors. Some of the large donors are the World Bank, United
Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme, World
Health Organization, Asian Development Bank, USAID, the governments of Germany,
Japan, and The Netherlands, NORAD, Canadian International Development Agency etc.
These donors support local and collaborative (international) partners which are known as
Non-Government Organizations or NGOs. Generally, NGOs are created for specialized
sectoral and local issue-based activities. Sometimes, however, one NGO works
simultaneously in various sectors and in different geographical regions. There is a
paradigm shift in the approach, both government and NGOs are increasingly focusing on
long term measures and are working on conceptually complicated issues in international
partnerships, such as global environmental change and climate change, nature and
biodiversity conservation, sea-level rise etc. The role of NGOs working on environmental
issues in Bangladesh can be summarized as follows:

Program implementation (e.g. social forestry, crop diversification)

Policy initiation or providing policy inputs (e.g. National Environment
Management Action Plan)
Assistance in international negotiations
Research
Environmental movements (e.g. against genetically modified organisms)
Watchdog role (e.g. ship breaking)

The following sections provide an overview of the major NGOs active in environmental
management sectors in Bangladesh. As examples, activities of these NGOs are given here
which will help to understand the nature, extent, and method of their work to facilitate
environmental management in Bangladesh as well as international coordination.

Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS):

7
Major focus on
(a) environment-development integration,
(b) good governance and people's participation,
(c) poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihoods, and
(d) economic growth and public-private partnership.

BCAS targets to promote people-centered sustainable development by applying and

advancing scientific, technical and local knowledge through research, by developing
models, demonstration, policy advocacy and project implementation. It is committed to
develop southern perspectives, ensure north-south dialogue and environmental justice and
access to resources and knowledge for the poor (Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies
(BCAS) 2011).

Field of Specialization of BCAS

Natural resource management (land, water, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and
biodiversity)
Enhance resilience of natural and human systems
Livelihood analysis, poverty reduction strategy and food security
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
Clean technology and pollution management
Energy (conventional and renewable)
Environmental education and health
Public-private partnership
Global climate change, and human dimension of global change
Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)
Trade, environment and sustainable development

Local and grass-roots level work

BCAS works with communities through ecology-specific participatory management
processes such as on Chanda Beel in the Modhumati Floodplain to develop natural
resource management capabilities with active participation of local communities. In
addition, BCAS aims to initiate the diffusion of renewable energy technology (solar
photovoltaic) among the islands dwellers in the River Meghna.

National level work

BCAS has initiated activities along with others, including the National Environment
Management Action Plan, Sustainable Environment Management Program, National
Conservation Strategy, New Fisheries Management Program and Bangladesh State of
Environment Report 2001, Vulnerability Assessment for Bangladesh to Climate Change
and Sea Level Rise. It also works closely with the Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Department of Environment, Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council, Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources, Local Government and Engineering Department.

Regional level work

At the regional level, BCAS is the secretariat for the Climate Action Network South Asia
(CANSA) working on Climate Change related issues. BCAS is the international wing of
Centre for Environment Education (CEE), it is also a member of Regional and
International Networking Group (RING) in South Asia.
8
International level work
At the international level, BCAS is involved in a number of collaborative research, policy
analysis and advocacy including North South Dialogue (NSD) on Climate Change, and
the Global Compact Initiative under the auspices of the UN. BCAS participated in all the
preparatory meetings of UNCED in Rio and WSSD in Johannesburg where it also played
a key role in advising government delegations. BCAS provides secretarial support to
Global Forum on Environment and Poverty (GFEP) which originated at the Earth
Summit in Rio. As a center of excellence from the south, BCAS has been involved in the
process of formulation and reporting on all Global Environment Outlook Reports of
UNEP.

Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association (BELA)

BELA, an advocacy group of lawyers, was established in 1992 with the broad objective
of promoting environmental justice and contributing to the development of sound
environmental jurisprudence. Its efforts through public litigation have truly sensitized the
concept of 'environmental justice' in the country that now has special courts to deal with
environmental offences.

Objectives & Strategies

Undertake studies on and research into the local, national and international
regulatory regime on environment
Undertake legislative advocacy
Seek judicial or administrative relief to ensure implementation of existing
environmental laws
Resolve environmental disputes through court cases, alternative dispute resolution,
mediation, and other means
Create greater awareness about environmental laws and issues
Provide legal assistance and support endeavors for protection of the environment
and human rights
Develop networks with local, national, and international groups/bodies/agencies
working on environmental issues
Develop a core group of environmental activists

Proshika
It is an NGO work mostly educating people in specific issues. One of the major activities
of Proshika is a social forestry program. It is a systematic intervention to enhance
plantation, protection and regeneration of the forest resources. It also provides disaster
relief during natural calamities such as floods, cyclones, cold spells etc. One of its
projects on Crop Diversification has close cooperation with the Department of
Agricultural Extension of the government and Agricultural Bank.

Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)

BRAC also has two environment-related programs, one of which is concerned with
natural disasters, the other with climate change. The programs seek to (i) promote better
disaster preparation and management, (ii) increase awareness about climate change and
its impact, and (iii) undertake research to identify successful risk reduction and coping
mechanisms.

9
In order to provide communities with access to safe water, BRAC undertakes various
activities, including development of a water safety plan, installation of deep tube wells,
water quality tests, and provision of loans for tube well platform construction. In arsenic
and saline-affected areas BRAC installs deep tube wells, constructs ponds, installs filters
and arsenic removal filters, and installs piped water supply systems to provide safe water.
BRAC raises awareness on sanitation issues which creates community demand for
facilities such as sanitary latrines. BRAC installs water supply and sanitation facilities to
improve people's health and also set sup schools in rural areas.

Wildlife Trust of Bangladesh

The Wildlife Trust of Bangladesh (WTB) is a non-profit organization whose aim is to
conserve the country's biological diversity. WTB's activities include:
Research and monitoring
Institutional and policy development
Communication and education
Wildlife-human conflict mitigation
Legislation and law enforcement

Bangladesh Poribesh Andolon (BAPA)(Bangladesh Environment Movement)

BAPA is a common forum of citizens and organizations concerned about Bangladeshs
natural environment. BAPA, acting as a pressure group against any kind of
environmental degradation, is trying to create a broad-based citizens movement for
protection and enhancement of the environment in Bangladesh and organizes seminars,
meetings, conferences, and workshops to draw attention to general and specific
environmental problems as well as educate the public on such issues. It holds rallies and
demonstrations to build up public awareness and secures wide participation of people on
environmental issues. Its objectives are:
To stop the process of further environmental degradation in Bangladesh,
To reverse, where possible, the damage that has already been done to the
environment, and
To build up a nationwide, united, civic movement to achieve the aims of stopping
and reversing environmental degradation in Bangladesh.

Integrated approach towards a sustainable future

The overall situation was discussed in earlier paragraphs, and it explored that indeed
there were efforts from various sectors in various aspects of environmental policy:
However, these efforts did not yield appropriate results as far as sustainability is
concerned. Obviously, this is due to a lack of integration of efforts. The National
Environmental Management Action Plan was actually an integrated approach developed
for the first time as the basis for concrete programs and interventions aimed at promoting
better management of scarce resources and reversing present trends of environmental
degradation as well as increasing awareness of environmental issues more generally.
NEMAP considers the commitments made under the Agenda 21, and it may be
considered as the first initiative towards the preparation of a National Agenda 21,
anticipated to be taken up by the Government of Bangladesh until 2005. It was an effort
to bring together different perspectives when addressing different types of issues within a
common framework. This exercise was also undertaken in the hope that it would provide
decision-maker with a comprehensive account of all the main environmental issues from
different points of view, including those of stakeholders, implementers, and policy-
10
makers. The Government of Bangladesh has for some time been engaged in the
preparation of a National Environmental Management Action Plan in cooperation with
UNDP, and decided to finalize it by proactively initiating a consultation process in
association with NGOs, journalists, academics, and other segments of civil society. This
is probably the first time that the government is finalizing a national plan with active
participation of people, representing all sectors of the economy and all diverse regions of
the country. The NEMAP identified key environmental issues, presently of concern to
Bangladesh, and the actions required to halt or reduce the rate of environmental
degradation, improve the natural and human-made environment, conserve habitats and
biodiversity, promote sustainable development, and improve the measurement accuracy
of quality of life indicators.

The integration is made at four levels. For example, (1) spatial activities are mainly
addressed by local NGOs as the activities are held to account by local stakeholders. (2)
Sectoral issues are addressed mostly by the local and international NGOs supported by
international donations from various external organizations and countries. (3) Long-term
policy and institutional issues are handled almost exclusively by the government
supported by international protocols compatible to global integration. (4) Government
policy and laws to control internal activities under various ministries and departments are
example of this type. Formulation of NEMAP and Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy
and Action Plan 2009 are two efforts to come in the long term issues (NEMAP, 1995).

The NEMAP, formulated in response to current and projected environmental scenarios,

required mitigating adverse environmental impacts. Environmental conditions and
policies changed over time as progress towards sustainable development was made and
the NEMAP evolved in response to these changes. The NEMAP identifies the major
environmental problems and their causes and suggests mitigation measures. The full
concept of NEMAPs integration is shown in the following diagram.

Deleted: <sp>

11
 Method of the NEMAP integration for environmental management in
Bangladesh

NEMAP report

NEMAP Vol 1 NEMAP Vol 2 NEMAP Vol 3 NEMAP Vol 4 NEMAP Vol 5
Main Report

Sectoral issue Spatial issue Long term Policy/instituti

issue onal issue

Water sharing
Inter-sectoral
Climate
Charland coordination
change/sea
level rise
Urbanization
Ensuring
peoples
Modhupur participation
Tract Research and
Salinity/shrim
development
p cultivation Monitoring
Barind Tract
NEMAP

Coastal/marin
Legislation
Hill cutting e resource
management

International
wetland
conventiuon/
protocols/

Natural Industries Fisheries/lives Agriculture Land

hazard tock resources

Energy Forestry Water Housing/urba Health/sanitat

resources nization ion/populatio

Education/aw Transport/co
areness mmunication

After the working time of NEMAP expired in 2008 the Bangladesh Government has
started a new environmental management program to fit with the new situation under
global climate change and the new dimensions of international protocols and responses. It
is known as the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009. It is a long-
12
term working document and sets out the strategy for the next 25 years. The major actions
are as follows (MoEF 2009):

Food security, social protection and health

Comprehensive disaster management
Infrastructure
Research and knowledge management
Mitigation and low carbon development
Capacity building and institutional strengthening

Conclusion
Approaches to management of environmental issues are usually in the hand of
government, despite some parts of integration, responsibility has been given to NGOs.
This is an experimental measure, as Bangladesh is a role model of NGOs participation in
the national development. The model is being used by many NGOs viz. Grameen Bank,
BRAC etc., and is now used in more than 44 countries in the world including some
European countries. Their activities have encouraged transparent mass-participation of
citizens in national development and aims at reducing the impact of non-democratic
political power. Major land use conflicts arise from insufficient coordinated action
amongst the 11 Ministries and 24 agencies concerned with land management. However,
the table below shows weakness due to governments ministerial overlapping of power
and responsibilities in the management of environmental issues.

Ministry Authorities Responsibilities

Ministry of Land
Ministry of Works
Ministry of Local
Governments
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of Home
Ministry of Law
Ministry of Environment and
Forest
Ministry of Agriculture
Directorate of Land Records and
Survey, Land Reforms Board,
Deputy Commissioners/Collectors
of Land
Public Works Department,
Housing and Settlement
Department, Urban Development
Directorate.
Municipalities, Directorate of
Public Health and Engineering
Department, Water and Sewage
Authority etc.
Income Tax Department, City
Corporation Authorities.
Police and Boarder Protection
Force (BGB).
Judiciary
Department of Environment and
department of Forest
Department of Agriculture
Extension, Agriculture
Maintains records of rights, change
of ownerships/transfer of land,
collection of land tax based on use,
settlement of government land,
survey and mapping, land dispute
etc.
Construction of government
structures, development of urban
lands, Master Plan implementation
authority, development of housing
facilities.
Municipal facilities, rates and
holding taxes, supply of safe
drinking water, conservancy,
sewage etc.
Collection of tax and income taxes
on properties situated on urban land,
fund development projects.
Help implement government
decisions, internal security.
Legal coverage to plan
implementation authorities,
formulation of law to support policy
and urban plans.
Monitor urban environment and
control degradation by legal
coverage, counseling and awarness
development, forest management
Looks after seed, fertilizer,
insecticide, knowledge dispersion,

13

Ministry of Industry
Ministry of Food and Disaster
Management
Ministry of Chittagong Hill
Tracts affairs
Ref: Ahmed 2002.
Development etc.
Chemical, Textile, Jute, Iron and
Steel etc.
Department of Food, Department
of Disaster Management
Cht. Development Board, Cht.
Regional Council etc.
product marketing.
Licensing industries, environmental
monitoring
Food management, storage, pricing,
food security, disaster management,
environment management due to
disaster
Land, ethnic issues, forest and
environment management in the
specific region

The key constraints:

Lack of inter-sectoral coordination
o The management responsibilities of different environmental components
are divided into different sectors and ministries. This reduces smooth
operation and execution of sustainable management.
Conflict in sectoral policies
o Some policies are sometimes found to be in conflict with each other. Some
provisions of the Fisheries Policy contradict that of the Land or Industrial
Policy, Environment Policy does not conform to the narrow objectives of
the Export Policies.
Lack of institutional capacities
o MoEF has yet to develop a strong functioning Planning Cell to support its
work. It lacks essential baseline data on resources and areas of
environmental concerns.
Regulatory and institutional inadequacies for policy implementation
o All the important policies including the National Environment Policy of
1992 have been formulated in the last decade and only a few of them seen
to be corroborate well with the older legal instruments of the given sector.
Outdated laws
o A law passed two to five decades back cannot incorporate the concept of
sustainable development or ones right to healthy environment, which are
the outcome of very recent concern about environment. Such laws can not
play any effective role in combating environment pollution in todays
Bangladesh, where overpopulation, poverty and illiteracy are aggravating
this crisis everyday.
Non-punitive approach of laws
o The existing laws can be criticized for their non-punitive approach.

The challenge to sustainable development in Bangladesh hinges on three guiding

principles:
Achieving significant development for all the citizens as demonstrated by human
development indicators.
Integrating environmental dimension in all development activities and at all levels:
plans, policy, program, projects, community, and ecosystem.
A governance structure where environmental concerns become central and the
people, i.e. the stakeholders, become the ultimate custodian of the resource base
and source of all decision-making.

14
It may also be noted that the actions indicated in the BCCSAP, 2009 are mostly for
adaptations and adjustments strategies. This appears to be a critical issue between sources
of environment degradation, mitigation strategies and adaptation. The adaptation lies
solely in the part of developing countries although they do not act as significant
contributor as source the problems. This might be a matter of debate in regards to
sustainability in future. Though it may appear that simultaneous achievement of all the
three above-mentioned objectives is an impossible and improbable task, there is an
inherent synergy amongst the three objectives that could become the essential driving
force for achieving sustainability in Bangladesh. The question is not only how to achieve
sustainable development in Bangladesh, but more appropriately how to build in the
concept of sustainability into the development of communities, ecosystems, projects, and
programs. Thus, achieving sustainability must become a central objective, and the
majority of the country's population, who are poor, must be brought into the
development-environment nexus and be central in decision-making and become visible
contributors.

Acknowledgement: The authors are thankful to Professor Dr. Gregor C. Falk of the
Institute of Geography, University of Education, Freiburg, Germany for helping in
organizing the earlier draft of the paper.

References
Ahmed, R., (2002), Urban environmental issues in Bangladesh and Government Intervention, Towards a
New Regional and Local Development Agenda, Department of Geography, Gothenburg University Series
B, No. 100, pp. 79-94.

Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies (BCAS). (2011). Climate change adaptation and mitigation.
Retrieved June 2, 2012, from http://www.bcas.net/about-bcas.php?id=7

Disaster Management Bureau (DMB). (2010). National Plan for Disaster Management 2010-2015 (p. 114).

Global Finance, Country Economic Reports & GDP Data, Bangladesh, http://www.gfmag.com/gdp-data-
country-reports/321-bangladesh-gdp-country-report.html#axzz274cKFZ5u.

Government of Bangladesh (GoB). (2010). Environmental Impact Management Framework (p. 15). Dhaka,
Bangladesh.

Islam, K. S., Xue, X., & Rahman, M. M. (2009). Successful Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
Program Model of a Developing Country (Xiamen, China)Implementation in Bangladesh Perspective.
Journal of Wetlands Ecology, 2(1), 3541.

Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF). (2005). National Adaptation Programme of Action (p. 63).
Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF). (2009). Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action
Plan 2009 (p. 98).

Ministry of Planning (MoP). (2010). Environmental Management Framework (p. 70). Dhaka, Bangladesh.

National Environment Management Action Plan (Bangladesh). (1995). National Environment Management
Action Plan (NEMAP). Dhaka,NEMAP Secretariat, Ministry of Environment and Forest.

Rashid, H. (1996). Geography of Bangladesh. University Press.

Reed, M. S. (2008). Stakeholder participation for environmental management: A literature review.

Biological conservation, 141(10), 24172431.

15
Streatfield, P. K., & Karar, Z. A. (2008). Population Challenges for Bangladesh in the Coming Decades.
Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 26(3), 261272.

Sultana, P. & Thompson, P. (2004). Methods of consensus building for community-based fisheries
management in Bangladesh and the Mekong Delta. Agricultural Systems, 82(3), 327353.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2001). Bangladesh, state of environment report. United
Nations Environment Programme.

16