SCHOOL OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING

EAA 206/2 CONCRETE, STRUCTURES AND FLUID MECHANICS

LABORATORY
(2015/2016)

H1: REYNOLDS NUMBER TEST AND FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE

GROUP B6

Group members:

1. GanKa Jing 124945

2. Sarah Alia btMdWakif 124981
3. Wan Norfazlindabinti Wan Mohd Ali 124999
4. Mohammad Nazeem bin Mohsin 124956

DR. MOHAMAD FARED MURSHED

10TH MAY 2016

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We declare that the lab report submitted is not plagiarized and is entirely my/our own
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1. GanKa Jing
Sarah Alia btMdWakif
2.
3. Wan Norfazlindabinti Wan Mohd Ali
4. Mohammad Nazeem bin Mohsin
EXPERIMENT 1: REYNOLDS NUMBERS TEST
RESULTS

Initial water temperature = 30 C

Final water temperature = 30 C

Mean water temperature = 30C

Kinematic viscosity of water at above temperature , v = 0.804 X 10-6 m2/s

dp
Diameter of pipe , = 0.012 m

Ap
Cross sectional area of pipe , = 1.131 x 10-4 m2

Volume of water = 210-4 m3

Table 1: Results for different types of flows

Kinematic
No Velocity
Type of Time for Flow rate (Q) viscosity
. (u) Re
flow 200ml (s) (x 10-6m3/s) () (x 10-
(m/s) 6 2
m /s)
5.67 x
1 Laminar 156.02 0.641 0.804 84.63
10-3
2 Transition 6.40 0.138 15.625 0.804 2059.7
6313.4
3 Turbulent 2.09 0.423 47.847 0.804
3
3.78 x
4 Laminar 234.41 0.427 0.804 56.42
10-3

CALCULATION

Initial Water Temperature+ FinalWater Temperature

Mean Water Temperature = 2

32+32
= 2

= 32 C

Kinematic viscosity of water at 30 C = 0.80410-6m2/s

Kinematic viscosity of water at 35 C = 0.72710-6m2/s

By using interpolation method:

x0.804 0.7270.804
=
3230 3530
0.077
x0.804= (2)
5
x= 0.7732

Kinematic viscosity of water at 32 C= 0.773210-6m2/s

2
d
Cross Sectional Area of pipe, Ap = 4

2
x 0.012
= 4

= 1.1310-4m2

Volume of water = 200ml

= 20010-6 m3

= 210-4 m3

Calculation for flow rate, velocity and Reynolds number, Re:

Volume of water
Flow rate, Q = Time for 200 ml

Flow rate ,Q
Velocity, u = Cross sectional are of pipe , A p

velocity , u diameter of pipe , d p

Reynolds number, Re = kinematic viscosity ,

For No.1 (Laminar Flow)

2 x 104
Flow rate, Q = 117.69
 = 1.69910-6 m3/s

1.699 106
Velocity, u = 1.13 104

= 0.015 m/s

0.015 0.012
Reynolds number, Re = 0.773210
6

= 233

For No.2 (Transition Flow)

2 x 104
Flow rate, Q = 8.37

= 23.89510-6 m3/s

23.895 106
Velocity, u = 1.13 104

= 0.211 m/s

0.211 0.012
Reynolds number, Re = 0.773210
6

= 3275

For No.3 (Turbulent Flow)

2 x 104
Flow rate, Q = 6.84

= 29.24010-6 m3/s

29.240 106
Velocity, u = 1.13 104

= 0.259 m/s
 0.259 0.012
Reynolds number, Re = 0.773210
6

= 4020

For No.4 (Laminar Flow)

2 x 104
Flow rate, Q = 129.94

= 1.53910-6 m3/s
6
1.539 10
Velocity, u = 1.13 10
4

= 0.014 m/s

0.014 0.012
Reynolds number, Re = 0.7732 106

= 217

DISCUSSION

Experiment 1: Reynolds Number Test

The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate the lamina flow, transition flow
and fully turbulent flow and to calculate the suitable Reynolds Number for each flow.
From the experiment that we have been carried out, we can calculate the Reynolds
Number for the lamina flow, transition flow and fully turbulent flow by using the formula
as below:

du
Re =

where, d = diameter
u = velocity
= kinematic viscosity

We can know that the Reynolds Number is depends on kinematic viscosity of the fluid, ,
diameter of the pipe where the fluid flow, d, velocity, u.
The theoretical value for Re is as below :-

For laminar flow Re< 2000

For transition flow 2000 < Re < 4000

For turbulent flow Re > 4000

The characteristics for laminar flow :

1 low velocity
2 small length scale

The characteristics for fully turbulent flow :

1 high velocity
2 big length scale

From the theory, in laminar flow, the fluid flows at a low velocity and the dye
flows in an almost straight line. In transition flow, the fluids velocity increases and the
dye line is no longer a straight line but gradually becomes croaked and split at the end.
When the velocity is increased, the dye line, which is originally straight, now rapidly
mixed and become dispersed. This condition is considered a fully turbulent flow.

In this experiment, we found out the pattern of dye flow which matches the
characteristic of different type of flow as the theory and proved the flow is correct after
we calculate is Reynolds number. For our group results, the Reynolds Numbers of
laminar is 223 and 217 which both result less than 2000. The Reynolds Numbers of
transitional is 3275 which is in the range of 2000 to 4000 whereas the Reynolds Numbers
of turbulent is 4020 which is more than 4000. The experiment is considered accurate and
the objective is achieved.

Further discussions on the suggestions for improving the apparatus:

There are some mistakes and errors occurred while conducting the
experiment. The measuring cylinder/beaker should not be put in the sink as the parallax
error may occur since we are unable to take the reading at the same level of the
instrument. So, the location of the collection of water should be changed to a place where
the sight can be perpendicular to the scale on the beakerto increases the accuracy of the
results. The beaker could also replace with others more sensitive apparatus such as
measuring cylinder as the scale is smaller which enables us to obtain a more accurate
result. Besides, the pipe should also be set at a fixedand levelled position so that the flow
of water inside the pipe doesnt affected due to the movement of the pipe. Moreover, a
digital instrument may install to measure the time for the specific volume of water to be
collected as human errors will occurred during taking the reading of the time. Lastly, the
dye syringe should fix exactly on the middle of the tube to avoid disturbance of the flow
of dye against the wall and obtain a clearer observation.

CONCLUSION

Experiment 1: Reynolds Number Test

From the experiment, we obtain Reynolds number as below:

Table : Summary result for various flow conditions

Flow Lamina Transition Fully Turbulent Laminar

Conditions
Re 233 3275 4020 217

From Reynolds experiment,

Lamina flow Re < 2000

Transition flow 2000 < Re < 3000

Turbulent flow Re> 3000

 Though the result we obeyed the theoretical value of Reynolds
Number, where the laminar flow will happen for Reynolds number less
than 2000 and turbulent flow for Reynolds number greater than 3000.
When Re is between 2000 and 3000, the type of flow is transition where
the flow is unpredictable and often changes back and forth between
laminar and turbulent states. Fortunately, however, most engineering
application either is not in this range or not significantly affected by
the unstable flow.

From the result and also the formula of Reynolds number,

du du
Re = or Re =

we can conclude that laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is
small due to low flow velocity, small pipe diameter and high fluid
viscosity. In contrary, turbulent flow happens when Reynolds number is
great during high flow velocity, big pipe diameter and low fluid
viscosity.
 EXPERIMENT 2: FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE

RESULTS

Diameter of Orifice, do = 0.013 m

d2
Area of Orifice, Ao =
4

= 1.32710-4 m2

Table 2: Data recorded and the calculations of flow rate, Q

Stop watch reading Volumetric tank reading Coefficient of

Q = V/t contraction,
No dj = dc
Initial End Time Initial End Volume 10-4 Ac
. (mm)
(s) (s) (s) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3/s) Cc = A o

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
1 0 28.44 28.44 0 0.005 0.005 1.76 9.2 0.50
2 0 29.03 29.03 0 0.005 0.005 1.72 9.9 0.58
3 0 32.25 32.25 0 0.005 0.005 1.55 10.6 0.67
4 0 32.80 32.80 0 0.005 0.005 1.52 10.2 0.62
5 0 33.00 33.00 0 0.005 0.005 1.52 10.7 0.68
6 0 34.06 34.06 0 0.005 0.005 1.47 9.6 0.55
7 0 35.62 35.62 0 0.005 0.005 1.40 9.1 0.49
8 0 45.78 45.78 0 0.005 0.005 1.09 10.7 0.68

Average Value of Cc = 0.59

Table 3: Data recorded and the calculation of diameter of jet, dj

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1st value, d1 (mm) 22.7 27.6 22.9 22.5 27.5 22.9 23.3 21.0

2nd value, d2 (mm) 13.5 17.7 12.3 12.3 16.8 13.3 14.2 10.3

Diameter of jet, dj (mm) 9.2 9.9 10.6 10.2 10.7 9.6 9.1 10.7
 Table 4: Data recorded and the estimation of Cv

Head of tank Head of pitot tube Coefficient of velocity,

No. H o H c Hc
Ho (m) Hc (m) Cv = H o
(m1/2) (m1/2)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1 0.350 0.592 0.349 0.591 0.9983
2 0.310 0.557 0.307 0.554 0.9946
3 0.290 0.539 0.288 0.537 0.9963
4 0.236 0.486 0.233 0.482 0.9918
5 0.231 0.481 0.228 0.477 0.9917
6 0.201 0.448 0.199 0.446 0.9955
7 0.165 0.406 0.163 0.404 0.9951
8 0.110 0.332 0.109 0.330 0.9940

Average Value of Cv = 0.9947

Table 5: Calculation of Cd, Cc and Cv for orifice

Qo = Ao Cd = Cc =
Q H o
No. Cv 2 gH o Q Cd
10 (m3/s)
-4
1/2 Qo Cv
(m )
10-4 (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
1 1.76 0.592 0.9983 3.477 0.506 0.507
2 1.72 0.557 0.9946 3.273 0.526 0.529
3 1.55 0.539 0.9963 3.165 0.490 0.492
4 1.52 0.486 0.9918 2.855 0.532 0.536
5 1.52 0.481 0.9917 2.825 0.538 0.543
6 1.47 0.448 0.9955 2.635 0.558 0.561
7 1.40 0.406 0.9951 2.388 0.586 0.589
8 1.09 0.332 0.9940 1.949 0.559 0.563
Average 1.50 0.480 0.9947 2.821 0.537 0.540

Average Value of Cv = 0.9947

Average Value of Cd = 0.537

Average Value of Cc = 0.540

 Graph of Flow Rate, Q against Ho1/2
2

f(x) = 3.11x

1.5

1
Flow Rate, Q (10-4) (m3/s)

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Ho1/2 (m1/2)

Graph 1

CALCULATION

Examples of calculation (For No. 1):

(i) Calculation for coefficient of contraction, Cc for table 2

V
Flow rate, Q = t

0.005 m 3
= 28.44 s
 = 1.76 x 10-4 m3/s

Diameter of jet, dj = dc

= d2 d1

= 22.7 - 13.5

= 9.2 mm

Area of jet, Aj = Ac

d

j 2
=

0.0092 2

=

= 6.64810-5 m2

Ac
Coefficient of contraction, Cc = Ao

6.648 105
= 1.327 x 10
-4

= 0.50

(ii) Calculation for coefficient of velocity, Cv

Head of tank, Ho = 0.350 m

Head of pitot tube, Hc = 0.349 m

H o = 0.350
 = 0.592 m1/2

H c = 0.349

= 0.591 m1/2

Hc
Coefficient of velocity, Cv = Ho

0.591
= 0.592

= 0.9983

(iii) Calculation for coefficient of discharge, Cd and coefficient of contraction, Cc for table
5

Qo = Ao 2 g Ho

= (1.327 x 10-4) 2(9.81) (0.350m)

= 3.477 x 10-4 m3/s

Q
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qo

1.76 x 10-4
= 3.477 x 10-4

= 0.506

Cd
Coefficient of contraction, Cc = Cv

0.506
= 0.9983

= 0.507

The calculation steps are repeated for set No.2 to No.8 readings.
Calculation for average value of Cc, Cv, and Cd:

Average value of Ccfor table 2

0.50 + 0.58 + 0.67 + 0.62 + 0.6 8+0.55+0.49+0.68

= 8

= 0.59

Average value of Cv

0.998 3+0.9946+0.9963+0.9918+0.9917+0.9955+0.9951+0.9940
= 8

= 0.9947

Average value of Cd

0.506+0.526+0. 490+0.532+0.538+ 0.558+0.586+0.559

= 8

= 0.537

Average value of Ccfor table 5

0.50 7 + 0.529 + 0.492 + 0.536 + 0.543 +0.561+0.589+0.563

= 8

= 0.540

Calculation for coefficient of discharge, Cd from Graph of Q against H1/2

From Graph 1,

Gradient, K = 3.1111 x 10-4 m5/2s-1

Q 1
( )
Cd Ho Ao

Cd K / A 2 g 3.111104 / ( 1.327 104 ) ( 2 9.81 ) 0.5293

DISCUSSION

Experiment 2: Flow Through Orifice

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of contraction (C c),

coefficient of discharge(Cd) and coefficient of velocity (CV) for the orifice. The
coefficient of contraction is the ratio of cross-section of the vena contracta to the cross
section of the orifice. The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the actual discharge to
the discharge at the ideal velocity without the reduction of area, while the coefficient of
velocity is the ratio of actual velocity to the ideal velocity. Table below showed the values
obtained from the experiment and the comparison of the results with the values from
manual of apparatus.

Values From
Average Percentage
Coefficient Manual of
Experimental Values Difference (%)
Apparatus
CC (From Table 2) 0.638 0.650 1.85
Cv 0.998 0.996 0.20
Cd (From Table 5) 0.508 0.630 19.37
Cc (From Table 5) 0.743 0.650 14.31
Cd (From Graph 1) 0.681 0.630 8.10

The experiment shows that 2 values of the coefficient of contraction, Cc are

calculated by using different equation which is the ratio of cross section of vena contracta
to the cross section of orifice (Table 2) and ratio of coefficient of discharge to coefficient
of velocity (Table 5). The results obtained for C c from table 2 is 0.590 while from table 5
is 0.540 and having a percentage difference of 9.23% and 16.92% respectively when
compared with values from manual of apparatus.The coefficient of velocity, C v obtained
in the experiment is 0.9947 while compared to the data from manual of apparatus of
0.996, the percentage difference is 0.13%. This mean that the results obtained is closed
and agreed with the theoretical values. On the other hand, coefficient of discharge (C d)
also obtained by two methods which is by calculating the ratio of the actual discharge to
the discharged at ideal velocity without reduction of area (table 5) and from graph of Q
versus H1/2 (Graph 1). Both values obtained are very close to each other which are 0.537
for the former method and 0.5293 for the latter method. At the meantime, both values
have a percentage difference to the value from manual of apparatus (0.630) of 14.76%
and 15.98%.

The overall values of the coefficients obtained from the experiment are lower than
that from the manual of apparatus. Between them, the coefficient of discharge and
coefficient of contraction are much lower than expected and showed high percentage
difference. This may because of some errors occurred when carry out the experiment, for
example the errors during obtaining the diameter of the jet. It is difficult to determine the
diameter of jet accurately using the knife blade as parallax errors might occurred and the
position of blade might move during adjusting. Besides, human errors might also
occurred when taking the reading of the time as the time to stop the stopwatch is differ
and might be earlier or late for different person incharged. The orifice flow meter
apparatus might also has some discrepancies and no well calibrated as the water head of
tank and pitot tube decrease sharply although the valve is close slightly and sometimes
the situation vice versa. The energy loss during the experiment might also affects the
readings obtained to be lower than expected.

Further discussions on the suggestions for improving the apparatus:

To improve the accuracy of the result, a digital reading device is suggested to be

installed in apparatus so that the reading taken will be more accurate and human errors
can be reduce as we realized that the volume of water is not increase or decrease in
constant rate when we adjusted the valve. It is very difficult for the observer to take the
reading of the volume and the volume indicator will fluctuate and increase with a sudden
increment. It will affect the accuracy of the reading taken.

Besides that, an electronic device should be introduced in measuring the diameter

of the water jet. As we are only using the blade to touch the both side of water, the result
is not that accurate as there are some deviation on the actual diameter of water since the
touching is not standard. A laser or infrared ray can be used to replace the blade as it can
measure the diameter of water jet in a higher accuracy.

A better controlling valve should also replace to ensure consistent change of the
flow when adjusting the valve. The orifice flow meter apparatus should also place on
another levelled place to avoid the disturbance on the water level due to vibration caused
by the pump and increase its accuracy.

CONCLUSION
Experiment 2: Flow ThroughOrifice

From the experiment that has been carried out, the C v value
obtained is 0.9947, Cd is 0.537and 0.5293 whereas Cc is 0.590 and 0.540. By
comparing with the data from the apparatus manual, the percentage
differences are all within the acceptable range(less than 20%). The
differences may cause by the errors as discussed, and the precaution
and improvement should be taken to increase the accuracy of the
results. To conclude, the result is acceptable and the objective is
achieved.