Ohanian

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PA RT
2 Oscillations,
Waves, and
Fluids
CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 15 Oscillations
C H A P T E R 16 Waves
C H A P T E R 17 Sound
C H A P T E R 18 Fluid Mechanics
At 1.1 times the speed of

sound, this T-38 training jet
generates shock waves, or
sonic booms, in the surround-
ing air. The shock waves are
made visible by Schlieren pho-
tography, a special technique
that detects changes in the
density of air.
PhysicsPagesCh15_Af.qxd 6/10/06 8:02 PM Page 468 PMAC-291 PMAC-291:Desktop Folder:Final-Files: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK]
CHAPTER
15 Oscillations
CONCEPTS IN CONTEXT Concepts

in
The body-mass measurement device shown is used aboard the International Context
15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion Space Station for the daily measurement of the masses of the astronauts.
15.2 The Simple Harmonic The device consists of a spring coupled to a chair into which the astronaut
Oscillator is strapped. Pushed by the spring, the chair with the astronaut oscillates back
and forth. We will see in this chapter that the frequency of oscillation of
15.3 Kinetic Energy and Potential
Energy the massspring system depends on the mass, and therefore the frequency
can serve as an indicator of the mass of the astronaut.
15.4 The Simple Pendulum
While learning about oscillating systems, we will consider such ques-
15.5 Damped Oscillations and tions as:
Forced Oscillations
? When the spring pushes and pulls the astronaut, what is the position
of the astronaut as a function of time? The velocity of the astronaut?
(Example 4, page 478)
468
15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 469
? What is the total mechanical energy of the astronautspring system? What are
the kinetic and potential energies as the spring begins to push? At later times?
? Good oscillators have low friction. How do we measure the quality of an oscilla-
tor? (Example 10, page 490)
T he motion of a particle or of a system of particles is periodic, or cyclic, if it repeats again

and again at regular intervals of time. The orbital motion of a planet around the
Sun, the uniform rotational motion of a carousel or of a circular saw blade, the back-
and-forth motion of a piston in an automobile engine or in a water pump, the swing-
ing motion of a pendulum bob in a grandfather clock, and the vibration of a guitar
string are examples of periodic motions. If the periodic motion is a back-and-forth motion
along a straight or curved line, it is called an oscillation. Thus, the motion of the piston
is an oscillation, and so are the motion of the pendulum and the motion of the indi-
vidual particles of the guitar string.
In this chapter we will examine in some detail the motion of a mass oscillating
back and forth under the push and pull exerted by an ideal, massless spring. The equa-
tions that we will develop for the description of this massspring system are of great
importance because analogous equations also occur in the description of all other oscil-
lating systems. We will also examine some of these other oscillating systems, such as
the pendulum.
15.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION Online
Simple harmonic motion is a special kind of one-dimensional periodic motion. In any

16
Concept
Tutorial
kind of one-dimensional periodic motion, the particle moves back and forth along
a straight line, repeating the same motion again and again. In the special case of
simple harmonic motion, the particles position can be expressed as a cosine or a sine func-
tion of time. As we will see later, the motion of a mass oscillating back and forth under
the push and pull of a spring is simple harmonic (Fig. 15.1a), and so is the motion of
a pendulum bob swinging back and forth (provided the amplitude of swing is small;
see Fig. 15.1b), and so is the up-and-down motion of the blade of a saber saw
(Fig. 15.1c). However, in this first section we will merely deal with the mathematical
description of simple harmonic motion, and we will postpone until the next section
the question of what causes the motion.
As a numerical example of simple harmonic motion, suppose that the tip of the
blade in Fig. 15.1c moves up and down between x 0.8 cm and x 0.8 cm (where
(a) (b) (c) When motor

turns wheel
FIGURE 15.1 (a) The motion of a particle

oscillating back and forth in response to the push
and pull of a spring is simple harmonic. (b) The
x
motion of a pendulum bob is approximately blade moves
simple harmonic. (c) The motion of a saber saw up and down.
blade is simple harmonic.
470 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations
Period is time T for the x axis is assumed to be vertical); further suppose that the blade com-
one complete cycle. pletes 50 up-and-down cycles each second. Figure 15.2 gives a plot of the
x
cm
position of the tip of the blade as a function of time. The plot in Fig.
period
0.8 Amplitude 15.2 has the mathematical form of a cosine function of the time t,
is maximum
displacement A. x 0.8cos(100t) (15.1)
amplitude
t
where it is assumed that distance is measured in centimeters and time
0 0.01 s 0.02 s 0.03 s
in seconds, and it is assumed that the angle 100t in the cosine func-
tion is reckoned in radians. [The factor 100 multiplying t in Eq. (15.1)
0.8 has been selected so as to obtain exactly 50 complete cycles each second,
Motion is simple harmonic which is typical for saber saws; we will see below in Eq. (15.5) how the
if position is a cosine (or
sine) function of time. factor multiplying t in Eq. (15.1) is related to the period of the motion.]
Cosines and sines are called harmonic functions, which is why we call
FIGURE 15.2 Plot of position vs. time the motion harmonic. For the harmonic motion plotted in Fig. 15.2, at t
for a case of simple harmonic motion up 0, the blade tip is at its maximum upward displacement [evaluating Eq. (15.1) at t 0,
and down along the x axis. we have cos 0 1, so x 0.8 cm] and is just starting to move; at t 0.005 s, it passes
through the midpoint [since cos(100 0.005) cos (2) 0, Eq. (15.1) gives x
0]; at t 0.010 s, it reaches maximum downward displacement [cos() 1, so x 0.8
cm]; at t 0.015 s, it again passes through midpoint. Finally, at t 0.020 s, the tip returns
to its maximum upward displacement, exactly as at t 0it has completed one cycle of
the motion and is ready to begin the next cycle. Thus, the period T, or the repeat time of
the motion (the number of seconds for one complete cycle of the motion), is
T 0.020 s (15.2)
and the frequency f of the motion, or the rate of repetition of the motion (the number
of cycles per second), is
1 1
f 50/s (15.3)
T 0.020 s
The points x 0.8 cm and x 0.8 cm, at which the x coordinate attains its maxi-
mum and minimum values, are the turning points of the motion; and the point
x 0 is the midpoint.
Equation (15.1) is a special example of simple harmonic motion. More generally,
the motion of a particle is simple harmonic if the dependence of position on time has
the form of a cosine or a sine function, such as
simple harmonic motion x A cos(t ) (15.4)
The quantities A, , and are constants. The quantity A is called the amplitude of
the motion; it is simply the distance between the midpoint (x 0) and either of the
turning points (x A or x A). The quantity is called the angular frequency;
its value is related to the period T. To establish the relationship between and T, note
that if we increase the time by T (from t to t T ), the argument of the cosine in Eq. (15.4)
increases by T. For this to be one cycle of the cosine function, we must require T 2.
Thus, the repetition time of the motion, that is, the period T of the motion, is related
to the angular frequency by
2p 2p
period and angular frequency T or (15.5)
T
The repetition rate, or the frequency of the motion, is 1T, so we may write
1
f or 2f (15.6) frequency and angular frequency
T 2p
Note that the angular frequency and the frequency f differ by a factor of 2,
which corresponds to 2 radians 1 cycle. The units of angular frequency are radi-
ans per second (radians/s). The units of frequency are cycles per second (cycles/s). Like
the label revolution that we used in rev/s in rotational motion, the label cycle in cycle/s
can be omitted in the course of a calculation, and so can the label radian in radian/s.
But it is useful to retain these labels wherever there is a chance of confusion. The SI
unit of frequency is called the hertz (Hz):
1 hertz 1 Hz 1 cycle/s 1/s (15.7)
hertz (Hz)
For instance, in the example of the motion of the saber saw blade, the period of the
motion is T 0.020 s, the frequency is f 1T 1(0.020 s) 50/s 50 Hz, and
the angular frequency is
2 f 2 50/s 314 radians/s
Here, in the last step of the calculation, the label radians has been inserted, so as to
distinguish the angular frequency from the ordinary frequency f.
The argument (t ) of the cosine function is called the phase of the oscilla-
tion, and the quantity is called the phase constant. This constant determines at what
times the particle reaches the point of maximum displacement, when cos(t ) 1.
One such instant is when
tmax 0
that is, when
tmax (15.8) phase constant and time of
maximum displacement
Hence the particle reaches the point of maximum displacement at a time before
t 0 (see Fig. 15.3). Of course, the particle also passes through this point at periodic
intervals before and after this time. If the phase constant is zero ( 0), then the max-
imum displacement occurs at t 0.
Note that the preceding equations connecting angular frequency, period, and fre-
quency are formally the same as the equations connecting angular velocity, period, and
frequency of uniform rotational motion [see Eqs. (12.4) and (12.5)]. This coincidence
(a) (b) (c)

x x x
d=0 d = p/4 d = -p/4
A A A
p/w p/w t p/w

t t
2p/w tmax 2p/w tmax 2p/w
A A A
Positive phase constant Negative phase
advances cosine peak constant delays cosine
to before t = 0. peak to after t = 0.
FIGURE 15.3 Examples of cosine functions cos(t ) for simple harmonic motion with different
phase constants. (a) 0. The particle reaches maximum displacement at t 0. (b) 4 (or 45).
The particle reaches maximum displacement before t 0. (c) 4 (or 45). The particle
reaches maximum displacement after t 0.
arises from a special geometrical relationship between simple harmonic motion

Satellite is in uniform
y circular motion. and uniform circular motion. Suppose that a particle moves with simple har-
monic motion according to Eq. (15.4), with amplitude A and angular velocity ;
and consider a satellite particle that is constrained to move in uniform circu-
Particle is in simple lar motion with angular velocity along a circle of radius A, centered on the
A harmonic motion.
wt midpoint of the harmonic motion, that is, centered on x 0. Figure 15.4 shows
x this circle, called the reference circle. At time t 0, both the particle and its
x satellite are on the x axis at x A. After this time, the particle moves along
Linear motion is the x axis, so its position is
projection of circular
motion onto x axis. x A cos(t) (15.9)
Meanwhile, the satellite moves around the circle, and its angular position is
t
FIGURE 15.4 Particle oscillating along
the x axis and satellite particle moving Now note that the x coordinate of the satellite is the adjacent side of the triangle shown
around reference circle. The particle and the in Fig. 15.4:
satellite are always aligned vertically; that is,
they have the same x coordinate. xsat A cos A cos(t) (15.10)
Comparing this with Eq. (15.9), we see that the x coordinate of the satellite always
coincides with the x coordinate of the particle; that is, the particle and the satellite
always have exactly the same x motion. This means that in Fig. 15.4 the satellite is
always on that point of the reference circle directly above or directly below the particle.
This geometrical relationship between simple harmonic motion and uniform cir-
cular motion can be used to generate simple harmonic motion from uniform circular
motion. Figure 15.5 shows a simple mechanism for accomplishing this by means of a
slotted arm placed over a peg that is attached to a wheel in uniform circular motion.
The slot is vertical, and the arm is constrained to move horizontally. The peg plays
the role of satellite, and the midpoint of the slot in the arm plays the role of parti-
cle. The peg drags the arm left and right and makes it move with simple harmonic
motion. A mechanism of this kind is used in electric saber saws and other devices to
convert the rotational motion of an electric motor into the up-and-down motion of the
saw blade or other moving component.
Finally, let us calculate the instantaneous velocity and instantaneous acceleration
in simple harmonic motion. If the displacement is
x A cos(t ) (15.11)
then differentiation of this displacement gives the velocity
dx
v A sin (t d) (15.12)
dt
Peg is attached to
uniformly rotating wheel.
Circular motion is converted

into linear motion.
FIGURE 15.5 Rotating wheel

with a peg driving a slotted arm Slotted arm is constrained to
back and forth. move horizontally.
(a) (b)
M AT H H E L P D E R I VAT I V E S O F T R I G O N O M E T R I C F U N C T I O N S
Under the assumption that the argument of each trigonometric function is expressed in radians, the derivatives of the sine,
cosine, and tangent are
d d d b
sin bu b cos bu cos bu b sin bu tan bu b sec2 bu
du du du cos2 bu
and differentiation of this velocity gives the acceleration
d 2x dv
a 2
2 A cos (t d) (15.13)
dt dt
Here we have used the standard formulas for the derivatives of the sine function and
the cosine function (see Math Help: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions). Bear
in mind that the arguments of the sine and cosine functions in this chapter (and also
the next) are always expressed in radians, as required for the validity of the standard for-
mulas for derivatives.
As expected, the instantaneous velocity calculated from Eq. (15.12) is zero for
t 0, when the particle is at the turning point. Furthermore, the instantaneous
velocity attains a maximum magnitude of
vmax A (15.14) maximum velocity
for t 2, when the particle passes through the midpoint (note that the max-
imum magnitude of sin t is 1).
Figure 15.6 shows a multiple-exposure photograph of the oscillations of a particle
in simple harmonic motion. The picture illustrates the variations of speed in simple har-
monic motion: the particle moves at low speed (smaller displacements between snapshots)
near the turning points, and at high speed (larger displacements) near the midpoint.
The velocity (15.12) is a sine function, whereas the displacement (15.11) is a cosine
function. When the cosine is at its maximum (say, cos 0 1), the sine is small
(sin 0 0); when the cosine is small (say, cos 2 0), the sine is at its maximum
FIGURE 15.6 Sequence of snapshots at

uniform time intervals of an oscillating mass
on a spring (a-h). Note that the mass moves
slowly at the extremes of its motion.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g) (h)
(sin 2 1). Hence the displacement and the velocity are out of stepwhen one
has a large magnitude, the other has a small magnitude, and vice versa. Figures 15.7a
and b compare the velocity and the displacement for simple harmonic motion at dif-
ferent times. Graphically, the velocity is the slope of the position vs. time curve. When
the position goes through a maximum or minimum, the slope is zero; when the posi-
tion goes through zero, the magnitude of the slope is a maximum.
Comparison of Eqs. (15.11) and (15.13) shows that
d 2x
acceleration in simple harmonic motion v2x (15.15)
dt 2
Thus, the acceleration is always proportional to the displacement x, but is in the oppo-
(a) site direction; see Fig. 15.7c. This proportionality is a characteristic feature of simple
x
A harmonic motion, a fact that will be useful in the next section. Even when a phe-
nomenon does not involve motion along a line (for example, rotational motion or the
behavior of electric circuits), harmonic behavior occurs whenever the second deriva-
t tive of a quantity is proportional to the negative of that quantity, as in Eq. (15.15).
The sine and cosine functions (or a combination of them) are the only functions that
have this property.
When displacement has a

(b) large magnitude, velocity
v has a small magnitude. Consider the blade of a saber saw moving up and down in
EXAMPLE 1
simple harmonic motion with a frequency of 50.0 Hz, or an
vmax = A angular frequency of 314 radians/s. Suppose that the amplitude of the motion is
1.20 cm and that at time t 0, the tip of the blade is at x 0 and its velocity is
t
positive. What is the equation describing the position of the tip of the blade as a
function of time? How long does the blade take to travel from x 0 to x 0.60 cm?
To 1.20 cm?
SOLUTION: The position as function of time is given by Eq. (15.4):
(c)
a x A cos(t )
amax = 2A with 314 radians/s and A 0.0120 m. Since x 0 at t 0, we must adopt a
value of such that cos 0. The smallest values of that satisfy this condition are
t 2 and 2 (other possible values of differ from these by 2, 4,
etc.). From Eq. (15.12), we see that to obtain a positive value of v at t 0, we need
a negative value of ; that is, 2. So the equation describing the motion is
x (0.0120 m) cos c (314s) t d

When displacement is large p
and positive, acceleration is 2
large and negative.
The tip of the blade reaches x 0.0060 m when
FIGURE 15.7 (a) Position, (b) velocity,
0.0060 m (0.0120 m) cos c (314s) t d

and (c) acceleration of a particle in simple p
harmonic motion as functions of time. 2
that is, when cos[(314s)t 2] (12). With our calculator we obtain cos1 12
1.05 radians (here, we have to select a negative sign, since the argument of the
cosine is initially negative, and remains negative until the motion reaches the full
amplitude, x 0.0120 m). So
p
(314s)t 1.05
2
from which
1.05 (p>2)
t 0.0017 s
314s
To find when the tip of the blade reaches x 0.0120 m, we can use Eq. (15.8),
which gives
d (2)
t 0.0050 s
v 314s
COMMENT: Note that the time taken to reach a distance of one-half of the ampli-
tude is not one-half of the time taken to reach the full amplitude, because the
motion does not proceed at constant speed.
In an atomic-force microscope (AFM), a cantilever beam with

EXAMPLE 2
a sharp tip (Fig. 15.8a) oscillates near a surface. We can map
the topography of a surface (see Fig. 15.8b) by slowly moving the tip laterally as it
oscillates vertically, much like a blind person tapping a cane on the ground. The AFM
tip shown in Fig. 15.8a oscillates with a period of 3.0 106 s. The tip
moves up and down with amplitude 9.0 108 m. What is the maximum
vertical acceleration of the tip? Its maximum vertical velocity?
(a) (b)
SOLUTION: As discussed above, the largest acceleration occurs at the point of FIGURE 15.8 (a) Atomic-force micro-
maximum displacement. From Eq. (15.13) this maximum acceleration is [since scope (AFM) cantilever and tip. (b) AFM
the maximum value of cos(t ) is 1] image of the surface of a crystal, obtained by
scanning the vibrating tip across the surface.
amax 2A (15.16) The area shown is 2 m 2 m. The
6
ragged terraces are single atomic steps.
From Eq. (15.5) and the period T 3.0 10 s, we obtain the angular frequency
2p 2p
v 2.1 106 radians/s
T 3.0 106 s
Thus, with A 9.0 108 m, the maximum acceleration is
amax 2A (2.1 106 radians/s)2 9.0 108 m 4.0 105 m/s2
This is more than 40000 standard gs, an enormous acceleration.
The maximum velocity is, from Eq. (15.12),
vmax A 2.1 106 radians/s 9.0 108 m 0.19 m/s
Checkup 15.1
QUESTION 1: Is the rotational motion of the Earth about its axis periodic motion?
Oscillatory motion?
QUESTION 2: For a particle with simple harmonic motion, at what point of the motion
does the velocity attain maximum magnitude? Minimum magnitude?
does the acceleration attain maximum magnitude? Minimum magnitude?
QUESTION 4: Two particles execute simple harmonic motion with the same ampli-
tude. One particle has twice the frequency of the other. Compare their maximum
velocities and accelerations.
QUESTION 5: Are the x coordinates of the particle and the satellite particle in Fig.
15.4 always the same? The y coordinates? The velocities? The x components of the
velocities? The accelerations? The x components of the accelerations?
QUESTION 6: Suppose that a particle with simple harmonic motion passes through
the equilibrium point (x 0) at t 0. In this case, which of the following is a possi-
ble value of the phase constant in x A cos(t )?
(A) 0 (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 34 (E)
1 5 . 2 T H E S I M P L E H A R M O N I C O S C I L L AT O R
When displaced and
The simple harmonic oscillator consists of a particle coupled to an ideal, massless spring that
released, the mass will obeys Hookes Law, that is, a spring that provides a force proportional to the elongation
oscillate about equilibrium. or compression of the spring. One end of the spring is attached to the particle, and
the other is held fixed (see Fig. 15.9). We will ignore gravity and friction, so the spring
force is the only force acting on the particle. The system has an equilibrium position
corresponding to the relaxed length of the spring. If the particle is initially at some
distance from this equilibrium position (see Fig. 15.10), then the stretched spring
x supplies a restoring force that pulls the particle toward the equilibrium position. The
particle speeds up as it moves toward the equilibrium position, and it overshoots
the equilibrium position. Then, the particle begins to compress the spring and slows
Equilibrium
position is at x = 0. down, coming to rest at the other side of the equilibrium position, at a distance equal
to its initial distance. The compressed spring then pushes the particle back toward the
FIGURE 15.9 A mass attached to a spring equilibrium position. The particle again speeds up, overshoots the equilibrium position,
slides back and forth on a frictionless surface. and so on. The result is that the particle oscillates back and forth about the equilibrium
We regard the mass as a particle, whose posi- positionforever if there is no friction.
tion coincides with the center of the mass. The great importance of the simple harmonic oscillator is that many physical sys-
tems are mathematically equivalent to simple harmonic oscillators; that is, these sys-
tems have an equation of motion of the same mathematical form as the simple harmonic
oscillator. A pendulum, the balance wheel of a watch, a tuning fork, the air in an organ
pipe, and the atoms in a diatomic molecule are systems of this kind; the restoring force
and the inertia are of the same mathematical form in these systems as in the simple har-
monic oscillator, and we can transcribe the general mathematical results directly from
the latter to the former.
To obtain the equation of motion of the simple harmonic oscillator, we begin with
Hookes Law for the restoring force exerted by the spring on the particle [compare
Eq. (6.11)]:
F kx (15.17)
15.2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 477
Here the displacement x is measured from the equilibrium position, which corresponds
to x 0. The constant k is the spring constant. Note that the force is negative if x is
positive (stretched spring; see Fig. 15.10a); and the force is positive if the displace-
ment is negative (compressed spring; see Fig. 15.10b).
With the force as given by Eq. (15.16), the equation of motion of the particle is
d 2x equation of motion
m kx (15.18) for simple harmonic oscillator
dt 2
This equation says that the acceleration of the particle is always proportional to the
distance x, but is in the opposite direction. We now recall, from Eq. (15.15), that such
a proportionality of acceleration and distance is characteristic of simple harmonic
motion, and we therefore can immediately conclude that the motion of a particle cou-
pled to a spring must be simple harmonic motion. By comparing Eqs. (15.18) and
(15.15), we see that these equations become identical if
k
v2
m
and we therefore see that the angular frequency of the oscillation of the particle on
a spring is
k
v (15.19)
Bm
Consequently, the frequency and the period are
v 1 k angular frequency, frequency, and

f (15.20)
2p 2p B m period for simple harmonic oscillator
and
Equilibrium
position.
1 m
T 2p (15.21) (a)
f Bk x
F
With the value (15.19) for the angular frequency, the expression (15.4) for the posi-
A +A x
tion as a function of time becomes
x A cos a t db
k Spring force
(15.22) always acts toward
Bm equilibrium position.
(b)
x
According to Eq. (15.20) the frequency of the motion of the simple harmonic oscil-
lator depends only on the spring constant and on the mass. The frequency of the oscilla- F
tor is unaffected by the amplitude with which it has been set in motionif the oscillator has
A +A x
a frequency of, say, 2 Hz when oscillating with a small amplitude, then it also has a fre-
quency of 2 Hz when oscillating with a large amplitude. This property of the oscilla- x=0
tor is called isochronism.

FIGURE 15.10 (a) Positive displacement
Note that the period is long if the mass is large and the spring constant is small. of the particle; the force is negative.
This is as expected, since in each period the spring must accelerate and decelerate the (b) Negative displacement of the particle;
mass, and a weak spring will give a large mass only little acceleration. the force is positive.
Spring scale oscillates about When you place a heavy encyclopedia, of mass 8 kg, on a kitchen
EXAMPLE 3
its shifted equilibrium. scale (a spring scale; see Fig. 15.11), you notice that before
coming to equilibrium, the pointer of the scale oscillates back and forth around
the equilibrium position a few times with a period of 0.4 s. What is the effective
spring constant of the internal spring of the kitchen scale? (Neglect other masses
in the scale.)
0
18
20 2
4
SOLUTION: The mass of 8 kg in conjunction with the internal spring of the scale
16 6
forms a mass-and-spring system, to which we can apply Eq. (15.21). If we square
14 8 both sides of this equation, we obtain
12 10
m
T 2 4p 2
k
FIGURE 15.11 A heavy book on a spring
scale oscillates up and down. which gives us
m
k 4p 2 (15.23)
T2
With m 8 kg and T 0.4 s, this becomes

8 kg
k 4p2 2 103 N/m
(0.4 s) 2
COMMENT: In this example, there is not only the force of the spring acting on
the mass, but also the force of gravity on the mass (the weight) and friction forces.
The force of gravity determines where the spring will reach equilibrium, but this
force has no direct effect on the frequency of oscillation around equilibrium. The
friction forces cause the oscillations to stop after a few cycles, but only slightly
reduce the frequency (see Section 15.5). For negligible friction, the frequency
depends exclusively on the mass and the spring constant.
Suppose that the astronaut in the chapter photo has a mass of

Concepts EXAMPLE 4
in 58 kg, including the chair device to which she is attached. She
Context
and the chair move under the influence of the force of a spring with k 2.1 103
N/m. There are no other forces acting. Consider the motion to be along the x axis,
with the equilibrium point at x 0. Suppose that at t 0, she is (instantaneously)
at rest at x 0.20 m. Where will she be at t 0.10 s? At t 0.20 s? What will her
velocity be when she passes through the equilibrium point?
SOLUTION: Since the astronaut is initially at rest at x 0.20 m, this must be one
of the turning points of the motion; thus, the amplitude of the motion must be
A 0.20 m. Furthermore, since at t 0 the astronaut is at the turning point, the
phase constant 0 [see Eq. (15.8)]. Consequently, at time t 0.10 s, the posi-
tion of the astronaut will be
x A cos t 0.20 m cos( 0.10 s)
To evaluate this, we need the angular frequency of the oscillation. By Eq. (15.19)
this is
k 2.1 103 N/m
v 6.0 radians/s
Bm B 58 kg
15.2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 479
With this value of ,

x 0.20 m cos (6.0 radians/s 0.10 s)
0.20 m cos (0.60 radian) 0.20 m 0.83 0.17 m
Likewise, at time t 0.20 s, the position will be
x A cos (vt) 0.20 m cos (6.0 radians/s 0.20 s)
0.20 m cos (1.2 radian) 0.20 m 0.36 0.072 m
The astronaut passes through the equilibrium point when t 2 (which
makes cos t 0). To find her velocity when she passes through the equilibrium
point, we take the derivative of x with respect to t, and then evaluate the resulting
expression at t 2:
dx d
v (A cos vt) v A sin vt
dt dt (15.24)
6.0 radians/s 0.20 m sin (p>2) 1.2 m/s
Simple harmonic oscillators are used as the timekeeping element in modern watches.
These watches use a quartz crystal as a spring-and-mass system. The crystal is elastic,
with a high Youngs modulus, and it therefore acts as a very stiff spring. The mass is not
attached as a lump to the end of this spring, but it is uniformly distributed over the
volume of the crystal (hence this springmass system is said to be distributed, in
contrast to a lumped system with separate springs and masses). The crystal is set
into vibration by electric impulses, instead of mechanical pushes. The electric circuits
attached to the crystal not only keep it vibrating, but also sense the frequency of vibra-
tion and control the display on the face of the clock.
The advantage of the quartz crystal as a timekeeping element is that the vibra-
tions of the crystal are extremely stable, because any accelerations from bumping the
watch are completely negligible compared with the immense accelerations of the oscil-
lating masses in the crystal. Ordinary quartz clocks are accurate to within a few sec-
onds per month; high-precision clocks are accurate to within 105 s per month.
Checkup 15.2
does the force on the particle attain maximum magnitude? Minimum magnitude?
QUESTION 2: Suppose we replace the particle in a simple harmonic oscillator by a
particle of twice the mass. How does this alter the frequency of oscillation?
QUESTION 3: If we suddenly cut the spring of a simple harmonic oscillator when the
particle is at the equilibrium point (x 0), what is the subsequent motion of the par-
ticle? If we suddenly cut the spring when the particle is at maximum displacement
(x A)?
Q U E S T I O N 4 : Suppose we replace the spring in a simple harmonic oscillator by a
stronger spring, with twice the spring constant. What is the ratio of the new period of
oscillation to the original period?
(A) 12 (B) 122. (C) 1 (D) 22. (E) 2
15.3 KINETIC ENERGY AND

POTENTIAL ENERGY
We know from Section 8.1 that the force exerted by a spring is a conservative force,
for which we can construct a potential energy. With this potential energy, we can for-
mulate a law of conservation of the mechanical energy: the sum of the kinetic energy
and the potential energy is a constant; that is,
E K U [constant] (15.25)
In this section we will see how to calculate the kinetic energy and the potential energy
of the simple harmonic oscillator at each instant of time, and we will verify explicitly
that the sum of these energies is constant.
The kinetic energy of a moving particle is
K 12 mv2 (15.26)
For simple harmonic motion, the speed is given by Eq. (15.12), and the kinetic energy
becomes
K 12 mv2 12 m[v A sin(vt d)]2

(15.27)
12 m v2A 2 sin2(vt d)
Since m2 k [see Eq. (15.18)], we can also write this as
K 12 kA 2sin2(vt d) (15.28)
The potential energy associated with the force F kx is [see Eq. (8.6)]
U 12 kx 2 (15.29)
For simple harmonic motion, with x A cos(t ), this becomes
U 12 kA 2 cos 2(vt d) (15.30)
The kinetic energy and the potential energy both depend on time. According to
Eqs. (15.28) and (15.30), each oscillates between a minimum value of zero and a max-
imum value of 12 k A 2. Figure 15.12 plots the oscillations of the kinetic energy and the
potential energy as functions of time; for simplicity, we set the phase constant at 0.
At the initial time t 0, the particle is at maximum distance from the equilibrium
point and its instantaneous speed is zero; thus, the potential energy is at its maximum
value, and the kinetic energy is zero. A quarter of a cycle later, the particle passes
through the equilibrium point and attains its maximum speed; thus, the kinetic energy
is at its maximum value and the potential energy is zero. Thus energy is traded back
and forth between potential energy and kinetic energy.
Since the force F kx is conservative, the total mechanical energy E K U
is a constant of the motion. To verify this conservation law for the energy explicitly, we
take the sum of Eqs. (15.28) and (15.30),
EKU
12 k A 2 sin2(vt d) 12 k A 2cos2(vt d) (15.31)
12 k A 2[sin2(vt d) cos2(vt d)]
15.3 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 481
zero K.E. intermediate K.E. maximum K.E. zero K.E. maximum K.E. zero K.E.
maximum P.E. intermediate P.E. zero P.E. maximum P.E. zero P.E. maximum P.E.
K kinetic energy
1 2
2 kA
1 2
4 kA
0 t
T/2 T
U
potential energy
1 2
2 kA
1 2
4 kA
t
0 T/2 T
E=K+U
total energy
1 2
2 kA
1 2
4 kA
t
0 T/2 T
At this time, mass has both Total energy

kinetic and potential energy. remains constant.
FIGURE 15.12 Kinetic energy and potential energy of a simple

harmonic oscillator as a function of time.
We can simplify this expression if we use the trigonometric identity sin2 cos2
1, which is valid for any angle . With this identity, we find that the right side of Eq.
(15.31) is simply 12 k A 2:
E 12 kA 2 (15.32) energy of simple harmonic oscillator
This shows that the energy of the motion is constant and is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of oscillation.
By means of Eq. (15.32), we can express the maximum displacement in terms of

the energy. For this, we need only solve Eq. (15.32) for A:
xmax A 22E>k (15.33)
Likewise, we can express the maximum speed in terms of the energy. For this, we note
that when the particle passes through the equilibrium point, the energy is purely kinetic:
E 12 mv 2max (15.34)
If we solve this for vmax, we find
vmax 22E>m (15.35)

These equations tell us that both the maximum displacement and the maximum speed
increase with the energythey both increase in proportion to the square root of the
energy.
For the 58-kg astronaut (with chair) moving under the influence
Concepts EXAMPLE 5
in of the spring in the body-mass measurement device described in
Context
Example 4, what is the total mechanical energy? What is the kinetic energy and
what is the potential energy at t 0? What is the kinetic energy and what is the
potential energy at t 0.20 s?
SOLUTION: From Example 4, the amplitude is A 0.20 m and the spring con-
stant is k 2.1 103 N/m. The total mechanical energy is
E 12 kA 2 12 2.1 103 N/m (0.20 m)2 42 J
At t 0, the astronaut is at rest at x 0.20 m. The kinetic energy is zero and

the potential energy is at its maximum,
U 12 kA 2 42 J
At t 0.20 s, the astronaut has nonzero speed, and the kinetic energy is given
by Eq. (15.28). With 0 (see Example 4), we find
K 12 mv2 12 k A 2 sin2(vt)
12 2.1 103 N/m (0.20 m)2
sin2(6.0 radians/s 0.20 s)
36 J (15.36)
The potential energy is given by Eq. (15.30), again with 0:
U 12 k A 2 cos 2(vt)
12 2.1 103 N/m (0.20 m)2
cos2 (6.0 radians/s 0.20 s)
6J (15.37)
COMMENT: Note that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is K U
36 J 6 J 42 J, which agrees with our result for the total mechanical energy.
15.3 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 483
The hydrogen molecule (H2) may be regarded as two particles Center Consider only half of
EXAMPLE 6 remains fixed. spring; spring constant
joined by a spring (see Fig. 15.13). The center of the spring is
of either half is k.
the center of mass of the molecule. This point can be assumed to remain fixed,
so this molecule consists of two identical simple harmonic oscillators vibrating x x
in opposite directions. The spring constant for each of these oscillators is 1.13
103 N/m, and the mass of each hydrogen atom is 1.67 1027 kg. Find the fre- H H
quency of vibration in hertz. Suppose that the total vibrational energy of the mol-
ecule is 1.3 1019 J. Find the corresponding amplitude of oscillation and the
maximum speed. FIGURE 15.13 A hydrogen molecule,
represented as two particles joined by a
SOLUTION: The frequency is given by Eq. (15.20): spring. The particles move symmetrically
relative to the center of mass.
1 1.13 103 N/m 1/2
a b 1.31 1014 Hz
1 k
f
2p B m 2p 1.67 1027 kg
Thus molecular vibrational frequencies can be quite high, about a hundred thou-
sand billion cycles per second.
Each atom has half the total energy of the molecule; thus, the energy per atom is
E 12 1.3 10 19 J 6.5 10 20 J
According to Eqs. (15.33) and (15.35), the amplitude of oscillation and the max-
imum speed of each atom are then
2E 2 6.5 1020 J
xmax 1.1 1011 m
B k B 1.13 103 N/m
and
2E 2 6.5 1020 J
vmax 8.8 10 3 m/s
Bm B 1.67 1027 kg
Checkup 15.3
QUESTION 1: Two harmonic oscillators have equal masses and spring constants. One
of them oscillates with twice the amplitude of the other. Compare the energies and
compare the maximum speeds attained by the particles.
QUESTION 2: Two harmonic oscillators have equal spring constants and amplitudes of
oscillation. One has twice the mass of the other. Compare the energies and the max-
imum speeds attained by the particles.
QUESTION 3: The period of a simple harmonic oscillator is 8.0 s. Suppose that at some
time the energy is purely kinetic. At what later time will it be purely potential? At
what later time again purely kinetic?
QUESTION 4: If the particle in a simple harmonic oscillator experiences a frictional
force (say, air resistance), is the energy constant? Is the amplitude A constant?
QUESTION 5: The mass, frequency, and amplitude of one oscillator are each twice that
of a second oscillator. What is the ratio of their stored energies, E1E2?
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 8 (D) 16 (E) 32
Online 15.4 THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

17
Concept
Tutorial A simple pendulum consists of a bob (a mass) suspended by a string or a rod from
some fixed point (see Fig. 15.14). The bob is assumed to behave like a particle of mass
m, and the string is assumed to be massless. Gravity acting on the bob provides a restor-
Point of suspension. ing force. When in equilibrium, the pendulum hangs vertically, just like a plumb line.
When released at some angle with the vertical, the pendulum will swing back and
forth along an arc of circle (see Fig. 15.15). The motion is two-dimensional; however,
Swinging mass m is
assumed concentrated the position of the pendulum can be completely described by a single parameter: the
at a distance l. angle between the string and the vertical (see Fig. 15.14). We will reckon this angle
as positive on the right side of the vertical, and as negative on the left side.
l
Since the bob and the string swing as a rigid unit, the motion can be regarded as
q
rotation about a horizontal axis through the point of suspension, and the equation of
motion is that of a rigid body [see Eq. (13.19)]:
I t (15.38)
m
Here the moment of inertia I and the torque are reckoned about the horizontal axis
When released, mass through the point of suspension, and is the angular acceleration.
will swing down toward
equilibrium. Figure 15.16 shows the free-body diagram for the stringbob system with all
the external forces. These external forces are the weight w of magnitude w mg acting
FIGURE 15.14 A pendulum swinging on the mass m and the suspension force S acting on the string at the point of support.
about a fixed suspension point. The angle The suspension force exerts no torque, since its point of application is on the axis of
is reckoned as positive if the deflection of rotation (its moment arm is zero). The weight exerts a torque [see Eq. (13.3)]
the pendulum is toward the right, as in this
figure. t mgl sin u (15.39)
where l is the length of the pendulum, measured from the point of suspension to the
center of the bob. The minus sign in Eq. (15.39) indicates that this is a restoring torque,
which tends to pull the pendulum toward its equilibrium position.
The moment of inertia I of the stringbob system is simply that of a particle of
mass m at a distance l from the axis of rotation:
I ml 2
Suspension
S force S exerts
FIGURE 15.15 Stroboscopic photograph no torque.
of a swinging pendulum. The pendulum
moves slowly at the extremes of its motion.
m
FIGURE 15.16 Free-body
w
Component of weight diagram for the stringbob
perpendicular to string q system. The torque exerted by the
exerts a torque wl sin q, weight w has magnitude wl sin ,
or mgl sin q.
or mgl sin .
15.4 The Simple Pendulum 485
Hence the equation of rotational motion (15.38) becomes
ml 2 mgl sin u (15.40)
or
g For small angles,
sin u (15.41) sin q q.
l q l
We will solve this equation of motion only in the special case of small oscillations
about the equilibrium position. If is small, we can make the approximation
sin u u (15.42) Q
P
R
where the angle is measured in radians (see Math Help: Small-Angle Approximations
for Sine, Cosine, and Tangent; and see Fig. 15.17). FIGURE 15.17 If the angle is small, the
With this approximation, the equation of motion becomes length of the straight line PQ is approximately
the same as the length of the circular arc PR.
g
u (15.43)
l
or, since the angular acceleration is d 2dt 2,
d 2u g
2
u (15.44)
dt l
This equation has the same mathematical form as Eq. (15.17). Comparing these two
equations, we see that the angle replaces the distance x, the angular acceleration
replaces the linear acceleration, l replaces m, and g replaces k. Hence the angular motion
is simple harmonic. Making the appropriate replacements in Eq. (15.4), we find that
the motion is described by the equation
u A cos (t d) (15.45)

with an angular frequency [compare Eqs. (15.19) and (15.44)]
g (15.46)

Bl
S M A L L - A N G L E A P P R O X I M AT I O N S F O R S I N E ,
M AT H H E L P
C O S I N E , A N D TA N G E N T
With the assumption that an angle is expressed in radians this angle is sin PQl. If is small, the length of the
and that this angle is small, the trigonometric functions have straight line PQ is approximately the same as the length of
the simple approximations the curved circular arc PR (for small angles, the curved arc is
sin u u almost a straight line). Thus, sin PRl. But the ratio PRl
cos u 1 u 2>2
is the definition of the angle expressed in radians, so sin
. Similar arguments give the above approximations for
tan u u
the cosine and the tangent. These approximations are
To understand how these approximations come about, usually satisfactory if is less than about 0.2 radians, or
consider the small angle shown in Fig. 15.17. The sine of about 10.
The frequency and the period of the pendulum are then
1 g
angular frequency, frequency, and f
period for simple pendulum 2p 2pB l
and
(15.47)
1 2p l
T 2p
f Bg
Note that these expressions for the frequency and the period depend only on the
length of the pendulum and on the acceleration of gravity; they do not depend on the mass
of the pendulum bob or on the amplitude of oscillation (but, of course, our calculation
depends on the assumption that the angle , and thus the amplitude of motion, is small).
Like the simple harmonic oscillator, the pendulum has the property of isochronism
its frequency is (approximately) independent of the amplitude with which it is swinging.
This property can be easily verified by swinging two pendulums of equal lengths side
by side, with different amplitudes. The pendulums will continue to swing in step for
a long while.
A woman sits in a swing of length 3.0 m (see Fig. 15.18). What

EXAMPLE 7
is the period of oscillation of this swing?
SOLUTION: We can regard the swing as a pendulum of an approximate length
3.0 m. From Eq. (15.47) we then find
3.0 m
l 3.0 m
T 2p 2p 3.5 s
Bg B 9.81 m /s2
The seconds pendulum in a pendulum clock built for an astro-

EXAMPLE 8
nomical observatory has a period of exactly 2.0 s, so each one-
way motion of the pendulum takes exactly 1.0 s. What is the length of such a
For simplicity, we assume
all of mass is concentrated seconds pendulum at a place where the acceleration of gravity is g 9.81 m/s2?
at one point. At a place where the acceleration of gravity is 9.79 m/s2?
SOLUTION: If we square both sides of Eq. (15.47) and then solve for the length
FIGURE 15.18 Woman on a swing.
l, we find
T 2
l a b g
2p
With g 9.81 m/s2 and the known period T 2.0 s, this gives
2.0 s 2
l a b 9.81 m/s2 0.994 m
2p
With g 9.79 m/s2, it gives
2.0 s 2
l a b 9.79 m/s2 0.992 m
2p
15.4 The Simple Pendulum 487
FIGURE 15.19 This electromechanical

clock, regulated by a pendulum, served as
the U.S. frequency standard in the 1920s.
Its master pendulum is enclosed in the
canister at right.
The most familiar application of pendulums is the construction of pendulum clocks.

Up to about 1950, the most accurate clocks were pendulum clocks of a special design,
which were kept inside airtight flasks placed in deep cellars to protect them from dis- (a)
turbances caused by variations of the atmospheric pressure and temperature (see Fig.
15.19). The best of these high-precision pendulum clocks were accurate to within a
few thousandths of a second per day. Later, such pendulums were superseded by quartz Rigid body hangs
from pivot.
clocks (see Section 15.2) and then by atomic clocks (see Section 1.3).
Another important application of pendulums is the measurement of the acceler-
ation of gravity g. For this purpose it is necessary only to time the swings of a pendu-
lum of known length; the value of g can then be calculated from Eq. (15.47). The
q
pendulums used for precise determinations of g usually consist of a solid bar swinging
about a knife edge at one end, instead of a bob on a string. Such a pendulum consist-
ing of a swinging rigid body is called a physical pendulum; its period is related to its
When displaced from
size and shape. equilibrium and released,
body swings back and forth.
A physical pendulum has a moment of inertia I about its point

EXAMPLE 9
of suspension, and its center of mass is at a distance d from this
point (see Fig. 15.20a). Find the period of this pendulum. (b) Suspension force S
exerts no torque.
SOLUTION: Figure 15.20b shows the free-body diagram for the pendulum. The S
suspension force S has zero moment arm about the pivot, and so exerts no torque.
The weight acts at the center of mass, at a distance of d from the point of suspen-
sion, and it exerts a torque [see Eq. (13.3)]
d
t mgd sin u q
d is distance
Hence the equation of rotational motion (15.38) is from pivot to
center of mass.
I mgd sin u
where d 2dt 2 is the angular acceleration for the rotational motion. With the
usual small-angle approximation sin , this becomes Weight w exerts w
a torque.
2 mgd
d u
u
dt 2 I FIGURE 15.20 (a) A physical pendulum
consisting of a rigid body swinging about a
As in the case of the simple pendulum, we compare this with Eq. (15.17). Since the point of suspension. (b) Free-body diagram
second time derivative of is proportional to the negative of , the motion will for the physical pendulum. The weight acts
again be simple harmonic. Hence the angular frequency of oscillation is at the center of mass.
mgd
v (15.48)
B I
and the period is
2p I
T 2p (15.49)
B mgd
COMMENT: Note that for a simple pendulum, the moment of inertia about the
point of suspension is I ml 2 and the distance of the center of mass from this point
is d l. Accordingly, Eq. (15.49) yields T 2 2ml 2>mgl 2 2l>g, which
shows that the formula for the period of the simple pendulum is a special case of
the general formula for the physical pendulum.
Finally, we must emphasize that the approximation contained in Eq. (15.43) is

valid only for small angles. If the amplitude of oscillation of a pendulum is more than
a few degreessay, more than 10the approximation (15.43) begins to fail, and the
motion of the pendulum begins to deviate from simple harmonic motion. At large
amplitudes, the period of the pendulum depends on the amplitudethe larger the
amplitude, the larger the period. For instance, a pendulum oscillating with an ampli-
tude of 30 has a period 1.7% longer than the value given by Eq. (15.47).
Checkup 15.4
QUESTION 1: If we shorten the string of a pendulum to half its original length, what
is the alteration of the period? The frequency?
QUESTION 2: Two pendulums have equal lengths, but one has 3 times the mass of the
other. If we want the energies of oscillation to be the same, how much larger must we
make the amplitude of oscillation of the less massive pendulum?
QUESTION 3: A uniform metal rod of length l hangs from one end and oscillates with
small amplitude. Such a rod, rotating about one end, has moment of inertia I 13 ml 2
(Table 12.3). What is , the angular frequency of oscillation?
(A) 2g>l. (B) 23g2l. (C) 23g>l. (D) 26g>l.
1 5 . 5 D A M P E D O S C I L L AT I O N S A N D
F O R C E D O S C I L L AT I O N S
So far we have proceeded on the assumption that the only force acting on a simple
harmonic oscillator or a pendulum is the restoring force F kx or the restoring
torque mgl sin. However, in a real oscillator or a real pendulum, there is always
some extra force caused by friction. For instance, if the pendulum starts its swinging
motion with some initial amplitude, the friction against the air and against the point
of support will gradually brake the pendulum, reducing its amplitude of oscillation.
Although good oscillators have low friction, sometimes more friction is desirable for
damping out unwanted oscillations, as with the kitchen scale of Example 3, so that a
steady, equilibrium position can be attained.
15.5 Damped Oscillations and Forced Oscillations 489
A0
Exponentially decaying
envelope.
0 t
T/2 T 3T/2 2T 5T/2
Amplitude decreases each cycle

as energy is lost to friction.
A0 FIGURE 15.21 Plot of position vs. time

for a particle with damped harmonic motion.
If the friction force is proportional to the velocity, the equation of motion becomes
d 2x dx
m 2
kx b (15.50)
dt dt
where b is called the friction constant, or the damping constant. Figure 15.21 is a plot
of the position as a function of time for a harmonic oscillator with fairly strong fric-
tion. The amplitude of oscillation suffers a noticeable decrease from one cycle to the
next. Such a gradually decreasing oscillation is called damped harmonic motion. The
oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially with time, as indicated by the dashed
line in Fig. 15.21. Increasing the friction shortens the time it takes for the amplitude
to decrease, and slows the frequency of oscillation somewhat. If the damping is very large,
a displaced oscillator merely moves back to its equilibrium position, without oscillating.
In Section 32.6, we will examine the damped harmonic oscillator in detail.
Since the oscillator must do work against the friction, the mechanical energy grad-
ually decreases. The energy loss per cycle is a constant fraction of the energy E that
the oscillator has at the beginning of the cycle. If we represent the energy loss per cycle
by E, then E is proportional to E:
E a bE
2p (15.51) Q of oscillator
Q
Here, the constant of proportionality has been written in the somewhat complicated
form 2Q, which is the form usually adopted in engineering. The quantity Q is called
the quality factor of the oscillator. In terms of the damping constant b,
2km
Q (15.52)
b
An oscillator with low friction has a high value of Q, and a small energy loss per cycle;
an oscillator with high friction has a low value of Q, and a large energy loss per cycle.
The value of Q roughly coincides with the number of cycles the oscillator completes
before the oscillations damp away significantly. Mechanical oscillators of low friction,
such as tuning forks or piano strings, have Q values of a few thousand; that is, they
ring for a few thousand cycles before their oscillations fade noticeably.
The maximum displacement from equilibrium of the body-

Concepts EXAMPLE 10
in mass measurement device described in Examples 4 and 5 was
Context
0.200 m. Suppose that, because of friction, the amplitude one cycle later is 0.185 m.
What is the quality factor for this damped harmonic oscillator?
SOLUTION: We can solve for the quality factor Q by rearranging Eq. (15.51):
E
Q 2p
E
At maximum displacement, the total energy is all potential energy, so E 12 kA 2.
The spring constant k 2.1 103 N/m was given in Example 4. We found in
Example 5 that the when the amplitude was A 0.200 m, the energy stored was
E 12 k A 2 1
2 2.1 103 N/m (0.200 m)2 42 J
The energy lost during the cycle is the difference between the energy when the
amplitude was A 0.200 m and the energy one cycle later, when the amplitude is
A
0.185 m:
E 12 k A 2 12 kA
2 12 k ( A 2 A
2 )
12 2.1 103 N/m [(0.200 m)2 (0.185 m)2] 6.1 J
Hence the quality factor is

E 42 J
Q 2p 2p 43
E 6.1 J
To maintain the oscillations of a damped harmonic oscillator at a constant level,

it is necessary to exert a periodic force on the oscillator, so the energy fed into the oscil-
A lator by this extra force compensates for the energy lost to friction. An
F0 extra force is also needed to start the oscillations of any oscillator, damped
10
k or not, by supplying the initial energy for the motion. Any such extra
force exerted on an oscillator is called a driving force. A familiar exam-
ple of a driving force is the pumping force that you must exert on a play-
ground swing (a pendulum) to start it moving and to keep it moving
Amplitude at natural
frequency is enhanced at a constant amplitude. This is an example of a periodic driving force.
by quality factor Q. Q = 10 With the addition of a harmonic driving force of amplitude F0 and
angular frequency , the equation of motion (15.50) becomes
d 2x dx
m 2
kx b F0 cos t (15.53)
dt dt
3
F0 If the frequency of the driving force coincides with the frequency
k
Q =3 0 of the natural oscillations of the oscillator, then even a quite small driv-
ing force can gradually build up large amplitudes. Under these condi-
F0 tions the driving force steadily feeds energy into the oscillations, and
k the amplitude of these grows until the friction becomes so large that it
inhibits further growth. The ultimate amplitude reached depends on the
0
amount of friction; in an oscillator of low friction, or high Q, this ulti-
At low frequency, amplitude
is Hookes-Law (static) value. Natural frequency 0 = k /m. mate amplitude can be extremely large. The buildup of a large ampli-
tude by the action of a driving force in tune with the natural frequency
FIGURE 15.22 Amplitude of a forced damped harmonic of an oscillator is called resonance. Figure 15.22 shows the value of the
oscillator as a function of the frequency of the oscillating force. final amplitude of oscillation attained as a function of the frequency of
the harmonic driving force for two mass-and-spring systems with the same natural
angular frequency 0 2k /m but different values of Q, the quality factor. Notice
that large amplitudes occur over a range of driving frequencies, and that some enhance-
ment over the static Hookes-Law displacement x F0 k occurs for any frequency
of forced oscillation near or below the natural frequency 0. If the oscillator is forced
precisely at resonance, the amplitude can be shown to take the value
F0 amplitude at resonance of
A Q (15.54) damped, driven harmonic oscillator
k
This is simply the magnitude of the static displacement x F0 k multiplied by Q;
thus the quality factor is equivalent to an amplitude enhancement factor for a system
at resonance.
The phenomenon of resonance plays a crucial role in many pieces of industrial
machineryif one vibrating part of a machine is driven at resonance by a perturbing
force originating from some other part, then the amplitude of oscillation can build up
to violent levels and shake the machine apart. Such dangerous resonance effects can occur
not only in moving pieces of machinery, but also in structures that are normally regarded
as static. In a famous accident that took place in 1850 in Angers, France, the stomp-
ing of 487 soldiers marching over a suspension bridge excited a resonant swinging
motion of the bridge; the motion quickly rose to a disastrous level and broke the bridge
apart, causing the death of 226 of the soldiers (Fig. 15.23).
FIGURE 15.23 Resonance disaster: the

collapse of the bridge at Angers, as illustrated
in a contemporary newspaper.
Checkup 15.5
QUESTION 1: Suppose that the driving force has a frequency half as large as the
frequency of the oscillator. Would you expect a buildup of oscillations by resonance?
Q U E S T I O N 2 : Suppose that the driving force has a frequency twice as large as the
frequency of the oscillator. Would you expect a buildup of oscillations by resonance?
QUESTION 3: Suppose that a bell has a high Q (it continues to ring for a long time
after you strike it). If you rest your hand against the bell after striking it, how does this
alter the Q?
QUESTION 4: An oscillator begins with 1.00 J of mechanical energy. After 10 oscilla-
tions, the energy stored has dropped to 0.90 J. What is the approximate Q of the system?
(A) 6.3 (B) 10 (C) 63 (D) 100 (E) 630
PHYSICS IN PRACTICE CHAOS
The motions we examined in this chapter and in the preced- Figure 2 shows two numerical solutions for a double-well
ing chapters are either periodic or else regular in some other oscillator that includes both a frictional damping force and a
sense. For instance, the motion of a simple harmonic oscilla- periodic driving force (such as discussed in Section 15.5). Note
tor and the motion of a planet around the Sun are periodic; and that at first the oscillator moves erraticallyit sometimes
the motion of a particle under the influence of a constant force oscillates in the left well, then in the right well, then back
is highly regular, proceeding with constant acceleration. But again, etc. Also note that although the initial conditions for
there also exist mechanical systems with highly irregular the two solutions barely differ at all and the motions are ini-
motions, without periodicity, and with a pathological sensi- tially almost indistinguishable, they soon begin to differ dras-
tivity to small changes in initial conditions, so a small change tically. Finally, one of the solutions settles down in the left
of the initial velocity or position quickly leads to very large well (blue), and the other solution settles down in the right
changes in the motion. Such motions are called chaotic. well (red), and they then continue to oscillate in a steady
An example of a system with chaotic motion is the double- manner about the left or the right equilibrium position with
well oscillator, in which the attractive force kx of the simple a frequency equal to that of the driving force. The steady modes
harmonic oscillator is replaced by a sum of a repulsive force of oscillations in the left and the right wells are called attrac-
kx and an attractive force ax3. Such an oscillator can be tors, because the motion tends to settle into these modes.
constructed by clamping a leaf spring in a vertical position The erratic motion that precedes the steady oscillations is
and attaching a fairly large mass to its top (see Fig. 1). The an instance of chaos. How long the chaos lasts depends on the
central position is an equilibrium position, but it is unstable initial conditions and on the strengths of the driving force and
the leaf spring will flop sideways either to the left or to the the damping. For some values of these parameters, the chaos
right, attaining a bent equilibrium position, which is stable. lasts forever. We can prepare plots such as those in Fig. 2 for a
If disturbed, it can oscillate about this left or right equilib- wide variety of initial conditions, and in each case examine
rium position. The potential energy for this system has a min- whether the oscillator settles into the left or the right well.
imum at the left equilibrium position, a minimum at the right Figure 3 is a color-coded diagram that summarizes the results
equilibrium position, and a maximum at the vertical position of 900 900 such calculations, with different initial positions
in between; that is, the curve of potential energy has two wells and velocities. The initial positions are plotted horizontally
and a hump in between.The equation of motion for this system and the initial velocities vertically; the color indicates where
cannot be solved exactly, but it can be solved numerically by the oscillator settles: blue for the left well, and red for the right
a computer program that calculates derivatives by evaluating well.The solid blue and red zones indicate that for all initial con-
changes in the position in small time increments. ditions in these zones, the oscillator settles in the same final
steady state of oscillation. But the other regions of the dia-
gram, with fine striations of intermingled red and blue points,
are characteristic of chaos. A very minor change in initial con-
ditions takes us from a blue point to a red point (or vice versa),
which means the final motion depends sensitively on small
changes. The striations in Fig. 3 have a fractal characterif
we examine any small patch in the striated zone at higher mag-
nification, we find striations within striations within striations.
The chaotic behavior implies that although in principle
the motion can be calculated from the initial conditions, in
practice the motion is not predictable, except for a short time.
x Any small uncertainty in the initial conditions or any small
uncertainty introduced by round-off errors in the numerical
FIGURE 1 (a) Leaf spring clamped at the
calculation will make it impossible to decide whether the ini-
lower end with a mass attached at the upper
end. (b) The leaf spring flops to the left (blue) tial conditions fall on a blue or a red dotwhich means we
or to the right (red), and it can oscillate about cant decide whether the oscillator will ultimately settle into
these bent equilibrium positions. steady oscillation on the left or on the right.
x0 = 0.1991
1 v0 = 0.1
t
100 200
t
100 200
1
x0 = 0.1990
v0 = 0.1
FIGURE 2 Motions for two slightly different initial conditions of the oscillator. At first the
motion is chaotic (gray), but it ultimately settles into periodic oscillations about the left
equilibrium position (blue) or the right equilibrium position (red). (For these plots, all the
constants in the equation of motion were set equal to 1, except the damping constant and the
strength of the driving force, which were set equal to 0.25.)
FIGURE 3 Plot of 900 900 initial

positions (horizontal coordinate) and
initial velocities (vertical coordinate).
The color of each dot is blue if the
oscillator ultimately settles into periodic
oscillations about the left equilibrium
position, red if about the right.
S U M M A RY
MATH HELP Derivatives of trigonometric functions (page 473)
MATH HELP Small-angle approximations for sine, cosine, and tangent (page 485)
PHYSICS IN PRACTICE Chaos (page 492)
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION x A cos(vt d) x

A
(15.4)
where A is the amplitude x 0; is the angu-
t
A
lar frequency, and is the phase constant.
PERIOD (time for one cycle) T 2p>v (15.5)
FREQUENCY (number of cycles per second) f 1>T v>2p (15.6)
PHASE CONSTANT AND TIME OF MAXIMUM d vtmax (15.8)

DISPLACEMENT.
MAXIMUM VELOCITY vmax v A (15.14)
MAXIMUM ACCELERATION amax v2A (15.16)
EQUATION OF MOTION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC

d 2x x
OSCILLATOR m kx F (15.18)

dt 2 A A x
where k is the spring constant.
ANGULAR FREQUENCY AND PERIOD OF k m

SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR v T 2p (15.19, 15.21)
Bm Bk
ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR E 12 k A 2 12 mv2A 2 (15.32)
ANGULAR FREQUENCY AND PERIOD OF g S

l
SIMPLE PENDULUM v T 2p (15.46, 15.47)
Bl Bg
q
l
m
w
q
ANGULAR FREQUENCY AND PERIOD OF

mgd I
PHYSICAL PENDULUM v T 2p (15.48, 15.49)
where I is the moment of inertia of the B I B mgd d
pendulum.
Questions for Discussion 495
ENERGY LOSS PER CYCLE OF DAMPED 2p

E E (15.51)
OSCILLATOR where Q is the quality factor. Q
AMPLITUDE AT RESONANCE OF DAMPED F0

HARMONIC OSCILLATOR where F0 is the A Q (15.54)
k
amplitude of a harmonic driving force.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Is the motion of the piston of an automobile engine simple 7. Why would you expect a pendulum oscillating with an ampli-
harmonic motion? How does it differ from simple harmonic tude of nearly (but not quite) 180 to have a very long period?
motion? 8. Can a pendulum oscillate with an amplitude of more than 180?
2. In our calculation of the frequency of the simple harmonic 9. Figure 15.25 shows a tilted pendulum designed by Christiaan
oscillator, we ignored the mass of the spring. Qualitatively, Huygens in the seventeenth century. When the pendulum is
how does the mass of the spring affect the frequency? tilted, its period is longer than when the pendulum is vertical.
3. A grandfather clock is regulated by a pendulum. If the clock is Explain.
running late, how must we adjust the length of the pendulum?
4. Figure 15.24 shows the escapement of a pendulum clock, i.e.,
the linkage that permits the pendulum to control the rotation
of the wheels of the clock. Explain how the wheel turns as the
pendulum swings.
gear of
clock
FIGURE 15.25 Huygens tilted pendulum.
10. Most grandfather clocks have a lenticular pendulum bob which

supposedly minimizes friction by slicing through the air. How-
ever, experience has shown that a cylindrical pendulum bob
experiences less air friction. Can you suggest an explanation?
11. Galileo described an experiment to compare the acceleration
of gravity of lead and of cork:
I took two balls, one of lead and one of cork, the former
being more than a hundred times as heavy as the latter,
pendulum
bob and suspended them from two equal thin strings, each four
or five bracchia long. Pulling each ball aside from the ver-
FIGURE 15.24 Escapement mechanism of a tical, I released them at the same instant, and they, falling
pendulum clock. At the instant shown, the tooth at along the circumferences of the circles having the strings
the left has escaped from the left arm, and the tooth as radii, passed through the vertical and returned along the
on the right is pushing against the right arm. same path. This free oscillation, repeated more than a hun-
dred times, showed clearly that the heavy body kept time
with the light body so well that neither in a hundred oscil-
5. Would a pendulum clock keep good time on a ship? lations, nor in a thousand, will the former anticipate the
6. Galileo claimed that the oscillators of a pendulum are isochro- latter by even an instant, so perfectly do they keep step.
nous, even for an amplitude of oscillation as large as 30. Since air friction affects the cork ball much more than the lead
What is your opinion of this claim? ball, do you think Galileos results are credible?
Newton reported a more careful experiment that avoided 13. Shorter people have a shorter length of stride, but a higher
the inequality of friction: rate of step when walking naturally. Explain.
I tried the thing in gold, silver, lead, glass, sand, common salt, 14. A girl sits on a swing whose ropes are 1.5 m long. Is this a
wood, water, and wheat. I provided two equal wooden boxes. simple pendulum or a physical pendulum?
I filled the one with wood, and suspended an equal weight 15. A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m attached
of gold (as exactly as I could) in the centre of oscillation of to a string of length l. A physical pendulum consists of a body
the other. The boxes, hung by equal threads of 11 feet, made of mass m attached to a string in such a way that the center of
a couple of pendulums perfectly equal in weight and mass is at a distance l from the point of support. Which pen-
figure . . . and, placing the one by the other, I observed them dulum has the shorter period?
to play together forwards and backwards for a long while, 16. Suppose that the spring in the front-wheel suspension of an
with equal vibrations. . . . And by these experiments, in automobile has a natural frequency of oscillation equal to the
bodies of the same weight, one could have discovered a dif- frequency of rotation of the wheel at, say, 80 km/h. Why is
ference of matter less than the thousandth part of the whole. this bad?
Explain how Newtons experiment was better than Galileos. 17. When marching soldiers are about to cross a bridge, they
12. A simple pendulum hangs below a table, with its string break step. Why?
through a small hole in the tabletop. Suppose you gradually
pull the string while the pendulum is swinging. What happens
to the frequency of oscillation? To the (angular) amplitude?
PROBLEMS
15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (a) What is the frequency of the motion? The angular
frequency?
1. A particle moves as follows as a function of time:
(b) What is the amplitude of the motion?
x 3.0 cos(2.0t)
(c) At what time will the particle reach the point x 0?
where distance is measured in meters and time in seconds. At what time will it reach the point x 0.10 m?
(a) What is the amplitude of this simple harmonic motion? (d) What is the speed of the particle when it is at x 0?
The frequency? The angular frequency? The period? What is the speed of the particle when it reaches the
(b) At what time does the particle reach the midpoint, x 0? point x 0.10 m?
The turning point? 4. Suppose that the peg on the rotating wheel illustrated in
2. A particle is performing simple harmonic motion along the Fig. 15.5 is located at a radius of 4.0 cm. The wheel turns at a
x axis according to the equation rate of 600 rev/min. What is the amplitude of the simple
harmonic motion of the slotted arm? What are the period, the
x 0.6 cos a b
pt frequency, and the angular frequency?
2
5. Consider that the particle in Fig. 15.4 is executing simple har-
where the distance is measured in meters and the time in seconds. monic motion according to Eq. (15.1).
(a) Calculate the position x of the particle at t 0, (a) What is the speed of the satellite for this case?
t 0.50 s, and t 1.00 s.
(b) At t 0.050 s, the particle is at the midpoint and its
(b) Calculate the instantaneous velocity of the particle at instantaneous velocity is parallel to that of the satellite.
these times. What is the speed of the particle? How does it compare
(c) Calculate the instantaneous acceleration of the particle with the speed of the satellite?
at these times. 6. A given point on a guitar string executes simple harmonic
3. A particle moves back and forth along the x axis between the motion with a frequency of 440 Hz and an amplitude of
points x 0.20 m and x 0.20 m. The period of the 1.2 mm. What is the maximum speed of this motion? The
motion is 1.2 s, and it is simple harmonic. At the time t 0, maximum acceleration?
the particle is at x 0.20 m and its velocity is zero. 7. A piston in a windmill-driven water pump is in simple har-
monic motion. The motion has an amplitude of 50 cm and the

For help, see Online Concept Tutorial 16 at www.wwnorton.com/physics mass of the piston is 6.0 kg. Find the maximum net force on
Problems 497
the piston when it oscillates 80 times per minute. Find the *15. The frequency of a mass attached to a spring is 3.0 Hz. At
maximum velocity. time t 0, the mass has an initial displacement of 0.20 m and
8. A particle moves in simple harmonic motion according to an initial velocity of 4.0 m/s.
x A cos(t ). At t 0, the particle is at x 0 with initial (a) What is the position of the mass as a function of time?
velocity v0 0. What is the phase constant ? (b) When will the mass first reach a turning point? What will
9. The position of a body can be described by x A cos (t ). be its acceleration at that time?
The angular frequency , the initial position x0, and the initial
velocity v0 are known. Find the amplitude A and the phase
constant in terms of , x0, and v0.
15.2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator
10. The central part of a piano string oscillates at 261.7 Hz with 16. A man of mass 70 kg is bouncing up and down on a pogo stick
an amplitude of 3.0 mm. What is the angular frequency of the (see Fig. 15.27). He finds that if he holds himself rigid and
motion? The period? What is the maximum velocity? What is lets the stick do the bouncing (after getting it started), the
the maximum acceleration? period of the up-and-down motion is 0.70 s. What is the
11. In a modern nonlinear dynamics experiment, small beads spring constant of the spring in the pogo stick? Assume that
(spheres) are vibrated on a plate; when the beads start to move, the bottom of the stick remains in touch with the floor and
interesting patterns form (see Fig. 15.26). If the plate vibrates ignore the mass of the stick.
at 250 Hz, for what amplitude of motion will the beads start
to lift off? (Hint: This will occur when the maximum accelera-
tion of the plate equals g 9.81 m /s2.)
FIGURE 15.27 Man on pogo stick.
17. The cable described in Example 8 in Chapter 14 can be

FIGURE 15.26 Oscillating beads. regarded as a spring. What is the effective spring constant of
this spring? What is the frequency of oscillation when a mass
12. A mass moves in a circle of radius 10 cm, centered on the of 7.1 103 kg is attached to the lower end of the cable and
origin in the xy plane, with an angular velocity of 4 allowed to oscillate up and down? Neglect the mass of the
radian/s. At t 0, the mass is on the positive x axis. What are cable in your calculation.
the x components of the position, velocity, and acceleration of 18. A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a mass sliding on a
the mass at t 1.0 s? At t 2.0 s? frictionless surface under the influence of a force exerted by a
13. A particle executes simple harmonic motion. Its displacement spring connected to the mass. The frequency of this harmonic
is given by x A cos(t ), where as usual, the amplitude A oscillator is 8.0 Hz. If we connect a second, identical spring to
is a positive constant. At t 0, the particle is at the origin and the mass, parallel to the first spring, what will be the new fre-
moving in the positive x direction. What is the appropriate quency of oscillation?
choice of the phase constant in this case? 19. The body of an automobile of mass 1100 kg is supported by
*14. Experience shows that from one-third to one-half of the pas- four vertical springs attached to the axles of the wheels. In
sengers in an airliner can be expected to suffer motion sickness order to test the suspension, a man pushes down on the body
if the airliner bounces up and down with a peak acceleration of of the automobile and then suddenly releases it. The body
0.4 g and a frequency of about 0.3 Hz. Assume that this up- rocks up and down with a period of 0.75 s. What is the spring
and-down motion is simple harmonic. What is the amplitude constant of each of the springs? Assume that all the springs
of the motion? are identical and that the compressional force on each spring
is the same; also assume that the shock absorbers of the (a) What is the frequency of up-and-down oscillations of the
automobile are completely worn out so that they do not affect wheel? Regard the wheel as a mass on one end of a spring,
the oscillation frequency. and regard the body of the car as a fixed support for the
20. Deuterium (D) is an isotope of hydrogen. The mass of the other end of the spring.
deuterium atom is 1.998 times larger than the mass of (b) Suppose that the wheel is slightly out of round, having a
the hydrogen atom. Given that the frequency of vibration of bump on one side. As the wheel rolls on the street, it
the H2 molecule is 1.31 1014 Hz (see Example 6), calculate receives a periodic push each time the bump comes in
the frequency of vibration of the D2 molecule. Assume the contact with the street. At what speed of the translational
spring connecting the atoms is the same in H2 and D2. motion of the car will the frequency of this push coincide
*21. Calculate the frequency of vibration of the HD molecule con- with the natural frequency of the up-and-down oscilla-
sisting of one atom of hydrogen and one of deuterium. See tions of the wheel? What will happen to the car at this
Problem 20 for necessary data. (Hint: The center of mass is speed? (Note: This problem is not quite realistic because
stationary.) the elasticity of the tire also contributes a restoring force
to the up-and-down motion of the wheel.)
22. A mass attached to a spring oscillates with an amplitude of
15 cm; the spring constant is k 20 N/m. When the position *29. A mass m slides on a frictionless plane inclined at an angle
is half the maximum value, the mass moves with velocity with the horizontal. The mass is attached to a spring, parallel
v 25 cm/s. Determine the period of the motion. Find the to the plane (Fig. 15.28); the spring constant is k. How much
value of the mass. is the spring stretched at equilibrium? What is the frequency
of the oscillations of the mass up and down on the plane?
23. A mass of 150 g is attached to a spring of constant
k 8.0 N/m and oscillates without friction. The mass is dis-
placed 20 cm from equilibrium and, at t 0, is released from
rest. If the position as a function of time is written x
A cos(t ), determine the values of A, , and . What is
the maximum velocity of the mass? Its maximum acceleration?
24. The equilibrium position of the bottom end of a light, hang-
ing spring shifts downward by 15 cm when a 200-g mass is
hung from it. The mass is then displaced an additional 5.0 cm m
and released. What is the period of motion?
25. A thickness monitor is a laboratory instrument used to deter-
q
mine the thickness of a thin film that is deposited on the sur-
face of a quartz crystal. We may treat the crystal as a
spring-and-mass system with k 6.0 105 N/m and m FIGURE 15.28 Mass sliding on a frictionless inclined plane.
0.50 g. What is the frequency of oscillation of this system?
This frequency changes slightly as mass is added to the crystal.
If the frequency decreases 0.010%, how much mass was **30. Two identical masses slide with one-dimensional motion on a
deposited? If the area of the crystal is 2.0 cm2 and the mass frictionless plane under the influence of three identical springs
density of the film material is 7.5 g/cm2, how thick was the attached as shown in Fig. 15.29. The magnitude of each mass
deposited film? is m, and the spring constant of each spring is k.
*26. A thin metal rod is attached to the ceiling and a mass M 15 kg
is attached to the bottom of the rod. The rod is 2.0 m long and
has a 9.0-mm2 cross-sectional area. Regard the rod as a (stiff )
spring. If the Youngs modulus of the rod material is 22 1010
N/m2, what is its spring constant (for small elongations and
compressions)? If the mass is displaced vertically, what is its
frequency of oscillation (in Hz)? Neglect the mass of the rod. FIGURE 15.29 Two masses sliding on a frictionless plane.
*27. A mass m 2.5 kg hangs from the ceiling by a spring with
k 90 N/m. Initially, the spring is in its unstretched configu- (a) Suppose that at time t 0, the masses are at their equilib-
ration and the mass is held at rest by your hand. If, at time t 0, rium positions and their instantaneous velocities are v1
you release the mass, what will be its position as a function of v2. Find the position of each mass as a function of time.
time? What is the frequency of the motion?
*28. The wheel of a sports car is suspended below the body of the (b) Suppose that at time t 0, the masses are at their equilib-
car by a vertical spring with a spring constant 1.1 104 N/m. rium positions and their instantaneous velocities are v1
The mass of the wheel is 14 kg, and the diameter of the wheel v2. Find the position of each mass as a function of time.
is 61 cm. What is the frequency of the motion?
Problems 499
**31. A cart consists of a body and four wheels on frictionless axles. 38. A mass oscillates on a spring. At the points in a cycle when
The body has a mass m. The wheels are uniform disks of mass the kinetic energy is one-half of the potential energy, the dis-
M and radius R. The cart rolls, without slipping, back and placement from equilibrium is 15 cm and the instantaneous
forth on a horizontal plane under the influence of a spring velocity is 25 cm/s. What is the period of the motion?
attached to one end of the cart (Fig. 15.30). The spring con- *39. One end of a horizontal spring of constant k is fixed and the
stant is k. Taking into account the moment of inertia of the other end is attached to a mass m on a frictionless surface. The
wheels, find a formula for the frequency of the back-and-forth spring is initially in its equilibrium position. At t 0, a force
motion of the cart. F, constant thereafter, is applied in the direction of elongation
of the spring. Sometime later, the mass has moved a distance d
in the direction of the force. What is the kinetic energy at that
time?
*40. A mass of 3.0 kg sliding along a frictionless floor at 2.0 m/s
strikes and compresses a spring of constant k 300 N/m.
The spring stops the mass. How far does the mass travel while
being slowed by the spring? How long does the mass take to
FIGURE 15.30 A cart attached to a spring.
stop?
*41. Two masses m1 and m2 are joined by a spring of spring con-
15.3 Kinetic Energy and stant k. Show that the frequency of vibration of these masses
along the line connecting them is
Potential Energy
32. Suppose that a particle of mass 0.24 kg acted upon by a spring k (m1 m2)

undergoes simple harmonic motion with the parameters given B m1m2
in Problem 3. (Hint: The center of mass remains at rest.)
(a) What is the total energy of this motion? *42. Although it is usually a good approximation to neglect the
(b) At what time is the kinetic energy zero? At what time is mass of a spring, sometimes this mass must be taken into
the potential energy zero? account. Suppose that a uniform spring has a relaxed length l
(c) At what time is the kinetic energy equal to the potential and a mass m ; a mass m is attached to the end of the spring.
energy? The mass m is uniformly distributed along the spring.
Suppose that if the moving end of the spring has a speed v, all
33. A mass of 8.0 kg is attached to a spring and oscillates with an
other points of the spring have speed directly proportional to
amplitude of 0.25 m and a frequency of 0.60 Hz. What is the
their distance from the fixed end; for instance, a point midway
energy of the motion?
between the moving and the fixed end has a speed 12 v.
34. A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a mass of 2.0 kg slid-
(a) Show that the kinetic energy in the spring is 16 m
v2 and
ing back and forth along a horizontal frictionless track while
that the kinetic energy of the mass m and the spring is
pushed and pulled by a spring with k 8.0 102 N/m.
Suppose that when the mass is at the equilibrium point, it has K 12 mv 2 16 m
v 2 12 (m 13 m
)v 2
an instantaneous speed of 3.0 m/s. What is the energy of this
harmonic oscillator? What is the amplitude of oscillation? Consequently, the effective mass of the combination
is m 13 m
.
35. A simple harmonic oscillator of mass 0.60 kg oscillates with a
frequency of 3.0 Hz and an amplitude of 0.15 m. Suppose that, (b) Show that the frequency of oscillation is
while the mass is instantaneously at rest at its turning point, we 2k>(m 13 m
).
quickly attach another mass of 0.60 kg to it. How does this
(c) Suppose that a spring has a mass of 0.05 kg. The fre-
change the amplitude of the motion? The frequency? The
quency of oscillation of a 4.0-kg mass attached to this
energy? The maximum speed? The maximum acceleration?
spring will then be somewhat smaller than calculated for a
*36. The separation between the equilibrium positions of the two massless spring. How much smaller? Express your answer
atoms of a hydrogen molecule is 1.0 1010 m. Using the as a percentage of the value obtained for a massless spring.
data given in Example 6, calculate the value of the vibrational
energy that corresponds to an amplitude of vibration of
0.5 1010 m for each atom. Is it valid to treat the motion as 15.4 The Simple Pendulum
small oscillation if the energy has this value?
43. The longest pendulum in existence is a 27-m Foucault pendu-
37. A 500-g mass is connected to a spring and executes simple lum in Portland, Oregon. What is the period of this pendulum?
harmonic motion. The period of the motion is 1.5 s, and the
total mechanical energy of the system is 0.50 J. Find the

amplitude of motion. For help, see Online Concept Tutorial 17 at www.wwnorton.com/physics
44. At a construction site, a bucket full of concrete hangs from a (a) Find the angular frequency of oscillation in terms of M,
crane. You observe that the bucket slowly swings back and R, and
.
forth, 8.0 times per minute. What is the length of the cable (b) If the disk is turned through an initial angle of 0 and
from which the bucket hangs? released, what is the maximum rotational angular velocity
45. The elevator cage of a skyscraper hangs from a 300-m-long of the subsequent motion?
steel cable. The elevator cage is guided within the elevator (c) For what value of 0 do the answers to (a) and (b) have the
shaft by railings. If we remove these railings and we let the same value?
elevator cage swing from side to side (with small amplitude),
*56. The balance wheel in a clock is a torsional oscillator with a period
what is its period of oscillation?
of 0.50 s. The restoring torque of the wheel spring is
,
46. On the Earth, a pendulum of length 0.994 m has a period of where
is the torsional constant. If the wheel is essentially a
2.00 s (compare Example 8). If we take this pendulum to the hoop, that is, all of its mass m 8.0 g is concentrated at its
surface of Jupiter, where g 24.8 m/s2, what will be its period? radius R 1.0 cm, what is the value of
(in Nm/radian)?
47. A mass suspended from a parachute descending at constant *57. A pendulum hangs from an inclined wall (see Fig. 15.31).
velocity can be regarded as a pendulum. What is the frequency Suppose that this pendulum is released at an initial angle of 10
of the pendulum oscillations of a human body suspended 7.0 m and it bounces off the wall elastically when it reaches an angle of
below a parachute? 5. What is the period of this pendulum?
48. A seconds pendulum is a pendulum that has a period of
exactly 2.0 s; each one-way swing of the pendulum therefore
takes exactly 1.0 s. What is the length of the seconds pendu-
lum in Paris (g 9.809 m/s2), Buenos Aires (g 9.797 m/s2),
and Washington, D.C. (g 9.801 m/s2)?
10
49. A grandfather clock controlled by a pendulum of length
0.9932 m keeps good time in New York (g 9.803 m/s2).
5
(a) If we take this clock to Austin, Texas (g 9.793 m/s2),
how many minutes per day will it fall behind?
(b) In order to adjust the clock, by how many millimeters
must we shorten the pendulum? FIGURE 15.31 Pendulum
50. The pendulum of a grandfather clock has a length of 0.994 m. hanging from an inclined wall.
If the clock runs late by 1.0 minute per day, how much must
you shorten the pendulum to make it run on time?
*58. The pendulum of a pendulum clock consists of a rod of length
51. A small model of a 10-story construction crane used on a
0.99 m with a bob of mass 0.40 kg. The pendulum bob swings
Hollywood movie set should appear realistic in motion. To
back and forth along an arc of length 20 cm.
make it look large, the mass hanging from the crane cable
(actually, a rod) is constrained to oscillate with a period of (a) What are the maximum velocity and the maximum accel-
10 s. How long does this make the cable seem? eration of the pendulum bob along the arc?
52. An astronaut lands on an asteroid and sets up a pendulum that (b) What is the force that the pendulum exerts on its support
has a period of 1.0 s on Earth. She finds that the pendulum when it is at the midpoint of its swing? At the endpoint?
has a period of 89 s on the asteroid. What is the local value of Neglect the mass of the rod in your calculations.
the acceleration due to gravity on the asteroid? *59. The pendulum of a regular clock consists of a mass of 120 g at
53. A circular painting is 2.00 m in diameter and has uniform the end of a (massless) wooden stick of length 44 cm.
thickness. It hangs on a wall, suspended by a nail 10 cm from (a) What is the total energy (kinetic plus potential) of this
the top edge. If it is pushed slightly, what is the period of small pendulum when oscillating with an amplitude of 4?
oscillations of the painting? (b) What is the speed of the mass when at its lowest point?
54. A hula hoop (a thin, uniform toy hoop) of radius 1.0 m hangs 60. At the National Institute of Standards and Technology in
over a nail. If it is set to swinging with small amplitude, what Gaithersburg, Maryland, the value of the acceleration of grav-
is the period of motion? ity is 9.80095 m/s2. Suppose that at this location a very precise
*55. A torsional oscillator consists of a horizontal uniform disk of physical pendulum, designed for measurements of the acceler-
mass M and radius R attached at its center to the end of a mass- ation of gravity, has a period of 2.10356 s. If we take this pen-
less vertical fiber. Some such oscillators can execute simple har- dulum to a new location at the U.S. Coast and Geodetic
monic (twisting) motion with very large amplitudes (amplitudes Survey, in nearby Washington, D.C., it has a period of 2.10354 s.
greater than one rotation are possible). The restoring torque of What is the value of the acceleration of gravity at this new
the fiber is proportional to the angular rotation; that is, location? What is the percentage change of the acceleration

, where
is called the torsional constant of the system. between the two locations?
Problems 501
61. Consider a meterstick swinging about a pivot through its upper *67. A physical pendulum consists of a massless rod of length 2l
end. What is the period of oscillation of this physical pendulum? rotating about an axis through its center. A mass m1 is
*62. A pendulum consists of a brass rod with a brass cylinder attached attached at the lower end of the rod, and a smaller mass m2 at
to the end (Fig. 15.32). The diameter of the rod is 1.00 cm and the upper end (see Fig. 15.33). What is the period of this pen-
its length is 90.00 cm; the diameter of the cylinder is 6.00 cm dulum?
and its length is 20.00 cm. What is the period of this pendulum? m2
2l
90.00 cm
FIGURE 15.33 A physical

1.00 cm pendulum with two bobs. m1
20.00 cm
*68. Suppose that a physical pendulum consists of a thin rigid rod
FIGURE 15.32 of mass m suspended at one end. Suppose that this rod has an
6.00 cm A physical pendulum. initial position 20 and an initial angular velocity 0.
Calculate the force F that the support exerts on the pendulum
*63. To test that the acceleration of gravity is the same for a piece at this initial instant (give horizontal and vertical compo-
of iron and a piece of brass, an experimenter takes a pendulum nents).
of length 1.800 m with an iron bob and another pendulum of
*69. The door of a house is made of wood of uniform thickness. The
the same length with a brass bob and starts them swinging in
door has a mass of 27 kg and measures 1.90 m 0.91 m. The
unison. After swinging for 12.00 min, the two pendulums are
door is held shut by a torsional spring with
30 Nm/radian
no more than one-quarter of a (one-way) swing out of step.
arranged so that it exerts a torque of 54 Nm when the door is
What is the largest difference between the values of g for iron
fully open (at right angles to the wall of the house). What
and brass consistent with these data? Express your answer as a
angular speed does the door attain if it slams shut from the
fractional difference.
fully open position? What linear speed does the edge of the
*64. Calculate the natural period of the swinging motion of a door attain?
human leg. Treat the leg as a rigid physical pendulum with an
**70. Galileo claimed to have verified experimentally that a pendu-
axis at the hip joint. Pretend that the mass distribution of the
lum oscillating with an amplitude as large as 30 has the same
leg can be approximated as two rods joined rigidly end to end.
period as a pendulum of identical length oscillating with a
The upper rod (thigh) has a mass of 6.8 kg and a length of 43
much smaller amplitude. Suppose that you let two pendulums
cm; the lower rod (shin plus foot) has a mass of 4.1 kg and a
of length 1.5 m oscillate for 10 min. Initially, the pendulums
length of 46 cm. Using a watch, measure the period of the
oscillate in step. If the amplitude of one of them is 30 and the
natural swinging motion of your leg when you are standing on
amplitude of the other is 5, by what fraction of a (one-way)
one leg and letting the other dangle freely. Alternatively,
swing will the pendulums be out of step at the end of the 10-
measure the period of the swinging motion of your leg when
min interval? What can you conclude about Galileos claim?
you walk at a normal rate (this approximates the natural
swinging motion). Compare with the calculated number. **71. A thin vertical rod of steel is clamped at its lower end. When
you push the upper end to one side, bending the rod, the
*65. A hole has been drilled through a meterstick at the 30-cm
upper end moves (approximately) along an arc of circle2 of
mark and the meterstick has been hung on a wall by a nail
radius R and the rod opposes your push with a restoring force
passing through this hole. If the meterstick is given a push so
F
, where is the angular displacement and
is a con-
that it swings about the nail, what is the period of the motion?
stant. If you attach a mass m to the upper end, what will be the
*66. A physical pendulum has the shape of a disk of radius R. The frequency of small oscillations? For what value of m does the
pendulum swings about an axis perpendicular to the plane of rod become unstable; that is, for what value of m is 0?
the disk at a distance l from the center of the disk. Treat the rod as massless in your calculations. (Hint: Think of
(a) Show that the frequency of the oscillations of this pendu- the rod as an inverted pendulum of length R, with an extra
lum is restoring force
.)
gl
1 2
B2R l2
2
The radius R of the approximating (osculating) circle is somewhat shorter
(b) For what value of l is the frequency a maximum? than the length of the rod.
**72. According to a proposal described in Problem 83 of Chapter 1, **74. The net gravitational force on a particle placed midway
very fast trains could travel from one city to another in straight between two equal spherical bodies is zero. However, if the
subterranean tunnels (see Fig. 15.34). For the following calcu- particle is placed some distance away from this equilibrium
lations, assume that the density of the Earth is constant, so the point, then the gravitational force is not zero.
acceleration of gravity as a function of the radial distance r (a) Show that if the particle is at a distance x from the equilib-
from the center of the Earth is g (GMR3)r. rium point in a direction toward one of the bodies, then the
force is approximately 4GMmxr3, where M is the mass of
each spherical body, m is the mass of the particle, and 2r is
the distance between the spherical bodies. Assume x V r.
(b) Show that if the particle is at a distance x from the equilib-
x rium point in a direction perpendicular to the line connecting
the bodies, then the force is approximately 2GMmxr 3,
where the negative sign indicates that the direction of the
force is toward the equilibrium point.
(c) What is the frequency of small oscillations of the mass m
R about the equilibrium point when moving in a direction
perpendicular to the line connecting the bodies? Assume
that the bodies remain stationary.
**75. The motion of a simple pendulum is given by
u A cos t
FIGURE 15.34 A straight tunnel connecting two points on g
the surface of the Earth. Bl
(a) Find the tension in the string of this pendulum; assume
(a) Show that the component of the acceleration of gravity that V 1. The mass of the suspended particle is m.
along the track of the train is (b) The tension is a function of time. At what time is the ten-
gx (GMR3)x sion maximum? What is the value of this maximum tension?
where x is measured from the midpoint of the track (see
Fig. 15.34). 15.5 Damped Oscillations and Forced
(b) Neglecting friction, show that the motion of the train Oscillations
along the track is simple harmonic motion with a period
independent of the length of the track, 76. Roughly, what is the frequency of stomping of soldiers on the
march? What must have been the resonant frequency of the
R3
T 2p bridge at Angers that broke when soldiers marched across it?
B GM
(c) Starting from rest, how long would a train take to roll 77. A pendulum of length 1.50 m is set swinging with an initial
freely along its track from San Francisco to Washington, amplitude of 10. After 12 min, friction has reduced the
D.C.? What would be its maximum speed (at the mid- amplitude to 4. What is the value of Q for this pendulum?
point)? Use the numbers you calculated in Problem 83 of 78. The pendulum of a grandfather clock has a length of 0.994 m
Chapter 1 for the length and depth of the track. and a mass of 1.2 kg.
**73. A physical pendulum consists of a long, thin cone suspended (a) If the pendulum is set swinging, the friction of the air
at its apex (Fig. 15.35). The height of the cone is l. What is reduces its amplitude of oscillation by a factor of 2 in 13.0
the period of this pendulum? min. What is the value of Q for this pendulum?
(b) If we want to keep this pendulum swinging at a constant
amplitude of 8, we must supply mechanical energy to it at
a rate sufficient to make up for the frictional loss. What is
the required mechanical power?
79. When a swing in motion is not being pumped, the angular
amplitude of oscillation decreases because of air and other
friction. The motion of a 3.0-m-long swing decreases in
amplitude from 12 to 10 after 5 complete cycles. What is the
Q of the system? If the rider and seat are treated as a point
FIGURE 15.35 mass with m 25 kg, at what average rate is mechanical
A long, thin cone. energy being dissipated?
Review Problems 503
80. A horizontal spring of constant k is attached to a mass m that a spring constant k 5 103 N/m. When it oscillates in a
slides on a slightly frictional floor. After the mass is displaced vacuum-sealed device (to remove air friction), the Q of such
a distance A from equilibrium and released, the amplitude of an oscillator is large: Q 5 106. What amplitude of motion
oscillation decreases to 0.95A after 10 cycles. What is the Q of will the oscillator attain if an oscillating force of amplitude
this system? 1 1018 N (near the current limits of force detection) is
81. A harmonic force F F0 cos t, where F0 0.20 N, is applied applied?
to a damped harmonic oscillator of spring constant k 15 N/m 83. Using electron-beam lithography, engineers are attempting to
and mass m, where 2k/m. The amplitude of oscillation fabricate nanoelectromechanical system (NEMS) oscillators
increases rapidly at first, and then settles to a constant value, with frequencies as high as 100 GHz (for communications
A 40 cm. What is the Q of the system? What would the and higher-speed computing). If the equivalent mass of such
amplitude be if the angular frequency of the force F had been an oscillator is 1.0 1018 g and a minimum amplitude of
much less than 2k/m? 0.10 nm is needed to detect an applied harmonic force of
82. A microelectromechanical system (MEMS) consists of a amplitude 1.0 1010 N, what must the minimum Q of such
microscopic silicon mechanical oscillator (see Fig. 15.36) with an oscillator be?
*84. Consider the motion of the damped harmonic oscillator
plotted in Fig. 15.21.
(a) According to this plot, what fraction of its amplitude does
the oscillator lose in its first oscillation?
(b) What fraction of its energy does the oscillator lose in its
first oscillation?
(c) According to Eq. (15.51), what is the value of Q for this
oscillator?
*85. If you stand on one leg and let the other dangle freely back
and forth starting at an initial amplitude of, say, 20 or 30, the
FIGURE 15.36 A microelectromechanical system amplitude will decay to one-half of the initial amplitude after
(MEMS) oscillator, the silicon membrane structure about four swings. Regarding the dangling leg as a damped
suspended above the faceted silicon trench. oscillator, what value of Q can you deduce from this?
REVIEW PROBLEMS
86. A particle performs simple harmonic motion along the x axis 89. Suppose that two particles are performing simple harmonic
with an amplitude of 0.20 m and a period of 0.80 s. At t 0, motion along the x axis with a period of 8.0 s. The first parti-
the particle is at maximum distance from the origin; that is, cle moves according to the equation
x 0.20 m.
x 0.30 cos a b
pt
(a) What is the equation that describes the position of the 4
particle as a function of time? and the second particle according to the equation
(b) Calculate the position of the particle at t 0.10 s, 0.20 s,
x
0.30 sin a b
pt
0.30 s, and 0.40 s. 4
87. In an electric saber saw, the rotational motion of the electric where the distance is measured in meters and the time in
motor is converted into a back-and-forth motion of the saw seconds.
blade by a mechanism similar to that shown in Fig. 15.5. (a) When does the first particle reach the midpoint? The
Suppose the peg of the rotating wheel moves around a circle of turning point? Draw a diagram showing the particle and
diameter 3.0 cm at 4000 rev/min and thereby moves the slotted its satellite particle at these times.
arm to which the saw blade is bolted. What are the amplitude (b) When does the second particle reach the midpoint? The
and the frequency of the back-and-forth simple harmonic turning point? Draw a diagram showing the particle and
motion of the blade? its satellite particle at these times.
88. In response to a sound wave, the middle of your eardrum (c) By some argument, establish that whenever the first parti-
oscillates back and forth with a frequency of 4000 Hz and an cle passes through a point on the x axis, the second parti-
amplitude of 1.0 105 m. What is the maximum speed of cle passes through this same point 2.0 s later.
the eardrum?
90. A particle of 6.0 kg is executing simple harmonic motion (a) What value of the spring constant can she deduce from
along the x axis under the influence of a spring. The particle these data?
moves according to the equation (b) If she then takes a child of 20 kg in her arms and again
x 0.20 cos (3.0t) stands on the scale, what will be the new frequency of
oscillation of the pointer?
where x is measured in meters and t in seconds.
95. Ropes used by mountain climbers are quite elastic, and they
(a) What is the frequency of the motion? What is the spring
behave like springs. A rope of 10 m has a spring constant
constant of the spring? What is the maximum speed of
k 4.9 103 N/m. Suppose that a mountain climber of 80 kg
the motion?
hangs on this rope, which is stretched vertically down. What is
(b) Suppose we replace the particle by a new particle of 2.0 kg the frequency of up-and-down oscillations of the mountain
(but we keep the same spring), and suppose we start the climber?
motion with the same amplitude of 0.20 m. What will be
96. Consider a particle of mass m moving along the x axis under
the new frequency of the motion? What will be the new
the influence of a spring of spring constant k. The equilibrium
maximum speed?
point is at x 0, and the amplitude of the motion is A.
91. The motion of the piston in an automobile engine is approxi-
(a) At what point x is the kinetic energy of the particle equal
mately simple harmonic. Suppose that the piston travels back
to its potential energy?
and forth over a distance of 8.50 cm and has a mass of 1.2 kg.
What are its maximum acceleration and maximum speed if (b) When the particle reaches the point x 12 A, what fraction
the engine is turning at its highest safe rate of 6000 rev/min? of its energy is potential, and what fraction is kinetic?
What is the maximum force on the piston? 97. A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a mass of 3.0 kg slid-
92. A Small Mass Measurement Instrument (SMMI) was used in ing back and forth along a horizontal frictionless track while
Skylab to measure the masses of biological samples, small ani- pushed and pulled by a spring with k 6.0 102 N/m.
mals, chemicals, and other such items used in life-sciences Suppose that initially the mass is released from rest at a dis-
experiments while in orbit (see Fig. 15.37). The sample to be tance of 0.25 m from the equilibrium point. What is the
measured is strapped to a tray supported by leaf springs, and energy of this harmonic oscillator? What is the maximum
the mass is determined from the observed period of oscillation speed it attains when passing through the equilibrium point?
of the tray-and-mass. To calibrate this instrument, a test mass 98. A simple harmonic oscillator of mass 0.80 kg oscillates with a
of 1.00 kg is first placed on the tray; the period of oscillation is frequency of 2.0 Hz and an amplitude of 0.12 m. Suppose
then 1.08 s. Suppose that when the test mass is removed and that, while the mass is instantaneously at rest at its turning
an unknown sample is placed on the tray, the period becomes point, we quickly shift the fixed end of the spring to a new
1.78 s. What is the mass of the sample? Assume that the mass fixed position, 0.12 m farther away from the mass. How does
of the tray (and the straps) is 0.400 kg. this change the amplitude of the motion? The frequency? The
energy? The maximum speed? The maximum acceleration?
99. A pendulum has a length of 1.5 m. What is the period of this
pendulum? If you wanted to construct a pendulum with
exactly half this period, how long would it have to be?
100. An interrupted pendulum consists of a simple pendulum of
length l that encounters a nail placed at a distance 34l below the
point of support. If this pendulum is released from one side, it
will begin to wrap around the nail as soon as it passes through
the vertical position (Fig. 15.38). What is the period of this
pendulum?
FIGURE 15.37 Small Mass Measurement Instrument.
93. A simple harmonic oscillator has a frequency of 1.5 Hz. What

will happen to the frequency if we cut the spring in half and
attach both halves to the mass so that both springs push jointly?
94. A physicist of 55 kg stands on a bathroom scale (a spring
scale, with an internal spring). She observes that when she
mounts the scale suddenly, the pointer of the scale first oscil- FIGURE 15.38 An
lates back and forth a few times with a frequency of 2.4 Hz. interrupted pendulum.
Answers to Checkups 505
101. A physical pendulum consists of a uniform spherical bob of 102. A uniform rod of length L is swinging about a pivot at a dis-
mass M and radius R suspended from a massless string of tance x from its center (see Fig. 15.40). Find the period of
length L (see Fig. 15.39). Taking into account the size of the oscillation of this physical pendulum as a function of x. For
bob, show that the period of small oscillations of this pendu- what choice of x is the period shortest?
lum is
2 2
5R (R L)2
T 2p
B g (R L)
L
x
R
M L
FIGURE 15.39 A physical pendulum with a large bob. FIGURE 15.40 A swinging rod.
103. A swing of length 2.0 m hangs from a horizontal branch of a

tree. With what frequency should you rock the branch to build
up oscillations of the pendulum by resonance?
Answers to Checkups
Checkup 15.1 4. If the maximum displacement is A, the maximum velocity is
A [compare Eqs. (15.11) and (15.12)]. Thus, for the same
1. The Earths rotational motion is periodic; it repeats with each amplitude, the particle with twice the frequency has twice the
daily cycle. It is not a back-and-forth motion along a line or maximum velocity. Similarly, the maximum acceleration is
arc, so it is not an oscillation. 2A, so the particle with twice the frequency has 4 times the
2. The velocity attains its maximum magnitude at x 0, that is, maximum acceleration.
where the displacement is zero; the velocity attains its mini- 5. As described in Section 15.1, the x coordinates of the particle
mum magnitude at x A, that is, at the points of maximum and satellite are identical. Obviously, the y coordinates are not,
displacement. This is because the displacement and velocity since the particle is always at y 0, while the satellite executes
are 90 out of phase; if one is a cosine function, the other is a circular motion. The velocities are not the same, since the par-
sine function [see Eqs. (15.11) and (15.12)]. ticle has zero y velocity, unlike the satellite. The x components
3. The acceleration attains its maximum magnitude at x A, of the velocities and accelerations are the same, since they are
that is, at the point of maximum displacement from the origin; derived from the identical time dependence of the x coordi-
the acceleration attains its minimum magnitude at x 0, that nate. Since the particle is always at y 0, the y components of
is, where the displacement is zero. This is because the dis- the velocity and acceleration are not the same.
placement and acceleration are 180 out of phase; if one is a 6. (C) 2. If we insert x 0 and t 0 in x A cos(t )
cosine function, the other is a negative cosine function [see [Eq. (15.4)], then we see that 0 cos , which is true if
Eqs. (15.11) and (15.13)]. 2 or if 2. Of these two, only 2 is listed.
Checkup 15.2 Checkup 15.4

1. The force on the particle attains maximum magnitude at the 1. The period of the simple pendulum is proportional
extreme displacements (the turning points) of the motion, to the square root of the length (T 2p2l g), so the period
x A. The force on the particle attains the minimum mag- of the shorter pendulum will be decreased by a factor of
nitude of zero when the particle passes through the equilib- 1 22. The frequency is the inverse of the period (f 1T ),
and so will increase by 22.
rium point, x 0.
2. Two pendulums of the same length have the same angular fre-
2. Since the frequency is given by 2k/m, doubling the mass
quency of oscillation, since 2g>l . But the energy of a
decreases the frequency by a factor of 1 22.
pendulum is 12 m2A 2 (this formula is equally valid for the
3. If the spring is cut when the particle is at the equilibrium pendulum and the simple harmonic oscillater). Thus to have
point, the particle will continue moving with the constant the same energy of oscillation, a mass 3 times smaller must
velocity it had there, vmax A. If we cut it when the particle move with an amplitude that is 23 times larger.
is at x A, where the particle is instantaneously at rest, the
3. (B) 23g>2l . The angular frequency of such a physical pendu-
particle will remain at rest there.
lum is given by Eq. (15.48), 1mgd>I . The distance d is
4. (B) 1 22. A stronger spring causes oscillations with a higher measured from the point of suspension to the center of mass and
frequency, and so a shorter period. The period varies inversely thus is half of the length of the rod; that is, d l2. Inserting
with the square root of the spring constant [Eq. (15.21)]. this value and the given moment of inertia yields
v 2(mgl>2)>(ml 2>3) 23g>2l .
Checkup 15.3
Checkup 15.5
1. Since energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude
[Eq. (15.32)], the oscillator with twice the amplitude has 4 1. Yes, at least some slight buildup always occurs at frequencies
times the energy. Since the maximum speed is proportional to below resonance. Figure 15.22 indicates that forced oscilla-
tions far below the resonant frequency approach an amplitude
the amplitude, vmax A [Eq. (15.34)], the oscillator with
A F0 k, the magnitude of the static-force spring displace-
twice the amplitude also has twice the maximum speed.
ment. This occurs because a slowly varying force allows the
2
2. Both oscillators have the same energy, since E 2 kA . But the
1
(faster) massspring system to follow the force over time.
maximum speed is inversely proportional to the square root of
2. No. In this case the slowly responding oscillator cannot follow
the mass [Eq. (15.35)], so the particle with twice the mass has
the oscillating force; it is as if the response is averaged nearly
a smaller maximum speed by a factor of 1> 22.
equally over the positive and negative force contributions.
3. The energy is purely kinetic when the oscillator passes
3. Your hand provides friction; you remove energy from the bell.
through equilibrium. The energy will be purely potential at
When E, the energy lost per cycle, increases, the Q must
maximum amplitude, which is one-quarter of a cycle later, or
decrease.
2.0 s later. An oscillator passes through equilibrium twice
each cycle (once in each direction), so the energy will be 4. (E) 630. We can solve Eq. (15.51) for Q and obtain Q
purely kinetic 4.0 s after the initial time, or another 2.0 s after 2E E. Since 0.10 J is lost in 10 cycles, about 0.010 J is lost
the energy is purely potential. each cycle. Thus Q 2(1.0 J)(0.010 J) 200 630.
4. Friction removes energy from the system, so the energy will
decrease whenever the particle is moving, and will not remain
constant. Since E 12 kA 2, the amplitude A will also decrease
each cycle due to friction.
2
5. (E) 32. The stored energy is E 2 kA . But from Eq. (15.18),
1
k m2, so E 12 m2A 2; if each of m, , and A increases by a

factor of 2, then the energy increases by a factor of 25 32.
PhysicsPagesCh16_Ad.qxd 6/10/06 11:27 AM Page 507 PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:Chapter-16: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK]
CHAPTER
Waves
16
Concepts
CONCEPTS IN CONTEXT
in
Context At water parks, engineers have developed wave pools like this one, where
water waves are generated by large alternating pumps at the deep end 16.1 Transverse and Longitudinal
and propagate toward the shallow end. Design considerations include the Wave Motion
following questions: 16.2 Periodic Waves
? How are the frequency and spacing of the waves related? (Example 16.3 The Superposition of Waves
2, page 511) 16.4 Standing Waves
? What vertical acceleration does a swimmer feel as a wave passes by?
? The speed of a wave changes as it approaches the shallow end of the
pool. Does its frequency change? Does its wavelength change?
507
508 CHAPTER 16 Waves
A
(a) (b) wave is a vibrational, shaking motion in
an elastic, deformable body. The wave is
initiated by some external force that acts on
some part of the body and deforms it. The
elastic restoring forces within the body com-
municate this initial disturbance from one
part of the body to the next, adjacent part.
The disturbance therefore gradually prop-
agates along the elastic body. For instance,
FIGURE 16.1 (a) A kink (a transverse Fig. 16.1 shows a simple example of wave motion: a long spring, such as a Slinky, has
deformation) traveling along a spring. (b) A been disturbed by a sudden up-and-down motion or a back-and-forth motion, which
compression (a longitudinal deformation) produced a kink (Fig. 16.1a) or a compressional deformation (Fig. 16.1b). The dis-
traveling along a spring. turbance propagates along the spring as a wave pulse.
The elastic body in which the wave propagates is called the medium. Thus, a
spring is the medium for the deformational waves illustrated in Figs. 16.1a and b,
(a) a stretched string is the medium for similar deformational string waves, water is the
medium for water waves, air is the medium for sound waves, the crust of the Earth is
the medium for seismic waves, and so on. When a wave propagates through a medium,
the particles in the medium vibrate back and forth, but the medium as a whole does not per-
(b) form translational motion. This is obvious in the case of a wave propagating on the
spring, where we can see the spring vibrate and we know that the spring cannot travel
anywhere, since it is held fixed at its ends. It is also obvious for a wave propagating
on a stretched string, again held fixed at its ends. But the lack of motion of the medium
(c) as a whole is not so obvious for water waveswhen watching ocean waves, we often
gain the impression that the water travels with the wave, especially when the waves are
large and when we see them crashing against a seawall or some other obstruction. But
we can check that the water does not flow with the wave if we watch a chip of wood
(d) or some other flotsam on the water. Such a chip of wood only bobs up and down, and
it rocks back and forth; it does not travel forward with the wave.
For the sake of simplicity, in this chapter we will concentrate on the motion of
transverse waves on a stretched string. However, most of our mathematical results also
(e) apply to wave motion in other elastic bodies. In the next chapter we will examine some
features of wave motion in air, that is, sound waves.
(f ) 16.1 TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL

WAV E M O T I O N
To gain some qualitative understanding of the mechanism of wave motion, consider
(g)
a tightly stretched elastic string, such as a long rubber cord. The elastic string may
be regarded as a row of particles connected by small, massless springs. If we shake
one end of the string up and down with a flick of the wrist, a disturbance travels along
the row of particles. Figure 16.2 shows in detail how such a traveling disturbance
(h)
comes about. Initially, the particles are at their equilibrium positions, evenly spaced
along the string. When we jerk the first particle upward, it will pull the second particle
upward, and this will pull the third, and so on. If we then jerk the first particle back
to its original position, it will pull the second particle back, and this will likewise pull
FIGURE 16.2 Particles joined by springs.
the third, and so on. As the motion is transmitted from one particle to the next particle,
A transverse disturbance propagates from
left to right. The diagrams show snapshots the disturbance propagates along the row of particles. Such a disturbance, in which
at successive times. The particles move up the particles move at right angles to the direction of propagation of the disturbance,
and down. is called a transverse wave pulse.
16.2 Periodic Waves 509
Alternatively, we can generate a disturbance by suddenly pushing the first particle (a)
toward the second and, soon after, pulling it back. Figure 16.3 shows how such a com-
pressional disturbance propagates along the row of particles. This kind of disturbance,
(b)
in which the particles move back and forth along the direction of propagation of the
disturbance, is called a longitudinal wave pulse.
Note that although the wave pulse travels along the full length of the string, the (c)
particles do notthey merely move back and forth around their equilibrium posi-
tions. Also note that in the region of the wave pulse, the string has kinetic energy (due
to the back-and-forth motion of the particles) and potential energy (due to the defor- (d)
mation of the springs between the particles). Hence, a wave pulse traveling along the
string carries energy with itthe wave transports energy from one end of the string
(e)
to the other.
Wave motion in air, water, or any other medium displays the same general fea-
tures. The waves are propagating disturbances in the medium communicated by pushes (f )
and pulls from one particle to the next. The waves transport energy without trans-
porting particles. The waves are longitudinal, transverse, or both. A sound wave in air
(g)
is longitudinal; the air molecules move forward and backward, parallel to the direc-
tion of propagation of the wave. But a wave on the surface of the ocean is both longi-
tudinal and transverse; the water molecules move up and down and, simultaneously, (h)
forward and backwardthe net result of these simultaneous motions is that each water
molecule traces out an elliptical path. Seismic waves in the body of the Earth can be
either longitudinal (P waves) or transverse (S waves). These two kinds of seismic waves FIGURE 16.3 A longitudinal disturbance
have different speeds, and their relative intensities depend on the characteristics of the propagates from left to right. The particles
earthquake that generated them. move back and forth.
Checkup 16.1
QUESTION 1: You shake a baseball bat back and forth. Does this produce a wave motion
in the bat? You shake a bowl of Jell-O. Does this produce a wave motion in the Jell-O?
QUESTION 2: You stretch a rubber cord from the porch of a house to a tree in the
garden. How can you initiate a transverse wave in this cord? A longitudinal wave?
QUESTION 3: When a guitar player plucks the string of her guitar, does she produce
a transverse wave or a longitudinal wave?
QUESTION 4: You have a long rod of steel and a hammer. How must you hit the end
of the rod to generate a longitudinal wave along the rod? A transverse wave?
QUESTION 5: An ocean wave travels from the coast of Africa to Florida. Does this
wave carry water from Africa to Florida? Does it carry energy?
(A) Yes; yes (B) Yes; no (C) No; no (D) No; yes
1 6 . 2 P E R I O D I C WAV E S
If we shake the end of a long string up and down and we continue shaking it steadily,
we will generate a periodic wave on the string. Such a wave can be regarded as con- periodic wave
sisting of a steady succession of positive (upward) and negative (downward) wave
pulses, which repeat at regular intervals. Figure 16.4a shows a periodic wave at one
instant of time. The high points of the wave are called the wave crests, and the low wave crest and wave trough
points are called the wave troughs. The distance from one crest to the next or from one
trough to the next is called the wavelength, designated by the symbol (the Greek
wavelength
letter lambda). The wavelength is the repeat distance of the wave patterna shift of
the wave pattern by one wavelength to the right (or the left) reproduces the original
wave pattern.
With the passing of time, the wave crests and wave troughs travel toward the right
at a speed v. As the wave travels, the entire wave pattern shifts toward the right; that
is, the wave pattern (but not the string) performs a rigid translational motion. Figures
period 16.4bh show the wave at successive instants of time. These pictures span one period
of the wave; that is, they span the interval T of time required for the wave pattern to
travel exactly one wavelength to the right. The period is the repeat time of the wave
patternafter one period, each wave crest or wave trough will have traveled to the posi-
tion previously occupied by the adjacent wave crest or wave trough, and the wave will
have attained exactly the same configuration as it had at the initial time.
Since in one period, the wave travels a distance equal to one wavelength, the ratio
of wavelength to period must equal the wave speed,

wave speed v (16.1)
T
wave crest As in the case of simple harmonic motion, we define the frequency of the wave as the
wavelength wave trough inverse of the period:
l
(a) 1
f (16.2)
T
(b)
The frequency of the wave is simply the number of wave crests arriving at some point
(c) on the string per second. The unit for the frequency is cycles per second, or Hz (hertz).
For example, if the period of the wave is 0.1 s, then in one second there will be 10 wave
(d) crests arriving at some point on the string, and consequently the frequency of the wave
is 10 cycles per second, or 10 Hz.
(e) In terms of the frequency, Eq. (16.1) becomes
(f) f v (16.3)
(g)
This equation permits us to calculate the frequency from the wavelength, or the wave-
(h)
length from the frequency, provided we know the speed of the wave.
wavelength
l
A long clothesline is stretched horizontally between two trees.
EXAMPLE 1
FIGURE 16.4 A periodic wave traveling While shaking this clothesline up and down near one end at
to the right. The diagrams show snapshots the rate of 4.0 cycles per second, you observe that the wavelength of the waves you
of the wave at successive instants of time.
generate is 1.0 m. What is the speed of these waves? If the distant end of the
The wave pattern (h) coincides with the
clothesline is 10 m away, how long does a wave pulse take to return to you?
wave pattern (a) because the wave has
moved exactly one wavelength to the right. SOLUTION: From Eq.(16.3),
v f 1.0 m 4.0 Hz 4.0 m/s
To return to you, the wave pulse has to complete a round-trip distance of

d 20 m. Hence, the time required is
d 20 m
t 5.0 s
v 4.0 m/s
At the deep end of a wave pool (see the chapter photo), the
EXAMPLE 2 Concepts
speed of water waves is 5.2 m/s. In order to avoid an excessively in
Context
rough ride, the frequency of the waves is kept low, at 0.40 Hz. What is the period
of such waves? What is the distance beween wave crests?
SOLUTION: The period is the inverse of the frequency [Eq. (16.2)]:
1 1
T 2.5 s
f 0.40 Hz
The distance between crests is the wavelength; from Eq. (16.1), we know the wave-
length is the product of the wave speed and the period:
vT 5.2 m/s 2.5 s 13 m
An important special case of a periodic wave is a harmonic wave. This kind of wave harmonic wave
has the shape of a harmonic function, that is, a sine curve or a cosine curve. If we assume
that a wave crest is at the origin at the initial time t 0, the wavefunction is
y A cos kx for the initial time t 0 (16.4)
The constant A, which represents the height of the wave crests (and the depth of the
wave troughs), is called the wave amplitude, and the constant k is called the wave wave amplitude
number. Note that here, as in the preceding chapter, the argument of the cosine func-
tion is supposed to be expressed in radians.
Figure 16.5 is a plot of the wavefunction (16.4). The wave crests (maxima) occur
where cos kx 1, that is, at
kx 0, 2p, 4p, 6p, etc. (maxima) (16.5)
and the wave troughs (minima) occur where cos kx 1, or at
kx p, 3p, 5p, etc. (minima) (16.6)
From these equations we see that the distance from one crest to the next, or from
one trough to the next, is 2k. Thus the wavelength and the wave number k of a
harmonic wave are related by
2p 2p
or k (16.7) wavelength and wave number
k
This is the maximum

displacement from This is distance
equilibrium. for one full cycle.
y
wavelength

A
amplitude
x
0 /2 3/2
A
The entire wave pattern
shifts to the right (or left)
with time. FIGURE 16.5 A harmonic wave.
Since the cosine function is periodic in intervals of 2, we see that the relation
k 2 ensures that the value of the cosine function repeats whenever the position
x in Eq.(16.4) changes by a distance equal to the wavelength .
At any later time, the harmonic wave will have traveled some distance to the right
or to the left. This means that the wave pattern plotted in Fig. 16.5 shifts some dis-
tance to the right or to the left. If the speed of the wave is v, the wave pattern shifts a
distance vt in a time t. The initial wavefunction (16.4) must then be replaced by a new
wavefunction in which the value of the argument is shifted by a distance vt. Thus, we
must replace x in Eq. (16.4) by x vt or by x vt, for a wave that travels to the right
or to the left, respectively. The wavefunction at time t is then
y A cos[k (x vt)] for a wave traveling in

the positive x direction (16.8)
harmonic traveling wave or
y A cos[k (x vt)] for a wave traveling in

(16.9)
the negative x direction
Note that according to Eq. (16.4) there is a wave crest at kx 0, and that according to
Eq. (16.8) the corresponding wave crest is at k (x vt) 0. Hence, at time t, this wave crest
is at x vt 0, or at x vt, as expected for a wave traveling in the positive x direction.
In consequence of the negative sign in Eq. (16.8), as the time t increases, x must also
increase to stay on the crest of the wave; the wave thus travels in the positive x direction.
For a harmonic wave it is customary to introduce the angular frequency
2p 2pv
angular frequency 2pf kv (16.10)
T
In terms of the wavelength, period, wave number, and angular frequency, we can
express the wavefunction (16.8) in the alternative forms
y A cos a 2p 2p b
x t
T
and
harmonic wavefunction y A cos (kx t) (16.11)
When the wave passes a point of the string, a particle in the string at this point
moves up from its equilibrium position a distance equal to the wave amplitude A; then,
half a cycle later, the particle moves down from its equilibrium position a distance A;
and then, another half cycle later, it moves up again. Thus, the particle executes simple har-
monic motion of a frequency and an amplitude equal to the frequency and the amplitude of
the wave (see Fig. 16.6). The particle thus has vertical velocity and acceleration of the
same form as those of a particle in simple harmonic motion:1
dy
vy A sin(kx t) (16.12)
dt
dvy
ay A2 cos (kx t) (16.13)
dt
y This is time for

one full cycle.
A period
T
t
0
T/2 T 3T/2 2T
FIGURE 16.6 Each particle on the string
A executes simple harmonic motion with a period
equal to the period of the wave, and an amplitude
equal to the amplitude of the wave.
As mentioned previously, waves carry energy from one point to another. The kinetic
energy of the particles involved in wave motion is proportional to the square of their veloc-
ity (K 12mv2); combined with Eq.(16.12), this reveals a general feature of wave motion:
the energy stored in a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.
Harmonic waves play a central role in the study of wave motion because, as we will
see in the next section, any periodic wave of arbitrary shape can be regarded as a super-
position, or sum, of several harmonic waves of suitably chosen amplitudes and wave-
lengths. Thus, if we understand the motion of harmonic waves, we understand the
motion of any kind of periodic wave. Hereafter, we will concentrate on harmonic waves.
The waves near the deep end of the wave pool in the chapter
EXAMPLE 3 Concepts
photo have an amplitude of 0.50 m. For the 0.40-Hz waves in
Context
described in Example 2, what is the maximum vertical speed of a swimmer float-
ing on the surface? What is the maximum vertical acceleration experienced by that
swimmer?
SOLUTION: According to Eq. (16.11), for a swimmer at a given horizontal posi-
tion x0, the vertical displacement is
y A cos (kx0 t)
and therefore the vertical speed is, as in Eq. (16.12),
dy d
vy [A cos (kx0 t)] A sin (kx0 t)
dt dt
This has a maximum magnitude A. Since 2f, the maximum vertical speed is
vy,max A 2pf 0.50 m 2p 0.40 Hz 1.3 m/s
Similarly, according to Eq. (16.13), the vertical acceleration at x0 is
dvy d
ay [A sin (kx0 t)] A2 cos (kx0 t)
dt dt
The maximum vertical acceleration is:
ay, max A2
1
In this differentiation, x is held constant, since the particle remains at a fixed x position and only its y posi-
tion changes with t. Mathematicians would use the partial derivative symbol yt to indicate that in the
differentiation of the function y y (x, t) only t is differentiated, while x is held fixed.
Again using 2f, this gives
ay,max A (2pf )2 0.50 m (2p 0.40 Hz)2 3.2 m/s2
This acceleration is nearly one-third of g; it provides quite a thrilling experience.
The speed of a wave is determined by the characteristics of the medium. For a

string, the relevant characteristics are the tension F in the string, its mass M, and its
length L. By examining the implications of Newtons Second Law for a short deformed
segment of string being accelerated by the tension forces acting on the ends of the
segment, we can demonstrate that the speed of the wave on a string is
F
speed of wave on a string v (16.14)
A ML
To obtain this result, consider Fig. 16.7a, which shows a wave pulse on a string. We
analyze the motion in a frame of reference moving to the right with the pulse; in that frame,
the pulse is at rest, and the entire string moves to the left with the pulse speed v.
Figure 16.7a shows one short segment L in the pulse, which can be approximated as
an arc of a circle with radius R, subtending a small angle LR. The mass m of
this segment is a fraction LL of the total mass M, m (LL)M; the centripetal
acceleration is v2R. The radial components of the tension on either side of the segment
provide the centripetal force; these sum to Fnet 2F sin(2) F F LR (see
Fig. 16.7b). Newtons Second Law, ma Fnet, then implies
L v 2 L
M F (16.15)
L R R
Solving Eq. (16.15) for v yields Eq. (16.14).
The characteristic of the string that enters into Eq. (16.14) is the ratio of mass to
length (ML), or the mass per unit length. If we use a given kind of string, of some
given thickness, the mass per unit length will be the same, regardless of whether we use
a short length of string or a long length in our experiments. Note that the speed of the
wave is large if the tension is large and the mass per unit length is small (a thin string).
(a)
Segment of string travels In reference frame moving
along arc of circle, and so to the right at speed v,
has centripetal acceleration. string travels at speed v to
the left.
F L
F
v v
a R
q
(b) Centripetal acceleration is

FIGURE 16.7 (a) A wave pulse moving to the right, produced by the radial
viewed in a frame of reference moving with the pulse, so the component of the tension.
string moves to the left at a speed v. For a small segment
L, the centripetal acceleration is related to the radial com- F
ponent of the tension forces F by the geometry shown. F
(b) Vector sum of the tension forces F. q
Fq 2
This is intuitively reasonable, since a large tension can accelerate a small mass very
quickly, and therefore produces a quick back-and-forth motion of the mass elements in
the string; that is, it produces a high frequency of the motion. According to Eq. (16.3),
for a given wavelength, a high frequency implies a large speed of the wave.
Of course, Eq. (16.14) is valid not only for strings, but also for tightly stretched
wires and ropes.
A long piece of piano wire of a mass of 3.9 103 kg per meter

EXAMPLE 4
is under a tension of 1.0 103 N. What is the speed of trans-
verse waves on this wire? What is the wavelength of a harmonic wave on this wire
if its frequency is 262 Hz?
SOLUTION: If the mass per unit length is 3.9 103 kg per meter, the ratio ML
in Eq. (16.14) is 3.9 103 kg/m, and hence the speed of the wave is
F 1.0 10 3 N
v 5.1 102 m/s
A M>L A 3.9 103 kg/m
Consequently, with f 262 Hz 262 s1, the wavelength is
v 510 m/s
l 1.9 m
f 262 s1
Although a wave on a string is a rather special case of wave motion, the mathe-
matical description of other kinds of waves is similar to that of waves on a string. The
instantaneous configuration of the wave can always be described by a plot of the wave
disturbance vs. position, such as the plot in Fig. 16.6, but the vertical axis of the plot must
be adapted to the physical properties of the wave. For instance, to describe a sound wave
in air, we can plot the pressure disturbance produced by the wave vs. the position.
Our Eq.(16.14) for the wave speed applies only to waves on a string (or a wire, or
a rope). But this equation exhibits a general feature of wave propagation: in broad
terms, this equation states that the speed of the wave depends on the restoring force
and on the inertia of the elastic medium in which the wave is propagating. This is true
for all kinds of waves. In all cases, some force within the medium opposes its
deformationtension tends to keep the string straight, the pressure within a gas tends
to keep the density of the gas uniform, gravity tends to keep the surface of the sea
smooth, and so on. But if something provides an initial disturbance, then the restor-
ing force will cause it to propagate, as in Fig. 16.2, with a speed depending on the
magnitude of the restoring force and on the amount of inertia or, equivalently, the
amount of mass in the medium. In general, the speed will be large if the restoring force
is large and the amount of mass in the medium is small.
Gravity provides the restoring force for the water waves in a

EXAMPLE 5 Concepts
wave pool. A somewhat complicated analysis of the motion of in
Context
water, including the requirement that the vertical velocity is zero at the bottom of
the pool, yields for the wave speed in shallow water the approximate formula
v 2gD
where g is the acceleration of gravity and D is the depth of the water. This formula
is valid when the depth is much less than the wavelength. For the shallow wave
pool described in Examples 2 and 3, the speed at the deep end was 5.2 m/s. Recall
that pumps produced waves at a rate of 0.40 Hz, and the resulting wavelength at
the deep end was 13 m. What is the speed at the shallow end, where D 0.50 m?
What are the frequency and wavelength of the wave there?
SOLUTION: Using the given expression, the speed at the shallow end is
v 2gD 29.81 m /s2 0.50 m 2.2 m /s

The frequency of the wave is unchanged. This is so because at any fixed loca-
tion, water elements are pushed by adjacent elements; ultimately, this process begins
at the water-pump source, which sets the overall frequency. To confirm this, we
can consider a counterexample: if the frequency were to decrease away from the
source, oscillations would continually pile up somewhere, since more would be
steadily produced at the source than would pass another location. This is an impos-
sible consequence; thus, the frequency must be the same at different locations.
The wavelength is, by Eq. (16.3),
v 2.2 m /s
5.5 m
f 0.40 s1
Thus the wavelength is shorter in a region where the speed is slower.
Checkup 16.2
QUESTION 1: Are all periodic waves harmonic? Are all harmonic waves periodic?
QUESTION 2: Are the waves sketched in Fig. 16.4 harmonic?
QUESTION 3: Consider the piano wire described in Example 4. If we want to increase
the wave speed by a factor of 2, by what factor must we increase the tension?
QUESTION 4: A steel wire stretched tightly across a room consists of two segments of the
same material but of different diameters. If the first segment has a diameter half as large
as the second segment, by what factor do the speeds of waves in the two segments differ?
QUESTION 5: A wave on a string has a wavelength of 30 cm and a frequency of 40 Hz.
What is the frequency of a wave of wavelength 60 cm on this same string?
(A) 20 Hz (B) 40 Hz (C) 60 Hz (D) 80 Hz (E) 120 Hz
Online 1 6 . 3 T H E S U P E R P O S I T I O N O F WAV E S
18
Concept
Tutorial Waves on a string and waves in other elastic bodies usually obey a Superposition
Principle: when two or more waves are present simultaneously in an elastic body, the resultant
instantaneous displacement of a particle is the sum of the individual instantaneous displacements.
Such a superposition means that the waves do not interact; they have no effect on one
another. Each wave propagates as though the other were not present, and the contribution
that each makes to the displacement of a particle in the elastic body is as though the other
were not present. For instance, if the sound waves from a violin and a flute reach us
simultaneously, then each of these waves produces a displacement of the air molecules
just as though it were acting alone, and the net displacement of the air molecules is
simply the (vector) sum of these individual displacements.
16.3 The Superposition of Waves 517
For waves of low amplitude on a string and for sound waves of ordinary intensity
in air, the Superposition Principle is very well satisfied. However, for waves of very
large amplitude or intensity, the Superposition Principle fails. When a wave of very
large amplitude is propagating on a string, it alters the tension of the string, and there-
fore affects the behavior of a second wave propagating on the same string. Likewise, When two waves are exactly
a very intense sound wave (a shock wave, such as the loud bang from in phase, net amplitude is
sum of individual amplitudes.
an explosion) produces significant alterations of the temperature and y
the pressure of the air, and therefore affects the behavior of a second sum
wave propagating through this same region. However, we will not worry 2A
about such extreme conditions, and we will assume that the Superposition
Principle is applicable. A
As a first example of superposition, let us consider two waves prop- x

agating in the same direction with the same frequency and the same /2
amplitude. If the wave crests and the wave troughs of the two waves
A
coincide, the waves are said to be in phase. The superposition of these
two waves yields a wave of twice the amplitude of the individual waves
2A
(see Fig. 16.8). Such a reinforcement of one wave by another is called con- Crests and troughs of these
two waves coincide; the
structive interference. If the wave crests of one wave match the wave two waves are in phase.
troughs of the other, the waves are said to be out of phase, or to differ
in phase by half a cycle. The superposition of these two waves yields FIGURE 16.8 Constructive interference of two waves.
a wave of zero amplitude (see Fig. 16.9). Such a cancellation of one wave
by another is called destructive interference.2 Crests of one wave coincide
If the two waves are out of phase but their amplitudes are not equal, with troughs of the other; the
then their cancellation will not be total; some portion of the wave that two waves are out of phase.
has the larger amplitude will be left over (see Fig. 16.10). Similarly, if two y When two equal-amplitude
equal-amplitude waves are not exactly in phase or exactly out of phase, waves are exactly out of
phase, net amplitude is zero.
then their sum will have an amplitude somewhere between zero and
twice the amplitude of either wave. In Chapter 35, we will examine A
sum
interference of waves with the same frequency in more detail. x
For a much different example of superposition, let us consider two /2
waves of the same amplitude, but slightly different frequencies and, there-
A
fore, slightly different wavelengths. Figure 16.11 shows the two waves at
one instant of time and their superposition. At x 0, the waves are in
phase, and they interfere constructively, giving a large net amplitude. But
farther along the x axis, the difference in wavelengths gradually causes FIGURE 16.9 Destructive interference of two waves; the
waves cancel everywhere.
the waves to acquire a phase difference. At the point P, the waves are out
of phase by half a cycle, and they interfere destructively, giving a net ampli- When two unequal waves
tude of zero. Beyond this point, the phase difference exceeds one half are exactly out of phase,
y These two waves net amplitude is difference
cycle. At the point R the phase difference has grown to one cycle; but
are out of phase. of individual amplitudes.
since a phase difference of one cycle means that the crests of the two waves 2A
coincide, they interfere constructively, again giving a large amplitude, and sum
so on. Thus, the superposition of the two waves displays regularly alter- A
nating regions of constructive and destructive interference, that is, alter-
x
nating regions of large amplitude and small amplitude (see Fig. 16.11b).
/2
2 A
This cancellation raises a question: If the waves cancel, what happens to the energy they
carry? To answer this question we must examine in detail how the two waves were
brought together. For instance, if the two waves were initially propagating on two sep- 2A
arate strings that merge into a single string at a junction or knot, then the cancellation
of the waves beyond the junction is necessarily associated with a strong backward reflec-
tion of the two incident waves at the junction, and the waves reflected backward from FIGURE 16.10 Destructive interference of two waves of
the junction carry away the missing energy. different amplitudes. The sum is small, but not zero.
(a)
y
Two waves of slightly different
wavelengths are sometimes out
2A of phase and sometimes in phase.
P R
A
2A
Here, waves are Here, waves are

(b) out of phase, and in phase, and sum
y sum wave is zero. wave is large.
2A R
A
P
x
FIGURE 16.11 Superposition of two waves

of slightly different wavelengths and frequencies. A
(a) The two waves before addition. (b) The sum
of the two waves. The colored green line shows 2A sum
the wave envelope, or the average amplitude. Amplitude of sum
wave pulsates.
With the passing of time, the entire pattern in Fig. 16.11b moves toward the right
with the wave velocity. This gives rise to the phenomenon of beats. At any given posi-
tion, the amplitude of the wave pulsatesfirst the amplitude is large, then it becomes
small, then again large, and so on. The frequency with which the amplitude pulsates is
called the beat frequency. The beat frequency is simply the difference between the fre-
quencies of the two waves:
beat frequency fbeat f1 f2 (16.16)
To establish this result, consider two traveling waves of the form (16.11), with dif-
ferent frequencies:
y1 A cos (k1x 1t)
(16.17)
y2 A cos (k2x 2t)
For simplicity, let us consider these wavefunctions at a single point, x 0. The super-
position of these waves is the sum
y y1 y2 A [cos (1t) cos (2t)] (16.18)
where we have used cos () cos . If we apply the trigonometric identity (see
Appendix 3)
u1 u2 u1 u2
cos u1 cos u2 2 cos cos (16.19)
2 2
16.3 The Superposition of Waves 519
we obtain
(1 2) (1 2)

y 2 A cos c t d cos c td (16.20)
2 2
The second cosine in Eq. (16.20) represents the rapid oscillations of the wave at the
average angular frequency (1 2)2. The first cosine function in Eq. (16.20) repre-
sents the slow variation in the amplitude of that wave, producing the beats. Both the
positive and negative parts of the slowly varying envelope in Fig. 16.11b produce
large amplitudes; hence there are two beats per cycle of the function cos[(1 2)t2],
and the angular beat frequency is 2 (1 2)2 1 2. Thus the beat frequency
is given by Eq. (16.16).
Suppose that two flutes generate sound waves of frequency

EXAMPLE 6
264 Hz and 262 Hz, respectively. What is the beat frequency?
SOLUTION: According to Eq. (16.16),
fbeat f1 f2 264 Hz 262 Hz 2 Hz
Hence, a listener will hear a tone of average frequency 263 Hz, but with an ampli-
tude pulsating 2 times per second.
Beats are a sensitive indication of small frequency differences, and

Sum is periodic
they are very useful in the tuning of musical instruments. For example, y wave that repeats
when musicians want to bring two flutes in tune, they listen to the beats each distance L.
and, by trial and error, adjust one of the flutes so as to reduce the beat 1
frequency; when the beats disappear entirely (zero beat frequency), the
two flutes will be generating waves of exactly the same frequencies.
By the superposition of harmonic waves of different amplitudes and
wavelengths, we can construct some rather complicated waveshapes. 0
For example, Fig. 16.12 shows a periodic wave constructed by the super-
position of three harmonic waves of wavelengths L, L3, and L5 whose
amplitudes are in the ratio 1: 13 : 15 . It can be shown that any arbitrary 1
periodic wave can be constructed by the superposition of a sufficiently x
large number of harmonic waves. If the desired periodic wave repeats L/
2
L 3L/
2
2L
each distance L, then the only harmonic waves needed in the sum are These harmonic waves have
those with wavelengths equal to L divided by an integer. Since f v, wavelengths equal to distance
L divided by an integer.
the frequencies of the only harmonic waves needed are integer multiples
of the frequency of the arbitrary periodic wave. This is called Fouriers
FIGURE 16.12 A wave constructed by superposition of
theorem. As already mentioned in the preceding section, this theorem three harmonic waves of wavelengths L (blue), L3 (red),
means that we can regard any arbitrary periodic wave as a sum of har- and L5 (green). The harmonic waves are yblue sin(2xL),
monic waves; and it means that the study of periodic waves is, in essence, yred 31 sin [2x(L3)], and ygreen 15 sin[2x(L5)].
the study of harmonic waves.
Checkup 16.3
QUESTION 1: Consider a harmonic wave of small amplitude and short wavelength

and a wave of much larger amplitude and much longer wavelength. What does the
superposition of these two waves look like?
QUESTION 2: To check the tuning of a guitar, the lowest-pitch string with a finger on
the fifth fret and the next string (open) are played simultaneously. If, for an out-of-tune
guitar, the resulting tone pulsates 4 times per second and has a frequency of 107 Hz, at
what frequencies are the two strings vibrating?
QUESTION 3: Two water waves of amplitudes 0.6 m and 0.8 m, respectively, arrive
simultaneously at a buoy. What is the amplitude of the net wave if these two waves
are in phase? If these two waves are out of phase?
(A) 0.2 m; 1.4 m (B) 0.2 m; 0.2 m (C) 1.0 m; 1.4 m
(D) 1.4 m; 0.2 m (E) 1.4 m; 1.0 m
Online 1 6 . 4 S TA N D I N G WAV E S
18
Concept
Tutorial Next, we want to consider the superposition of two waves of the same amplitude and
the same frequency, but of opposite directions of propagation. Figure 16.13a shows the
two traveling waves and their sum at an initial instant of time. At this instant, the waves
are in phase, and their sum is a wave of twice the amplitude of each. At a slightly later
time, one wave has moved to the right and the other to the left (see Fig. 16.13b). At the
points P, Q, R, . . . the waves were initially zero; now, one wave has a positive value at
these points, and the other wave has an equally large negative value. Thus, the sum of
the two waves still yields a result of zero at these points. The two waves will continue
to cancel at these points at all times (see Figs. 16.13c, d, and e). These points at which
node the sum of the waves is zero are called nodes. They are one-half wavelength apart.
Midway between the nodes we find points at which the sum of the two waves is
maximum (positive or negative). These points are called antinodes. Figure 16.13 shows
antinode
that with the passing of time, the height of the wave crests at the antinodes oscillates,
but the positions of these wave crests remain fixed. Thus, the superposition of two waves
standing wave traveling in opposite directions is a standing wave. This means that the net wave travels
neither to the right nor to the left; its wave crests remain at fixed positions while the entire
wave increases and decreases in unison. The frequency of this pulsation of the standing
wave is the same as the frequency of the two underlying traveling waves.
We can find the wavefunction for the standing wave by adding the wavefunctions
of the individual traveling waves. The wave traveling to the right is
y1 A cos (kx t) (16.21)
and the wave traveling toward the left is

y2 A cos (kx t) (16.22)
The sum of these two waves is

y y1 y2 A cos (kx t) A cos (kx t) (16.23)
To evaluate this sum, we again use the trigonometric identity (16.19)
cos u1 cos u2 2 cos [12(u1 u2)] cos [12(u1 u2)] (16.24)
which, with 1 kx t and 2 kx t, gives us
y 2cos [12(kx t kx t)] cos [12(kx t kx t)]

2 A cos(t) cos (kx) 2 A cos (t) cos (kx) (16.25)
16.4 Standing Waves 521
The time dependence in this wavefunction appears as an overall factor cos (t), (a) y
which shows that the entire wave indeed increases and decreases in unison. t=0
2A
The dependence on x appears as an overall factor of cos(kx). This factor gives
us the positions of the antinodes and nodes. The antinodes correspond to a
A
maximum (positive or negative) value of cos(kx), which occurs at
x
kx 0, p, 2p, 3p, . . . for antinodes (maxima) (16.26) P Q R 2
The nodes correspond to a zero value of cos(kx), which occurs at A
kx p>2, 3p>2, 5p>2, . . . for nodes (zeros) (16.27) 2A
(b) y
With k 2, the condition for the antinodes becomes
Sum of two waves traveling
x 0, >2, , 3>2, . . . for antinodes (maxima) (16.28) 2A in opposite directions. t=T
8
and the condition for the nodes becomes A

x
x >4, 3>4, 5>4, . . . for nodes (zeros) (16.29)
P Q R 2
As expected from the discussion of Fig. 16.13, the nodes are one-half wave- A
length apart, and the antinodes are midway between the nodes.
If this standing wave is a wave on a string, then each particle of this string 2A
executes simple harmonic motion. However, in contrast to the case of a trav- (c) y
eling wave, where the amplitudes of the harmonic oscillations of all the par-
2A t=T
ticles are the same, the amplitudes of oscillation now depend on position: the Sum is zero everywhere. 4
amplitude is maximum at the antinodes, and it is minimum (zero) at the nodes.
A
So far, in our discussion of the waves on a string, we have assumed that
x
the string is very long, and we have ignored the endpoints of the string.
P 2
When a traveling wave arrives at an endpoint, something drastic will have
to happen to it: the wave will either have to be absorbed at the endpoint or A
it will have to be reflected, with a reversal of its direction of propagation. If

2A
the endpoint is a fixed point (the string is attached to a rigid support), then
(d) y
the endpoint cannot absorb the energy of the wave, and the wave will be
completely reflected. This results in the simultaneous presence of two waves 2A t = 3T
8
of equal amplitudes and opposite directions of travel; that is, it results in a
standing wave. Reflection will also occur if the endpoint is free to move A
but cannot absorb energy; in this case, the endpoint is an antinode. For the x
case of a fixed endpoint, the reflected wave is inverted, as illustrated by the P 2
behavior of a reflected pulse in Fig. 16.14a; this inversion ensures that the A
endpoint is a node. For the case of a free endpoint, the reflected wave is
not inverted, as illustrated in Fig. 16.14b. 2A
(e) y At nodes, the sum
is always zero.
2A t=T
2
A
FIGURE 16.13 Superposition of two waves of the same amplitude but x
of opposite directions of propagation. (a) At t 0 the waves are in phase. P 2
(b) At t 18 of a period 18 T, one wave has moved 18 of a wavelength to the
right, and the other the same distance to the left. (c) At t 14 T, one wave A
has moved 14 of a wavelength to the right and the other the same distance
to the left; the waves have therefore moved apart 21 wavelength, and they 2A
are out of phase and they cancel everywhere. (d) At t 83 T, the waves have
At antinodes, sum oscillates
moved 83 of a wavelength to the right and the left, respectively. At t 12 T,
with maximum amplitude.
the waves are again in phase, and so on.
(a) (b)
For an end free to slide,

wave does not invert
FIGURE 16.14 (a) A wave pulse approaches a upon reflection.
fixed end of a string. The pulse is inverted upon
For a fixed end, wave
reflection, as it must be for the superposition of inverts upon reflection.
the incoming and outgoing displacements to be
zero at the endpoint. (b) A wave pulse approach-
ing the end of a string that is free to slide verti-
cally. The pulse does not invert upon reflection.
When endpoints are fixed,

wave must be zero at endpoint; For a string with two fixed endpoints (see Fig. 16.15), the possible standing waves
this is a boundary condition.
are subject to the restriction that the wave must be zero at each endpoint at all times.
Such a restriction on what happens at the endpoints of a wave is called a boundary
condition. Obviously, the boundary condition for our standing wave will be satisfied
if the endpoints are nodes. Figure 16.16 shows possible standing waves on a string of
L
some given length L; all these standing waves have nodes at the endpoints. The possi-
FIGURE 16.15 A tightly stretched string ble standing-wave motions of the string shown in Fig. 16.16 are called the normal modes.
with fixed ends. The next figure shows pos- Figure 16.16a shows the fundamental mode; Fig. 16.16b, the first overtone;
sible standing waves on this string. Fig. 16.16c, the second overtone. Figure 16.17 shows time-exposure photographs of
a string with these modes.
(a) The fundamental mode

y
x
L
(b) The first overtone

y
x
L
(c) The second overtone

y
x
L
For normal modes of vibration, an

integer number of half wavelengths
fit in string length L.
FIGURE 16.16 Standing waves on a string.

(a) The fundamental mode. (b) The first over- FIGURE 16.17 Stroboscopic photographs of
tone. (c) The second overtone. standing waves on a string.
16.4 Standing Waves 523
In all these modes, some integer number of half wavelengths exactly fits the length
of the string. In the fundamental mode, one half wavelength fits the string; in the first
overtone, two half wavelengths fit the string; in the second overtone, three half wave-
lengths fit the string; and so on. Thus, the normal modes occur when
l l l ...
L L2 L3
2 2 2
and the wavelengths for the different modes are thus
2L 2L wavelengths of
l1 2L l2 L l3 (16.30)
2 3 normal modes of string
The frequencies of oscillation of the modes are related to the wavelengths in the
usual way ( f v, where v is the velocity):
v v v
f1 f2 2 f3 3 (16.31)
2L 2L 2L
The frequencies of these modes are called the normal frequencies, proper frequencies,
or eigenfrequencies of the string. Note that all these frequencies are integer multiples eigenfrequencies
of the fundamental frequency: the frequency of the first overtone is twice the fre-
quency of the fundamental, the frequency of the second overtone is three times the
frequency of the fundamental, and so on. The first overtone is also called the second
harmonic; the second overtone is called the third harmonic; and so on.
In general, any arbitrary motion of a freely vibrating string (with fixed endpoints)
will be some superposition of several of the above normal modes. Which modes will
be present in the superposition depends on how the motion is started. For instance, when
a guitar player plucks a string on his guitar near the middle, he will excite the funda-
mental mode and also the second overtone and, to a lesser extent, some of the higher
even-numbered overtones.
The low E string on the guitar vibrates with a frequency of

EXAMPLE 7
82.4 Hz when excited in its fundamental mode. What are the
frequencies of the first, second, and third overtones of this string?
SOLUTION: According to Eq. (16.31), f2 2f1, f3 3f1, and f4 4f1. Hence the
frequencies of the first, second, and third overtones are, respectively, 2 82.4 Hz
165 Hz, 3 82.4 Hz 247 Hz, and 4 82.4 Hz 330 Hz.
The normal modes of vibration of a long, thin elastic rod or a beam fixed at both
ends are mathematically similar to the normal modes of a string. However, such an
elastic body can experience transverse deformations (like those of a string), compres-
sional deformations, and rotational, or torsional, deformations.
Recall from Chapter 15 that if an external driving force oscillates at the natural
frequency of oscillation of a system, a large-amplitude oscillation can be built up, a
phenomenon called resonance. Figure 16.18 shows a spectacular example of a tor-
sional standing wave in the span of a bridge at Tacoma, Washington. This standing
wave was excited by a wind blowing across the bridge, which generated a periodic suc-
cession of vortices, or regions of swirling motion in the air, with a frequency equal to
that of one of the normal modes of vibration of the span. Thus, the periodic genera-
tion of vortices was in resonance with the natural vibration of the bridge, and this
gradually built up a large amplitude of vibration. The bridge vibrated for several hours,
with increasing amplitude, and then broke apart.
Checkup 16.4
QUESTION 1: Describe the third overtone and the fourth overtone for the wave on
the string illustrated in Fig. 16.15.
QUESTION 2: Can the midpoint of a guitar string be an antinode? Can it be a node?
QUESTION 3: Is the number of nodes for a normal mode of a string fixed at both ends
FIGURE 16.18 Standing wave on the
always larger than the number of antinodes? How much larger?
deck of the Tacoma Narrows bridge, July 1,
1940. The bridge broke apart a short time QUESTION 4: The lowest frequency on a guitar is obtained when the top string (the
after this picture was taken. low E string) is played open, in its fundamental mode; the eighth harmonic of that
frequency can be obtained on the bottom guitar string (the high E string) when it is
constrained at its midpoint. Both strings have the same length. What is the ratio of the
wave speed on the high E string to the wave speed on the low E string?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 4 (D) 8 (E) 16
S U M M A RY
WAVELENGTH, PERIOD, FREQUENCY, AND

y
WAVE SPEED
f v wavelength (16.1, 16.3)
T A
l
amplitude
x
0 l/2 3l/2
v
A
WAVE NUMBER 2p
k (16.7)

ANGULAR FREQUENCY 2pf (16.10)
HARMONIC WAVE
Wave traveling in the positive x direction: y A cos (kx t) (16.8)
Wave traveling in the negative x direction: y A cos (kx t) (16.9)
SPEED OF WAVE ON A STRING F v
v (16.14)
B M>L
Questions for Discussion 525
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE FOR TWO OR MORE WAVES

The net instantaneous displacement is the sum of the
individual instantaneous displacements.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE Waves meet crest to crest.
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE Waves meet crest to trough.
BEAT FREQUENCY fbeat f1 f2 y

(16.16)
STANDING HARMONIC WAVE y A cos (kx) cos (t) (16.25)
NODE Point of zero oscillation.
ANTINODE Point of maximum oscillation.
WAVELENGTHS OF NORMAL MODES OF STRING 1 2L, 2 L, 3 2L>3, etc. y (16.30)

L
(of length L, fixed at both ends) x
For normal modes of
vibration, an integer
number of half wavelengths
fit in string length L.
EIGENFREQUENCIES f1 v2L fundamental mode (or first harmonic),

f2 2(v2L) first overtone (or second harmonic),
f3 3(v2L) second overtone (or third harmonic), etc.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. You have a long, thin steel rod and a hammer. How must you 3. A wave pulse on a string transports energy. Does it also trans-
hit the end of the rod to generate a longitudinal wave? A port momentum? To answer this question, imagine a washer
transverse wave? loosely encircling the string at some place; what happens to
2. Some people enjoy arranging long rows of dominoes on the the washer when the wave pulse strikes it?
floor, so the toppling of one domino triggers the toppling of 4. According to Eq. (16.14), the speed of a wave on a string
all the others, by a chain reaction (see Fig. 16.19). The propa- increases by a factor of 2 if we increase the tension by a factor
gation of the disturbance along such a chain of dominoes has of 4. However, in the case of a rubber string, the speed
some of the properties of a wave pulse. In what way is it simi- increases by more than a factor of 2 if we increase the tension
lar to a wave pulse? In what way is it different? by a factor of 4. Why are rubber strings different?
5. A harmonic wave is traveling along a string. Where in this
wave is the kinetic energy at maximum? The potential energy?
The total energy?
6. Suppose that two strings of different densities are knotted
together to make a single long string. If a wave pulse travels
along the first string, what will happen to the wave pulse when
FIGURE 16.19 it reaches the junction? (Hint: If the second string had the
Toppling dominoes. same density as the first string, the wave pulse would proceed
without interruption; if the second string were much denser

than the first, the wave pulse would be totally reflected.)
7. Figure 16.13 shows a standing wave on a string. At time t
T4, the amplitude of the wave is everywhere zero. Does this
mean the wave has zero energy at this instant?
8. After an arrow has been shot from a bow, the bowstring will
oscillate back and forth, forming a standing wave. Which of
the overtones shown in Fig. 16.16 do you expect to be present?
9. In tuning a guitar or violin, by what means do you change the
frequency of a string?
10. A mechanic can make a rough test of the tension on the
spokes of a wire wheel (see Fig. 16.20) by striking the spokes FIGURE 16.21 Frets
with a wrench or a small hammer. A spoke under tension will on the neck of a guitar.
ring, but a loose spoke will not. Explain.
11. What is the purpose of the frets (see Fig. 16.21) on the neck
of a guitar or a mandolin?
12. The strings of a guitar are made of wires of different thick-
nesses (the thickest strings are manufactured by wrapping
copper or brass wire around a strand of steel). Why is it
impractical to use wire of the same thickness for all the strings?
FIGURE 16.20 Wire wheels on an automobile.
PROBLEMS
1 6 . 2 P e r i o d i c Wa v e s
height
1. The speed of light waves is 3.0 108 m/s. The wavelengths of
light waves range from 4.0 107 m (violet) to 7.0 107 m first tsunami
7 ft
(red). What is the range of frequencies of these waves? normal wave
6
2. An ocean wave has a wavelength of 120 m and a period of tide
5
8.77 s. Calculate the frequency, angular frequency, wave
4
number, and speed of this wave.
3
3. Figure 16.22 is a record of a tsunami that struck the coast of 2
Mexico. Approximately, what was the frequency of this wave? 1
What was its wavelength in the open sea? Assume that the 0
speed of the wave in the open sea was 740 km/h.
4. In deep water (where the depth is much larger than the time
03 06 09 12 15 18 h
wavelength), the speed of waves is given by the formula
GMT
v 2g>2p. Calculate the speed of short water waves,
with 1.0 m. Calculate the speed of long waves with FIGURE 16.22 Height of a tsunami that struck the
300 m. coast of Mexico.
Problems 527
5. In shallow water (where the depth is shorter than a wave- 12. Suppose that the function y 6.0 103 cos(20x 4.0t
length), the speed of waves is given by the formula v 2gD, 3) describes a wave on a long string (distance is measured
where D is the depth of the water. in meters and time in seconds).
(a) Calculate the speed of water waves in a shallow pond with (a) What are the amplitude, wavelength, wave number, fre-
a depth of 2.0 m. quency, angular frequency, direction of propagation, and
(b) For ocean waves of extremely long wavelength, such as speed of this wave?
tidal waves, the oceanic basins can be treated as shallow (b) At what time does this wave have a maximum at x 0?
ponds, since their depth is small compared with the wave-
13. A harmonic wave on a string has an amplitude of 2.0 cm, a
length. Calculate the speed of a tidal wave in the Pacific
wavelength of 1.2 m, and a velocity of 6.0 m/s in the positive x
Ocean, where the mean depth is 4.3 km.
direction. At time t 0, this wave has a crest at x 0.
6. To determine the speed and the frequency of periodic waves
(a) What are the period, frequency, angular frequency, and
on a lake, the owner of a motorboat first runs the boat in the
wave number of this wave?
direction of the waves, and he finds that when his boat keeps
up with a wave crest the speed indicator shows 16 m/s. He (b) What is the mathematical equation describing this wave
then anchors the boat and finds that the waves make it bounce as a function of x and t?
up and down 6.0 times per minute. What are the speed, fre- 14. Ocean waves smash into a breakwater at the rate of 12 per minute.
quency, and wavelength of the waves? The wavelength of these waves is 39 m. What is their speed?
7. The speed of tidal waves in the Pacific is about 740 km/h. 15. The velocity of sound in freshwater at 15
C is 1440 m/s, and
(a) How long does a tidal wave take to travel from Japan to at 30
C it is 1530 m/s. Suppose that a sound wave of fre-
California, a distance of 8000 km? quency 440 Hz penetrates from a layer of water at 30
C into a
layer of water at 15
C. What will be the change in the wave-
(b) If the wavelength of the wave is 300 km, what is its
length? Assume that the frequency remains unchanged.
frequency?
16. A light wave of frequency 5.5 1014 Hz penetrates from air
*8. In the open sea, a tsunami usually has an amplitude less than
into water. What is its wavelength in air? In water? The speed
30 cm and a wavelength longer than 80 km. Assume that the
of light is 3.0 108 m/s in air and 2.3 108 m/s in water;
speed of the tsunami is 740 km/h. What are the maximum
assume that the frequency remains the same.
vertical velocity and acceleration that such a tsunami will give
to a ship floating on the water? Will the crew of the ship 17. The National Ocean Survey has deployed buoys off the Atlantic
notice the passing of the tsunami? coast to measure ocean waves. Such a buoy detects waves by the
vertical acceleration that it experiences as it is lifted and lowered
9. A transverse harmonic wave on a stretched string has an ampli-
by the waves. In order to calibrate the device that measures the
tude of 1.2 cm, a speed of 8.0 m/s, and a wavelength of 2.2 m.
acceleration, scientists placed the buoy on a Ferris wheel at an
(a) What is the maximum transverse speed attained by a par- amusement park. The vertical acceleration (as a function of
ticle on the string? Does the particle attain this maximum time) of a buoy riding on a Ferris wheel of radius 6.1 m rotating
speed when a wave crest passes the particle or at some at 6.0 rev/min is used to simulate the vertical acceleration of a
other time? buoy riding on a wave. What is the maximum vertical accelera-
(b) What is the maximum transverse acceleration attained by tion? What is the wavelength of the corresponding wave?
a particle on the string? Does the particle attain this maxi- Assume that the waves are in deep water and that the buoy
mum acceleration when a wave crest passes the particle or always rides on the surface of the wave. In deep water, the wave
at some other time? speed is given by v 1gl2p, where g is the acceleration of
10. When a periodic transverse wave travels along a clothesline, a free fall and is the wavelength.
ladybug sitting on the line experiences a maximum transverse 18. The wavefunction for a wave on a string is
velocity of 0.20 m/s and a maximum transverse acceleration of y A cos(kx t )
4.0 m/s2. Deduce the amplitude and the frequency of the wave.
where, as in Chapter 15, is a phase constant. If A 0.13 m,
11. A transverse wave travels along a stretched string with a wave 20 radians/s, k 15 m1, and 4, what is the
speed of 14 m/s. A particle at a fixed location on this string speed of the wave? What is its wavelength? What is its fre-
oscillates up and down as follows as a function of time: quency? What is the maximum transverse speed of a particle
y 0.020 cos(9.0t) in the string? What is the vertical displacement of the string
at x 0 and t 0?
where the displacement y is measured in meters and the time t
19. Nine water wave crests and troughs pass a point in 15 s. If the
is measured in seconds.
horizontal distance between a crest and the nearest trough is
(a) What is the amplitude of the wave? 0.75 m, find the speed of the wave.
(b) What is the frequency of the wave? 20. An astronaut wishes to measure gravitational acceleration. A
(c) What is the wavelength of the wave? 7.0-kg mass is suspended from a thin wire of length 2.0 m and
mass 6.0 g. A pulse travels the length of the wire in 33 ms. *32. The maximum tensile stress that can be tolerated without
What is the local value of the acceleration due to gravity? breakage by steel is 5.0 108 N/m2, and the density of steel is
(Neglect the mass of the wire when determining the tension.) 7800 kg/m3. If you apply a tension to a thin steel rod just
21. A copper wire is 100 m long and 0.50 mm in diameter. The barely less than the breaking tension, what is the speed of
wire is stretched to a tension of 75 N. How long does a wave transverse waves on the rod? Does the answer depend on the
pulse take to travel to the end of the wire? diameter of the rod?
22. A pendulum is made of a 2.0-kg mass hanging from a string *33. A mass of 30 kg hangs from a string which, in turn, hangs
of mass 5.0 g. For small amplitude, a complete pendulum from two other strings making an angle of 45
with each other
oscillation takes 1.0 s. Find the speed of a transverse wave on (see Fig. 16.23). Each string has a length of 2.0 m, and the
the pendulum string. mass per unit length of each is 4.0 103 kg/m. How long
does a wave pulse take to travel down from the upper end of
23. After adjusting its tension to 150 N, an electrician taps a cable
this arrangement of strings to the mass?
that is hanging between two utility poles. She notes that it
takes 3.5 s for a pulse to travel to the next pole, 30 m away.
What is the mass per unit length of the wire?
24. A piano wire of mass 35 g is 1.50 m long when unstretched,
and has a cross-sectional area of 3.0 mm2. The Youngs modulus
of the wire is 1.5 1011 N/m2. If the wire is stretched 2.0 cm, 45
2.0 m
find the speed of transverse waves on the wire.
25. A string has a length of 3.0 m and a mass of 12 g. If this string
is subjected to a tension of 250 N, what is the speed of
transverse waves?
2.0 m
26. A clothesline of length 10 m is stretched between a house and
a tree. The clothesline is under a tension of 50 N, and it has a
mass per unit length of 6.0 102 kg/m. How long does a
wave pulse take to travel from the house to the tree and back?
27. A wire rope used to support a radio mast has a length of 20 m
and a mass per unit length of 0.80 kg/m. When you give the
wire rope a sharp blow at the lower end and generate a wave
pulse, it takes 1.0 s for this wave pulse to travel to the upper FIGURE 16.23 A mass hanging from
end and to return. What is the tension in the wire rope? an arrangement of strings.
28. A nylon rope of length 24 m is under a tension of 1.3 104 N.
The total mass of this rope is 2.7 kg. If a wave pulse starts at one
*34. A steel wire of length 5.0 m and radius 0.30 mm is knotted to
end of this rope, how long does it take to reach the other end?
another steel wire of length 5.0 m and radius 0.10 mm. The
*29. Ocean waves of wavelength 100 m have a speed of 6.2 m/s; wires are stretched with a tension of 150 N. How long does a
ocean waves of wavelength 20 m have a speed of 2.8 m/s.3 transverse wave pulse take to travel the distance of 10 m from
Suppose that a sudden storm at sea generates waves of all the beginning of the first wire to the end of the other? The
wavelengths. The long-wavelength waves travel fastest and density of steel is 7.8 103 kg/m3.
reach the coast first. A fisherman standing on the coast first
**35. A long, uniform rope of length l hangs vertically. The only
notices the arrival of 100-m waves; 10 hours later he notices
tension in the rope is that produced by its own weight. Show
the arrival of 20-m waves. How far is the storm from the coast?
that, as a function of the distance z from the lower end of the
*30. A motorboat is speeding at 12 m/s through a group of peri- rope, the speed of a transverse wave pulse of the rope is 2gz.
odic ocean waves. When the motorboat travels in the same What is the time the wave pulse takes to travel from one end
direction as the waves, it smashes into 6.5 waves per minute. of the rope to the other?
When the motorboat is traveling in the direction opposite to
**36. The speed of an ocean wave in shallow water is given by
the waves, it smashes into 30 waves per minute. Calculate the
v 2gD, where D is the depth. A wave starts 50 m from
speed, frequency, and wavelength of the ocean waves.
shore, where the depth is 4.0 m. If the depth decreases linearly
*31. A string of mass per unit length is tied to a second string of with distance as the wave approaches the shore, how long does
mass per unit length . A harmonic wave of speed v traveling it take for the wave to reach the shore?
along the first string reaches the junction and enters the second
**37. Suppose you take a loop of rope and make it rotate about its
string. What will be the speed v of this wave in the second
center at speed V. The centrifugal tendency of the segments
string? Your answer should be a formula involving , , and v.
of rope will then stretch it out along a circle of some radius R
3
These values are group velocities, or signal velocities. (see Fig. 16.24). What is the tension in the rope under these
Problems 529
V [Hint: At x 0, the displacement of the string must be contin-

uous (y1 y2 y3); if not, the string would break at the knot.
R Furthermore, the slope of the string must be continuous (dy1dx
dy2dx dy3dx); if not, the string would have a kink and
the (massless) knot would receive an infinite acceleration.]
1 6 . 3 T h e S u p e r p o s i t i o n o f Wa v e s
FIGURE 16.24 40. At one instant of time two transverse waves are traveling in
A rotating loop of rope. the same direction along a stretched string. The instantaneous
shapes of the wave are represented by
conditions? Show that the speed of transverse waves on the y 0.020 cos (4.0x) and y 0.030 cos(4.0x)
rope (relative to the rope) coincides with the speed of rota-
where the transverse displacements y and the position x are
tion V.
measured in meters.
**38. A flexible rope of length l and mass m hangs between two
(a) Are these waves in phase or out of phase?
walls. The length of the rope is more than the distance
between the walls (see Fig. 16.25), and the rope sags down- (b) What are the amplitude and the wavelength of the net
ward. At the ends, the rope makes an angle of with the wave?
walls. At the middle, the rope approximately has the shape of *41. At one instant of time two transverse waves are traveling in
an arc of a circle; the radius of the approximating (osculating) the same direction along a stretched string. The instantaneous
circle is R. What is the tension in the rope at its ends? What is shapes of the wave are represented by
the tension in the rope at its middle? What is the speed of y 0.030 cos(4.0x) and y 0.030 sin (4.0x)
transverse waves at the ends? At the middle?
where the transverse displacements y and the position x are
measured in meters.
(a) What is the phase difference between these waves?
(b) Find the position x nearest the origin where the net wave
R has a wave crest. What is the amplitude of the net wave?
42. Three waves are traveling in the same direction; their individ-
ual amplitudes are 0.30 m, 0.50 m, and 0.80 m. What is the
largest amplitude of the net wave that could occur? What is
FIGURE 16.25 A rope hanging
the smallest amplitude of the net wave that could occur, and
between two walls.
how could that come about?
43. Two harmonic waves are described by
**39. The end of a long string of mass per unit length is knotted
y1 A cos(4x 5t) and y2 2 A cos(4x 5t )
to the beginning of another long string of mass per unit
length (the tensions in these strings are equal). A har- where A 6.0 m, x is in meters, and t is in seconds. What are
monic wave travels along the first string toward the knot. The the amplitude, wavelength, and frequency of the superposition
incident wave will be partially transmitted into the second of these waves? At x 1.0 m and t 1.0 s, what is the net dis-
string, and partially reflected. The frequencies of all these placement?
waves are the same. With the knot at x 0, we can write the 44. At one point in space, two waves are described by
following expressions for the incident, reflected, and trans-
y1 A cos(1t) and y2 A cos(2t)
mitted waves:
y1 Ain cos(kx t) where 1 145 radians/s and 2 152 radians/s. When the
two waves are superposed, how many beats are heard per
y2 Arefl cos(kx t) second?
y3 Atrans cos(kx t) 45. Two waves are described by
Show that y1 A cos(5x 6t) and y2 A cos(6x 7t)
k k 2m 2m The two waves are superposed, and a snapshot of the resulting

Arefl A Ain disturbance reveals a short-wavelength oscillation that gradu-
k k in 2m 2m
ally varies in amplitude over a longer length. What is the short
2k 2 2m
Atrans A Ain
k k in 2m 2m
For help, see Online Concept Tutorial 18 at www.wwnorton.com/physics
wavelength? What is the distance between the points where Fig. 16.26 indicates that the wave consists of two periodic waves
the amplitude of the short-wavelength oscillation goes to zero? of slightly different frequencies beating against each other.
46. A periodic disturbance repeats every 2.0 m along a string (for What are the frequencies of the two periodic waves? What are
example, a series of pulses). If we wish to describe this distur- the periods? Which is caused by the Moon, which by the Sun?
bance by a sum of harmonic waves, what are the only wave-
lengths that might be needed? 1 6 . 4 S t a n d i n g Wa v e s
47. The wavefunctions for two transverse waves on a string are
53. The fundamental mode of the G string of a violin has a fre-
y1 0.030 cos(6.0x 18t 1.5)
quency of 196 Hz. What are the frequencies of the first,
y2 0.030 cos(6.0x 18t 2.3) second, third, and fourth overtones?
where y and x are measured in meters and t in seconds. 54. Suppose that a vibrating mandolin string of length 0.34 m
vibrates in a mode with five nodes (including the nodes at the
(a) What is the amplitude of the sum of these waves?
ends) and four antinodes. What overtone is this? What is its
(b) What is the transverse displacement of the string at wavelength?
x 0 and t 0?
55. A telegraph wire made of copper is stretched tightly between
*48. Consider the wavefunction y 3.0 cos(5.0x 8.0t) two telephone poles 50 m apart. The tension in the wire is 500 N,
4.0 sin (5.0x 8.0t), which is a superposition of two wavefunc- and the mass per unit length is 2.0 102 kg/m. What is the
tions expressed in some suitable units. Show that this wavefunc- frequency of the fundamental mode? The first overtone?
tion can be written in the form y A cos(5.0x 8.0t ).
56. A violin has four strings; all the strings have (approximately)
What are the values of A and ?
equal tensions and lengths but they have different masses per
*49. A thin wire of length 1.0 m vibrates in a superposition of the fun- unit length (kg/m), so that when excited in their fundamental
damental mode and the second harmonic. The wavefunction is modes they vibrate at different frequencies. The fundamental
y 0.0060 sinx cos400t 0.004 0 sin 3x cos1200t frequencies of the four strings are 196, 294, 440, and 659 Hz.
What must be the ratios of the densities of the strings?
where y and x are measured in meters and t in seconds.
57. A car is being towed by means of a rope that has a mass per
(a) What is the displacement at x 0.50 m as a function of
unit length of 0.080 kg/m. The length of the rope is 3.0 m, and
time?
the tension in the rope is 2.2 103 N. What is the eigenfre-
(b) Plot this displacement as a function of time in the interval quency for a standing wave on this rope, in the fundamental
0 s t 0.0050 s. mode?
50. Two ocean waves with 100 m, f 0.125 Hz and 58. You notice that a string fixed at both ends has a resonant fre-
90 m, f 0.132 Hz arrive at a seawall simultaneously. quency of 660 Hz, and also a resonant frequency of 440 Hz,
What is the beat frequency of these waves? but no resonant frequencies at any intermediate value. Identify
51. A guitar player attempts to tune her instrument perfectly with what overtones these frequencies correspond to. Deduce the
the help of a tuning fork. If the guitar player sounds the tuning fundamental frequency of this string.
fork and a string on her guitar simultaneously, she perceives 59. Two transverse harmonic waves are described by
beats at a frequency of 4.0 per second. The tuning fork is
y1 A cos(x 3t) and y2 A cos(x 3t)
known to have a frequency of 294.0 Hz. What fractional
increase (or decrease) of the tension of the guitar string is where A 5.0 m, x is in meters, and t is in seconds. What is
required to bring the guitar in tune with the tuning fork? From the maximum amplitude of the superposition of these two
the available information, can you tell whether an increase or waves at x 0.25 m? What are the maximum transverse speed
decrease of tension is required? and acceleration at that point?
*52. Figure 16.26 shows the height of the tide at Pakhoi. These

tides can be regarded as a wave. The shape of the curve in For help, see Online Concept Tutorial 18 at www.wwnorton.com/physics
height
20 ft
16
12
8 FIGURE 16.26 Height of the

tide at Pakhoi as a function of
4 time (because of exceptional local
0
conditions, there is only one high
time
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 days and one low tide per day).
Problems 531
60. Several pulses of amplitude 3.0 cm are sent down a string that 67. A light wave of wavelength 5.0 107 m strikes a mirror per-
is attached to a pole at the far end. The pulses reflect there, pendicularly. The reflection of the wave by the mirror makes a
and maintain their original amplitude. At the places where the standing wave with a node at the mirror. At what distance
forward and reflected pulses cross, what is the net amplitude if from the mirror is the nearest antinode? The nearest node?
the string is fixed at the pole? If the string is free to slide up
68. A wave on the surface of the sea with a wavelength of 3.0 m
and down at the pole?
and a period of 4.4 s strikes a seawall oriented perpendicularly
61. You pluck a guitar string upward near the center. The length to its path. The reflection of the wave by the seawall sets up a
of the string (fixed at both ends) is 65 cm. The wave speed is standing wave. For such a wave, there is an antinode at the
70 m/s. How long does it take for the pulse you create to seawall. How far from the seawall will there be nodes?
travel to the ends of the string and return to the center?
*69. The D string of a violin vibrates in its fundamental mode with
When it returns, is the displacement now upward or down-
a frequency of 294 Hz and an amplitude of 2.0 mm. What are
ward? How many times per second does the string vibrate up
the maximum velocity and the maximum acceleration of the
and down?
midpoint of the string?
62. If a human can hear up to 20000 Hz, how many overtones of
*70. The middle C string of a piano is supposed to vibrate at
a low A ( f 27.5 Hz) can be heard by the human ear?
261.6 Hz when excited in its fundamental mode. A piano
63. A 15-g string is 10 m long and is fixed at both ends. If the tuner finds that in a piano that has a tension of 900 N on this
tension in the string is 40 N, what are the first five eigenfre- string, the frequency of vibration is too low (flat) by 15.0 Hz.
quencies of the string? How much must he increase the tension of the string to
64. The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada, is known for its achieve the correct frequency?
extreme tides (Fig. 16.27); these are resonance tides, because *71. The wire rope supporting the mast of a sailboat from the rear
the natural period of oscillation in the bay is about 12 hours, is under a large tension. The rope has a length of 9.0 m and a
nearly matching the tidal period. Assume that a one-quarter- mass per unit length of 0.22 kg/m.
wavelength standing wave just fits the 250-km length of the
(a) If a sailor pushes on the rope sideways at its midpoint
bay, and that the wave speed is v 2gD, where D is the
with a force of 150 N, he can deflect it by 7.0 cm. What is
average depth of the bay. From this information, find the aver-
the tension in the rope?
age depth of the Bay of Fundy.
(b) If the sailor now plucks the rope near its midpoint, the
65. The fundamental mode of the G string on a mandolin has a
rope will vibrate back and forth like a guitar string. What
frequency of 196 Hz. The length of this string is 0.34 m, and
is the frequency of the fundamental mode?
its mass per unit length is 4.0 103 kg/m. What is the ten-
sion of this string? *72. Many men enjoy singing in shower stalls because their voice
resonates in the cavity of the shower stall. Consider a shower
66. Some automobiles are equipped with wire wheels (see Fig.
stall measuring 1.0 m 1.0 m 2.5 m. What are the four
16.20). The spokes of these wheels are made of short segments
lowest resonant frequencies of standing sound waves in such a
of thick wire installed under large tension. Suppose that one of
shower stall? The speed of sound is 331 m/s.
these wires is 9.0 cm long, 0.40 cm in diameter, and under a
tension of 2200 N. The wire is made of steel; the density of *73. A piano wire of length 1.5 m fixed at its end vibrates in its
steel is 7.8 g/cm3. To check the tension, a mechanic gives the second overtone. The frequency of vibration is 440 Hz, and
spoke a light blow with a wrench near its middle. With what the amplitude at the midpoint of the wire is 0.40 mm. Express
frequency will the spoke ring? Assume that the frequency is this standing wave as a superposition of traveling waves. What
that of the fundamental mode. are the amplitudes and speeds of the traveling waves?
FIGURE 16.27 Resonance tides

in the Bay of Fundy.
*74. Two strings are tied together and stretched across a room. The y
strings have equal lengths of 2.0 m, and their masses are 1.0 g
and 4.0 g, respectively. Find the frequencies of the standing- A
wave modes on these tied strings if the knot between the
A'
strings is a node.
z
*75. Consider a string with a mass density that depends on posi-
tion. One end of the string is at x 0, the other at x L; and
the mass density increases linearly from one end to the other,
that is, [mass density] A Bx, where A and B are constants. x
(a) If the tension in the string is F, what is the speed of trans-
verse waves as a function of x?
FIGURE 16.28 Displacements of a string in the y
(b) A wave on such a string does not have a well-defined
direction and the z direction.
wavelength. However, it can be described approximately
as having a wavelength that depends on position. If the
frequency of the wave is f, what is the wavelength (x)?
(c) The condition for standing waves is then the usual condi-
tion: the number of wavelengths that fit within the length
of the string must be 12, or 1, or 32, etc. Calculate the Show that the resulting motion of a particle on the string is
corresponding eigenfrequencies. uniform circular motion. What are the radius, the frequency,
*76. (a) A long string is stretched along the x direction.Two trans- the speed, and the centripetal acceleration of this circular
verse waves of equal wavelengths and equal frequencies motion? The wave formed by the superposition of these y and
travel simultaneously along this string. Suppose that one z waves is called a wave of circular polarization.
wave produces a displacement of the string in the y direc- *77. Consider the superposition of two waves of the same fre-
tion (see Fig. 16.28) quency, opposite direction of propagation, and unequal ampli-
y A cos(kx t) tudes A1 and A2,
and the other wave produces a displacement of the string y1 A1 cos(kx t)
in the z direction (see Fig. 16.28) y2 A2 cos(kx t)
z A cos(kx t)
This superposition does not form a standing wave, but a wave
Show that the resulting motion of a particle on this string with a modulated amplitude: the wave amplitude is large at
is back and forth along a line in the y z plane. What is the some positions, and smaller at other positions. Show that the
angle of this line with respect to the y axis? The wave largest wave amplitude attained by the wave is A1 A2. At
formed by a superposition of these y and z waves is called what positions x is this large amplitude found? Show that the
a wave of linear polarization, and the direction of the line smallest wave amplitude attained by the wave is |A1 A2|. At
of motion is called the direction of polarization. what positions x is this smallest amplitude found?
(b) Now suppose that the two waves have the same amplitude **78. A piano wire of length 0.18 m vibrates in its fundamental
but the wave in the z direction is a quarter of a cycle out mode. The frequency of vibration is 494 Hz; the amplitude is
of phase with the wave in the y direction, so 3.0 103 m. The mass per unit length of the wire is 2.2
y A cos(kx t) 10 3 kg/m. What is the energy of vibration of the entire wire?
(Hint: Treat each small segment of the wire as a particle of
and mass dm with simple harmonic motion, and sum the energies
z A sin(kx t) of these simple harmonic motions.)
REVIEW PROBLEMS
79. A string is stretched along the x axis (horizontally), and it where y and x are measured in meters.
oscillates in the y direction (vertically). At one instant of time, (a) What is the amplitude of the wave?
a transverse traveling wave on this string is described by the
(b) What is the wavelength of this wave?
mathematical formula
(c) Where are the first three wave crests and the first three
y 0.030 cos(1.2x)
wave troughs on the positive x axis nearest the origin?
Review Problems 533
*80. In the crust of the Earth, seismic waves of the P type have a (a) If the tension in the left string is T, what are the tensions
speed of almost 5.0 km/s; waves of the S type have a speed of in the other two?
about 3.0 km/s. Suppose that after an earthquake, a (b) If the wave speed in the left string is 10 m/s, what are the
seismometer placed at some distance first registers the arrival speeds in the other two?
of P waves and 9.0 min later the arrival of S waves. What is
88. Consider two transverse harmonic waves of different wave-
the distance between the seismometer and the source of the
lengths traveling in the same direction along a stretched
waves?
string. At one instant of time, the shapes of the waves are
81. A giant, freak wave encountered by a weather ship in the given by
North Atlantic was 23.5 m high from trough to crest; its
y 0.012 cos(3.0x) and y 0.030 cos(5.0x)
wavelength was 350 m and its period 15.0 s. Calculate the
maximum vertical acceleration of the ship as the wave passed where the transverse displacements y and the position x are
underneath; calculate the maximum vertical velocity. Assume measured in meters.
that the motion of the ship was purely vertical. (a) Is the superposition of these waves a harmonic wave? Is it
*82. Many inhabitants of Tangshan, China, reported that during a periodic wave?
the catastrophic earthquake of July 28, 1976, they were thrown (b) What is the wavelength of the net wave formed by the
2.0 m into the air as if hit by a huge jolt from below. superposition of the two waves? What is the amplitude
(a) With what speed must a body be thrown upward to reach (the maximum transverse displacement) of the net wave?
a height of 2.0 m? 89. Two cars, of identical make, have horns that generate sound
(b) Assume that the vertical wave motion of the ground was waves of slightly different frequencies, 600 Hz and 612 Hz.
simple harmonic with a frequency of 1.0 Hz. What What beat frequency do you hear if both of these cars are
amplitude of the vertical motion is required to generate a blowing their horns?
speed equal to that calculated in part (a)? 90. A standing wave on a string has the form
83. A harmonic transverse wave traveling on a tightly stretched y 0.020 cos(15x) cos(3.0t)
wire has an amplitude of 0.020 m and a frequency of 100 Hz.
What is the maximum speed attained by a particle on the where distances are measured in meters and time in seconds.
string as this wave passes? What is the maximum acceleration? (a) What are the amplitude and the frequency of this stand-
What is the time difference between the instant of maximum ing wave?
speed and the instant of maximum acceleration? (b) What are the amplitudes, frequencies, and wavelengths of
84. A passenger in an airplane flying over an anchored ship the two traveling waves whose superposition forms the
notices that ocean waves are smashing into the ship regularly standing wave?
at the rate of 10 per minute. He knows that ocean waves of (c) Where are the nodes and the antinodes of the standing
this frequency have a speed of 9.4 m/s. He also notices that wave?
the length of the ship is the same as about three wavelengths.
(d) What are the maximum speed and the maximum acceler-
Deduce the length of the ship from this information.
ation of a particle on the string at one of the antinodes?
85. While an anchored sailboat pulls on its anchor rope, the ten-
91. A uniform 20-m rope has a mass of 0.90 kg. The rope is hang-
sion in the rope is 5.0 103 N. The anchor rope is nylon, of
ing vertically from a support, so the only tension in the rope is
diameter 0.92 cm. The density of nylon is 1.1 103 kg/m3.
that provided by its own weight.
What is the mass per unit length for this rope? What is the
speed of transverse waves on this rope? (a) Find the speed of transverse waves in this rope, as a func-
tion of position along the rope. What is the speed at the
86. Two strings are tied together and stretched across a room. The
top of the rope? At the midpoint? At the bottom?
strings have equal lengths of 3.0 m, and their masses are 6.0 g
and 9.0 g, respectively. If the tension in the strings is 200 N, (b) Find the time required for a wave pulse to travel from the
what is the time a wave pulse takes to travel from the farthest top of the rope to the bottom.
end of one string to the farthest end of the other? 92. An elevator of mass 2000 kg is hanging from a steel cable of
87. Three strings of identical material are tied together. They are length 60 m. The mass per unit length of this cable is 0.60
under (different) tensions, and they make the angles indicated kg/m.
in Fig. 16.29. (a) What is the speed of transverse waves on this cable?
(Neglect the mass of the cable when determining the
tension.)
45 (b) What is the eigenfrequency of the fundamental mode on

this cable? The first overtone? The second overtone?
30
FIGURE 16.29 Three 93. A string of length L is fixed at one end and looped over a ver-
strings tied together. tical frictionless rod at the other end (see Fig. 16.30). With
94. A mass of 15 kg hangs from two 6.0-m ropes, each of which

leads downward at an angle of 30
with the vertical (Fig. 16.31).
Each rope has a mass density ML 0.012 kg/m. Find the
frequencies of those standing-wave modes for which the mass
L of 15 kg is at a node.
FIGURE 16.30 The left end of this string is fixed;

the right end can slide up and down on the rod.
this arrangement the rod can maintain a tension in the string,

30
but does not inhibit the up-and-down motion of the end of
the string. Assume that the mass of the loop is negligible. 6.0 m
What are the wavelengths of the standing waves of this string?
What is the longest possible wavelength? (Hint: Since the
loop is massless, the vertical forces that the tension in the
string exerts on the loop must be zero at all times. This
requires that the end of the string must be horizontal at all FIGURE 16.31 A mass
times.) hanging from two ropes.
Answers to Checkups
Checkup 16.1 Checkup 16.2
1. The bat will remain essentially rigid under a small shaking 1. All periodic waves are not harmonic; any shape of distur-
motion, and so no appreciable wave motion is produced. The bance that repeats at regular intervals is periodic, but only a
Jell-O (gelatin) is easily deformed, and so the shaking motion disturbance that takes the particular shape of a sine or cosine
does produce a wave; the wiggling motion of the medium can function is harmonic. However, all harmonic waves are peri-
be directly viewed. odic, since the sine and cosine functions repeat at regular
2. A transverse wave can be generated by grabbing the cord and intervals.
shaking it to the side and back (or up and down). A longitudi- 2. No. They are too pointy at the crests and flat in the troughs to
nal wave can be generated by grabbing the cord and yanking it be accurately described by a sine or a cosine function.
back and forth parallel to its length. 3. By Eq. (16.14), the speed is proportional to the square root of
3. Such a wave on a string is transverse; except at the fixed end- the tension; thus, if we want to increase the speed a factor of 2,
points, each point on the string moves up and down as it we must increase the tension a factor of 4.
vibrates. 4. Since they are connected and stretched, they share the same
4. To generate a longitudinal wave, you must hit the end of tension. However, the first segment has a diameter half as
the rod (causing a compression); to generate a transverse large as the second; made of the same material, it must then
wave, you must hit the rod on its side (causing lateral have one-fourth of the cross-sectional area and thus one-
motion). fourth of the mass per unit length of the second. Since the
5. (D) No; yes. The water wave does not carry the water from speed is inversely proportional to the mass per unit length,
Africa to Florida; the particles merely oscillate about their the speed of waves in the first segment is twice that of the
equilibrium positions. The wave does carry energy from Africa second.
to Florida; the motion of the arriving wave carries kinetic 5. (A) 20 Hz. Since it is the same string, the wave speed of the
energy, and there is gravitational potential energy associated second wave must be the same as the first wave. Using Eq.
with the vertical displacements in water waves. (16.3), v f, we see that if the wavelength is twice as long,
the frequency must be half as large, or equal to 20 Hz.
Answers to Checkups 535
Checkup 16.3 2. Yes; ordinarily, the midpoint of a guitar string is an antinode;

the string primarily vibrates in its fundamental mode, similar
1. The superposition would look like the large-amplitude, long- to Fig. 16.16a. The midpoint (at the twelfth fret) of the
wavelength wave, but with a quickly varying wiggle all along it guitar string can also be a node; if constrained there (e.g., by
due to the added small-amplitude, short-wavelength wave. holding a finger on it) while plucking the guitar string else-
2. The superposition of the two waves vibrates at the average fre- where, the string will vibrate primarily in its first overtone,
quency, 107 Hz. The pulsating frequency of 4 Hz is the differ- similar to Fig. 16.16b.
ence frequency (beats). So the two strings have frequencies of 3. Yes; if fixed at both ends, the number of nodes will always be
105 Hz and 109 Hz. one more than the number of antinodes. For example, the fun-
3. (D) 1.4 m; 0.2 m. If the two waves are in phase, their ampli- damental mode has two nodes (the ends) and one antinode
tudes add, so that the net wave has amplitude 1.4 m. If the (the center); each overtone adds one node and one antinode.
two waves are out of phase, their amplitudes subtract, giving a 4. (C) 4. When the high E string is constrained, it has a node at
net wave of amplitude 0.2 m. its midpoint, and thus a half wavelength fits into half the
length. The low E string vibrates in its fundamental mode,
where one half wavelength fits into the full length. Since
Checkup 16.4
v f, the high E string, with eight times the frequency and
1. For the third overtone, four half wavelengths fit in the string half the wavelength, has 8 12 4 times the speed.
length L (two complete cycles). The fourth overtone has five
half wavelengths in the string length L.
GK023-1423G-APP1[01-50].qxd 6/10/06 7:41 AM Page 15 PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:Appendix: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK]
APPENDIX 4 Calculus Review A-15
TA B L E A 4 . 2 SOME INTEGRALS
un1
u du n 1
n
for n 1
u du ln u
1
for u 0
eku
e du k
ku
ln u du u ln u u
sin(ku) du k cos(ku)
1
(where ku is in radians)
cos(ku) du k sin(ku)
1
(where ku is in radians)
1 ku k ln(1 ku)
du 1
2k sin1 a b
du u
2
u2 k
2u ln a u 2u2 ; k2 b
du
2
; k2
2k u du 2 c u 2k u k sin a bd
2 2 1 2 2 2 1 u
k
k u k tan a k b
du 1 u 1
2 2
2 2
k 2k ; u
u 2k ; u k ln a b
du 1
2 u2
(u k ) k 2u k
du u
2 2 3/2 2 2 2
A4.4 Impor tant Rules for Integration

1. Integral of a constant times a function:
b b
a
cf (u) du c f (u) du
a
(26)
For instance,
b b
b3 a3
5u du 5 u du 5 a 3 3 b
a
2
a
2
(27)
2. Integral of a sum of two functions:
b b b

a
[ f (u) g(u)] du a
f (u) du g(u) du
a
(28)
A-16 APPENDIX 4 Calculus Review
For instance,
b b b
b3 a3 b2 a2
a
(5u2 u) du a
5u2 du a
u du 5 a
3
b a b (29)
3 2 2
3. Change of limits of integration:
b c b
a
f (u) du a
f (u) du f (u) du
c
(30)
b a
a
f (u) du f (u) du
b
(31)
4. Change of variable of integration: If u is a function of v, then
b v(b)
f (u) du
du
f (u) dv (32)
a v(a)
dv
For instance, with u v2,
b b 2b
u du v du
a
3
a
6
2a
v6(2v) dv (33)
Finally, let us apply these general results to some specific examples of integration
of the velocity.
A particle with constant acceleration has the following veloc-

EXAMPLE 1
ity as a function of time [compare Eq. (15)]:
v(t) v0 at
where v0 is the velocity at t 0.
By integration, find the position as a function of time.
SOLUTION: According to Eq. (21), with t0 0,
t t
x(t) x0 0
v(t) dt (v
0
0 at) dt
Using rule 2 and rule 1, we find that this equals

t t t t
x(t) x0 0
v0 dt 0
at dt v0 0
dt a t dt
0
(34)
The first entry listed in Table A4.2 gives dt t (for n 0) and tdt t2>2
(for n 1). Thus,
t t
x(t) x0 v0 t ` 2 a t `
1 2
0 0
2
v0t at 1
2 (35)
This, of course, agrees with Eq. (16).
APPENDIX 4 Calculus Review A-17
The instantaneous velocity of a projectile traveling through air

EXAMPLE 2
is the following function of time:
v(t) 655.9 61.14t 3.26t 2
where v(t) is measured in meters per second and t is measured in seconds. Assuming
that x 0 at t 0, what is the position as a function of time? What is the posi-
tion at t 3.0 s?
SOLUTION: With x0 0 and t0 0, Eq. (21) becomes
t
x(t) (655.9 61.14t 3.26t ) dt
0
2
t t t
655.9
0
dt 61.14
0
tdt 3.26 t dt
0
2
t t t
655.9(t) ` 61.14(t2>2) ` 3.26(t3>3) `
0 0 0
655.9t 61.14t >2 3.26t >3 2 3
When evaluated at t 3.0 s, this yields
x(3.0) 655.9 3.0 61.14 (3.0)2>2 3.26 (3.0)3>3

1722 m
The acceleration of a mass pushed back and forth by an elastic

EXAMPLE 3
spring is
a(t) B cos vt (36)
where B and are constants. Find the position as a function of time. Assume
v 0 and x 0 at t 0.
SOLUTION: The calculation involves two steps: first we must integrate the accel-
eration to find the velocity, then we must integrate the velocity to find the position.
For the first step we use an equation analogous to Eq. (21),
t
v(t) v0 a(t) dt
t0
(37)
This equation becomes obvious if we remember that the relationship between

acceleration and velocity is analogous to that between velocity and position. With
v0 0 and t0 0, we obtain from Eq. (29)
t t
sin vt `
1
v(t) B cos vt dt B
0
v 0
B
sin vt (38)
v
Next,
t t t
sin vtdt a cos vt b `

B B 1
x(t) v(t) dt
0 0
v v v 0
B B
cos vt (39)
v2 v2
A-18 APPENDIX 4 Calculus Review
A 4 . 5 T h e Ta y l o r S e r i e s
Suppose that f (u) is a smooth function of u in some neighborhood of a given point
u a, so the function has continuous derivatives of all orders. Then the value of the
function at an arbitrary point near a can be expressed in terms of the following infi-
nite series, where all the derivatives are evaluated at the point a:
2 3
df 1 d f 2 1 d f
f (u) f (a) (u a) (u a) (u a)3 (40)
du 2 du2 32 du3
This is called the Taylor series for the function f (u) about the point a. The series
converges, and is valid, provided u is sufficiently close to a. How close is sufficiently
close depends on the function f and on the point a. Some functions, such as sin u,
cos u, and eu, are extremely well behaved, and their Taylor series converge for any choice
of u and of a. The Taylor series gives us a convenient method for the approximate eval-
uation of a function.
Find the Taylor series for sin u about the point u 0.

EXAMPLE 4
SOLUTION: The derivatives of sin u evaluated at u 0 are
d
sin u cos u 1
du
d2 d
2
sin u cos u sin u 0
du du
d3 d
sin u (sin u) cos u 1
du3 du
d4 d
sin u (cos u) sin u 0, etc.
du4 du
Hence Eq. (32) gives

1 1
sin u 0 1 (u 0) 0 (u 0)2 (1) (u 0)3
2 32
1
0 (u 0)4
432
1 3
u u
6
Note that for very small values of u, we can neglect all higher powers of u, so
sin u u, which is an approximation often used in this book.
A4.6 Some Approximations

By constructing Taylor series, we can obtain the following useful approximations, all
of which are valid for small values of u. It is often sufficient to keep just the first one
or two terms on the right side.
1 1 1 3
21 u 1 u u2 u (41)
2 8 16
APPENDIX 5 Propagating Uncertainties A-19
1
1 u u2 u3 (42)
1u
1 1 3 5
1 u u2 u3 (43)
21 u 2 8 16
1 n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3
1 nu u u (44)
(1 u)n 2 23
1 1 3
eu 1 u u2 u (45)
2 23
1 1
ln(1 u) u u2 u3 (46)
2 3
In all the following formulas, u is in radians:
1 1 5
sin u u u3 u (47)
6 120
1 1 1 6
cos u 1 u2 u4 u (48)
2 24 720
1 2
tan u u u3 u5 (49)
3 15
1 1 3 3
sin u u u u5 (50)
6 40
1 1
tan1 u u u3 u5 (51)
3 5
Appendix 5: Propagating Uncertainties

Experimentalists carefully work to measure physical quantities and to determine the uncer-
tainty in each quantity. We must often calculate a new result from a measured quantity or
from several quantities; we must therefore understand the propagation of uncertainties
through functions and formulas.
To keep things simple, we will make the assumption that the uncertainties in each
quantity are symmetrically distributed about its measured value and that the various meas-
ured quantities are independent of each other. This is not always true. But by ignoring
correlations and assuming symmetry, we can reduce all the necessary propagation of uncer-
tainties to some simple formulas.
Suppose we have a measured quantity and its uncertainty, x x, where x is a posi-
tive quantity and has the same units as x, and is also known as the absolute uncertainty in
x. What, then, is the uncertainty of some function, f (x), of this data? Under the assump-
tion that the uncertainty is small, we can obtain the uncertainty from the first terms of the
Taylor series expansion of f : f (x x) f (x) (df (x)dx)x From this we find the
uncertainty f | f (x x) f (x)| in the function value f (x) is
f ` x `
df
(1)
dx
with the derivative evaluated at the point x. We can generalize this result to functions
of several variables as follows: given the data x x, y y, . . ., the function
f (x, y, . . .) has the associated uncertainty
A-20 APPENDIX 5 Propagating Uncertainties
f ` x ` ` y `
0f 0f
(2)
0x 0y
where all the partial derivatives (see App. 4.2) are evaluated at the point x, y, . . .. If
we recall that we defined absolute uncertainties to be positive, we can write this as
f ` ` x ` ` y
0f 0f
(3)
0x 0y
From this relationship, we can derive several simple results for uncertainty propagation.
Addition and Subtraction.

EXAMPLE 1
Given f (x, y) 3x y z 5, find f:
f ` ` x ` ` y ` ` z
0f 0f 0f
0x 0y 0z
3 x 1 y 1 z
3x y z
Thus in addition or subtraction, the uncertainties add, and in multiplication by
a constant, the uncertainty is multiplied by the same constant.
Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation.

EXAMPLE 2
Given f (x, y) x2y(5z), find f:
f ` ` x ` ` y ` ` z
0f 0f 0f
0x 0y 0z
2xy >(5z) x x2>(5z) y x2y>(5z2) z

Equivalently, for multiplication and division, we add relative uncertainties (e.g.,
x/x), and for exponentiation, we multiply the relative uncertainty by the mag-
nitude of the exponent, to get the relative uncertainty of the product, quotient,
or power.
Numerical Application to Ohm's Law, V I R.

EXAMPLE 3
Given V 1.5 0.1 Volt and I 0.50 0.02 A, find R and R:
Rearranging we find R VI (1.5 Volt)(0.50 A) 3.0 , and
APPENDIX 6 The International System of Units (SI) A-21
R ` ` V ` ` I
0R 0R
0V 0I
V
` ` V ` 2 ` I
1
I I
1.5 Volt
` ` (0.1 Volt) ` ` (0.02A)
1
0.50 A (0.50 A)2
0.2 0.12 0.4

Note in the last step that unlike an ordinary calculation, we have rounded this
final result up; uncertainties should always be rounded up, never down.
Appendix 6: The International System of Units (SI)
A6.1 Base Units

The SI system of units is the modern version of the metric system. The SI system rec-
ognizes seven fundamental, or base, units for length, mass, time, electric current, ther-
modynamic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity.b The following
definitions of the base units were adopted by the Confrence Gnrale des Poids et
Mesures in the years indicated:
meter (m) The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during
a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. (Adopted in 1983.)
kilogram (kg) The kilogram is . . . the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram. (Adopted in 1889 and in 1901.)
second (s) The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation cor-
responding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the
cesium-133 atom. (Adopted in 1967.)
ampere (A) The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed
one meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to
2 107 newton per meter of length. (Adopted in 1948.)
kelvin (K) The kelvin . . . is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic tempera-
ture of the triple point of water. (Adopted in 1967.)
b
At least two of the seven base units of the SI system are redundant. The mole is merely a certain number
of atoms or molecules, in the same sense that a dozen is a number; there is no need to designate this number
1
as a unit. The candela is equivalent to 683 watt per steradian; it serves no purpose that is not served equally
well by watt per steradian. Two other base units could be made redundant by adopting new definitions of
the unit of temperature and of the unit of electric charge. Temperature could be measured in energy units
because, according to the equipartition theorem, temperature is proportional to the energy per degree of
freedom. Hence the kelvin could be defined as a derived unit, with 1 K 12 1.38 1023 joule per
degree of freedom. Electric charge could also be defined as a derived unit, to be measured with a suitable
combination of the units of force and distance, as is done in the cgs system.
Furthermore, the definitions of the supplementary unitsradian and steradianare gratuitous. These
definitions properly belong in the province of mathematics and there is no need to include them in a system
of physical units.
A-22 APPENDIX 6 The International System of Units (SI)
TA B L E A 6 . 1 NAMES OF DERIVED UNITS TA B L E A 6 . 2 PREFIXES FOR UNITS
QUANTITY DERIVED UNIT NAME SYMBOL FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL
frequency 1/s hertz Hz 10 24 yotta Y
force kgms2 newton N 10 21 zetta Z
pressure Nm2 pascal Pa 1018 exa E
energy Nm joule J 1015 peta P

12
10 tera T
power J/s watt W
109 giga G
electric charge As coulomb C
106 mega M
electric potential J/C volt V
103 kilo k
electric capacitance C/V farad F
2
10 hecto h
electric resistance V/A ohm
10 deka da
conductance A/V siemen S
101 deci d
magnetic flux Vs weber Wb
102 centi c
2
magnetic field Vs>m tesla T
103 milli m
inductance Vs>A henry H
106 micro m
temperature K degree Celsius C 9
10 nano n
luminous flux cdsr lumen lm
1012 pico p
2
illuminance cdsr>m lux lx
1015 femto f
radioactivity 1/s becquerel Bq
1018 atto a
absorbed dose J/kg gray Gy
1021 zepto z
dose equivalent J/kg sievert Sv 24
10 yocto y
mole The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many ele-
mentary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. (Adopted in 1967.)
candela (cd) The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source
that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 1012 Hz and that has a
1
radiant intensity in that direction of 683 watt per steradian. (Adopted in 1979.)
Besides these seven base units, the SI system also recognizes two supplementary
units of angle and solid angle:
radian (rad) The radian is the plane angle between two radii of a circle which cut off
on the circumference an arc equal in length to the radius.
steradian (sr) The steradian is the solid angle which, having its vertex in the center
of a sphere, cuts off an area equal to that of a [flat] square with sides of length equal
to the radius of the sphere.
APPENDIX 7 Best Values of Fundamental Constants A-23
A6.2 Derived Units

The derived units are formed out of products and ratios of the base units. Table A6.1
lists those derived units that have been glorified with special names. (Other derived units
are listed in the tables of conversion factors in Appendix 8.)
A6.3 Prefixes
Multiples and submultiples of SI units are indicated by prefixes, such as the familiar
kilo, centi, and milli used in kilometer, centimeter, and millimeter, etc. Table A6.2 lists all
the accepted prefixes. Some enjoy more popularity than others; it is best to avoid the use
of uncommon prefixes, such as atto and exa, since hardly anybody will recognize those.
Appendix 7: Best Values of Fundamental

Constants
The values in the following table are the 2002 CODATA Recommended Values by
P. J. Mohr and B. N. Taylor Listed at the website physics.nist.gov/constants of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology. The digits in parentheses are the
onestandard deviation uncertainty in the last digits of the given value.
TA B L E A 7 . 1 BEST VALUES OF FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS
RELATIVE UNCERTAINTY
QUANTITY SYMBOL VALUE UNITS (PARTS PER MILLION)
UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS
speed of light in vacuum c 299 792 458 m.s1 (exact)
magnetic constant 0 4 107 NA2
12.566 370 614 ... 107 NA2 (exact)
electric constant 1 0c2 0 8.854 187 817 ... 1012 Fm1 (exact)
gravitational constant G 6.6742(10) 1011 m3kg1s2 1.5 104
Planck constant h 6.626 0693(11) 1034 Js 1.7 107
in eV.s U 4.135 667 43(35) 1015 eVs 8.5 108
h>2 1.054 571 68(18) 1034 Js 1.7 107
in eV.s 6.582 119 15(56) 1016 eVs 8.5 108
ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS
elementary charge e 1.602 176 53(14) 1019 C 8.5 108
magnetic flux quantum h2e
0 2.067 833 72(18) 1015 Wb 8.5 108
quantum 2e 2h 7.748 091 733(26) 105 S 3.3 109
Josephson constant 2eh 483 597.879(41) 109 HzV1 8.5 108
Bohr magneton e U 2me B 927.400 949(80) 1026 JT1 8.6 108
in eV.T1 5.788 381 804(39) 105 eVT1 6.7 109
nuclear magneton e U 2mp N 5.050 783 43(43) 1027 JT1 8.6 108
in eV.T1 3.152 451 259(21) 108 eVT1 6.7 109
(continued )
A-24 APPENDIX 7 Best Values of Fundamental Constants
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR CONSTANTS

General
fine-structure constant e24p0Uc 7.297 352 568(24) 103 3.3 109
inverse fine-structure constant 1 137.035 999 11(46) 3.3 109
Rydberg constant 2mec/2h Rq 10 973 731.568 525(73) m1 6.6 1012
Bohr radius 4p0 U2>mee2 a0 0.529 177 2108(18) 1010 m 3.3 109
Electron
electron mass me 9.109 3826(16) 1031 kg 1.7 107
in u 5.485 799 0945(24) 104 u 4.4 1010
energy equivalent in Me V me c 2 0.510 998 918(44) MeV 8.6 108
electron-proton mass ratio memp 5.446 170 2173(25) 104 4.6 1010
1
electron charge to mass quotient eme 1.758 820 12(15) 10 11
Ckg 8.6 108
12
Compton wavelength h>mec lC 2.426 310 238(16) 10 m 6.7 109
classical electron radius 2a0 re 2.817 940 325(28) 1015 m 1.0 108
Thomson cross section (8p3)re2 e 0.665 245 837(13) 1028 m2 2.0 108
26 1
electron magnetic moment e 928.476 412(80) 10 JT 8.6 108
to Bohr magneton ratio e B 1.001 159 652 1859(38) 3.8 1012
to nuclear magneton ratio e N 1838.281 971 07(85) 4.6 1010
electron magnetic moment
anomaly | e | B 1 ae 1.159 652 1859(38) 103 3.2 109
electron g-factor 2(1 ae) ge 2.002 319 304 3718(75) 3.8 1012
Muon
muon mass m 1.883 531 40(33) 1028 kg 1.7 107
in u
energy equivalent in MeV m c 2 0.113 428 9264(30) u 2.6 108
105.658 3692(94) MeV 8.9 108
muon-electron mass ratio m me 206.768 2838(54) 2.6 108
15
muon Compton wavelength h/m c C, 11.734 441 05(30) 10 m 2.5 108
muon magnetic moment 4.490 447 99(40) 1026 JT1 8.9 108
to Bohr magneton ratio B 4.841 970 45(13) 103 2.6 108
muon magnetic moment anomaly
| |(e U /2m ) 1 a 1.165 919 81(62) 103 5.3 107
muon g-factor 2(1 a ) g 2.002 331 8396(12) 6.2 1010
Proton
proton mass mp 1.672 621 71(29) 1027 kg 1.7 107
in u 1.007 276 466 88(13) u 1.3 1010
energy equivalent in MeV mpc 2 938.272 029(80) MeV 8.6 108
proton-electron mass ratio mp me 1836.152 672 61(85) 4.6 1010
proton-neutron mass ratio mp mn 0.998 623 478 72(58) 5.8 1010
proton charge to mass quotient emp 9.578 833 76(82) 107 Ckg1 8.6 108
proton Compton wavelength C, p 1.321 409 8555(88) 1015 m 6.7 109
h/mpc
proton magnetic moment p 1.410 606 71(12) 1026 JT1 8.7 108
to Bohr magneton ratio p B 1.521 032 206(15) 103 1.0 108
to nuclear magneton ratio p N 2.792 847 351(28) 1.0 108
Neutron
neutron mass mn 1.674 927 28(29) 1027 kg 1.7 107
in u 1.008 664 915 60(55) u 5.5 1010
energy equivalent in MeV mn c2 939.565 360(81) MeV 8.6 108
neutron-electron mass ratio mn me 1838.683 6598(13) 7.0 1010
neutron-proton mass ratio mn mp 1.001 378 418 70(58) 5.8 1010
(continued)
APPENDIX 7 Best Values of Fundamental Constants A-25
neutron Compton wavelength h>mnc C, n 1.319 590 9067(88) 1015 m 6.7 109
neutron magnetic moment n 0.966 236 45(24) 1026 JT1 2.5 107
to Bohr magneton ratio n B 1.041 875 63(25) 103 2.4 107
to nuclear magneton ratio n N 1.913 042 73(45) 2.4 107
Deuteron
deuteron mass md 3.343 583 35(57) 1027 kg 1.7 107
in u 2.013 553 212 70(35) u 1.7 1010
energy equivalent in MeV mdc 2 1875.612 82(16) MeV 8.6 108
deuteron-electron mass ratio mdme 3670.482 9652(18) 4.8 1010
deuteron-proton mass ratio mdmp 1.999 007 500 82(41) 2.0 1010
deuteron magnetic moment d 0.433 073 482(38) 1026 JT1 8.7 108
to Bohr magneton ratio d B 0.466 975 4567(50) 103 1.1 108
to nuclear magneton ratio d N 0.857 438 2329(92) 1.1 108
Alpha Particle
alpha particle mass m 6.644 6565(11) 1027 kg 1.7 107
in u 4.001 506 179 149(56) u 1.4 1011
energy equivalent in MeV mc 2 3727.379 17(32) MeV 8.6 108
alpha particle to electron mass ratio mme 7294.299 5363(32) 4.4 1010
alpha particle to proton mass ratio mmp 3.972 599 689 07(52) 1.3 1010
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS
Avogadro constant NA 6.022 1415(10) 1023 mole1 1.7 107
atomic mass constant
mu 121 m(12C) 1 u mu 1.660 538 86(28) 1027 kg 1.7 107
energy equivalent in MeV muc 2 931.494 043(80) MeV 8.6 108
1
Faraday constant NAe F 96 485.3383(83) Cmole 8.6 108
molar gas constant R 8.314 472 (15) Jmole1K1 1.7 106
Boltzmann constant RNA k 1.380 6505(24) 1023 JK1 1.8 106
in eV.K1 8.617 343(15) 105 eVK1 1.8 106
molar volume of ideal gas RT>p
T 273.15 K, p 101.325 kPa Vm 22.413 996(39) 103 m3.mole1 1.7 106
Loschmidt constant NA>Vm n0 2.686 7773(47) 1025 m3 1.8 106
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(260)k4 U3c 2 5.670 400(40) 108 Wm2K4 7.0 106
Wien displacement law constant
b maxT b 2.897 7685(51) 103 mK 1.7 106
A-26 APPENDIX 8 Conversion Factors
Appendix 8: Conversion Factors
The units for each quantity are listed alphabetically, except that the SI unit is always
listed first. The numbers are based on American National Standard; Metric Practice
published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1982.
Angle
1 radian 57.30 3.438 103 (1/2p) rev 2.063 105
1 degree () 1.745 102 radian 60 3600 360 1
rev
1 minute of arc () 2.909 10 radian 60 4.630 105 rev 60
4 1
1 revolution (rev) 2p radians 360 2.160 104 1.296 106

1 second of arc () 4.848 106 radian 3600
1
601 7.716 107 rev
Length

1 meter (m) 1 1010 A 6.685 1012 AU 100 cm 1 1015 fm
3.281 ft 39.37 in. 1 103 km 1.057 1016 light-year
1 106 mm 5.400 104 nmi 6.214 104 mi
3.241 1017 pc 1.094 yd

1 angstrom (A ) 1 1010 m 1 108 cm 1 10 5 fm
3.281 1010 ft 1 104 mm
1 astronomical unit (AU) 1.496 1011 m 1.496 1013 cm
1.496 108 km 1.581 105 light-year 4.848 106 pc
1 centimeter (cm) 0.01 m 1 108 A 1 1013 fm 3.281 102 ft
0.3937 in. 1 105 km 1.057 1018 light-year 1 104 mm
1 fermi, or femtometer (fm) 1 1015 m 1 1013 cm 1 105 A
1 foot (ft) 0.3048 m 30.48 cm 12 in. 3.048 105 mm
1.894 104 mi 13 yd
1 inch (in.) 2.540 102 m 2.54 cm 121 ft 2.54 104 mm 361 yd
1 kilometer (km) 1 103 m 1 105 cm 3.281 103 ft 0.5400 nmi
0.6214 mi 1.094 103 yd
1 light-year 9.461 1015 m 6.324 104 AU 9.461 1017 cm
9.461 1012 km 5.879 1012 mi 0.3066 pc

1 micron, or micrometer (mm) 1 106 m 1 104 A 1 104 cm
3.281 106 ft 3.937 105 in.
1 nautical mile (nmi) 1.852 103 m 1.852 105 cm 6.076 103 ft
1.852 km 1.151 mi
1 statute mile (mi) 1.609 103 m 1.609 105 cm 5280 ft
1.609 km 0.8690 nmi 1760 yd
1 parsec (pc) 3.086 1016 m 2.063 105 AU 3.086 1018 cm
3.086 1013 km 3.262 light-years
1 yard (yd) 0.9144 m 91.44 cm 3 ft 36 in. 1760
1
mi
Time
1 second (s) 1.157 105 day 3600
1
h 601 min
1.161 105 sidereal day 3.169 108 yr
1 day 8.640 104 s 24 h 1440 min 1.003 sidereal days
2.738 103 yr
1 hour (h) 3600 s 241 day 60 min 1.141 104 yr
APPENDIX 8 Conversion Factors A-27
1 minute (min) 60 s 6.944 104 day 601 h 1.901 106 yr

1 sidereal day 8.616 104 s 0.9973 day 23.93 h 1.436 103 min
2.730 103 yr
1 year (yr) 3.156 107 s 365.24 days 8.766 103 h
5.259 105 min 366.24 sidereal days
Mass
1 kilogram (kg) 6.024 1026 u 5000 carats 1.543 104 grains
1000 g 1 103 t 35.27 oz 2.205 lb 1.102 103 short
ton 6.852 102 slug
1 atomic mass unit (u) 1.6605 1027 kg 1.6605 1024 g
1 carat 2 104 kg 0.2 g 7.055 103 oz 4.409 104 lb
1 grain 6.480 105 kg 6.480 102 g 2.286 103 oz 7000 1
lb
3 23
1 gram (g) 1 10 kg 6.024 10 u 5 carats 15.43 grains
1 106 t 3.527 102 oz 2.205 103 lb 1.102 106 short ton
6.852 105 slug
1 metric ton, or tonne (t) 1 103 kg 1 106 g 2.205 103 lb
1.102 short tons 68.52 slugs
1 ounce (oz) 2.835 102 kg 141.7 carats 437.5 grains 28.35 g 161 lb
1 pound (lb)c 0.4536 kg 453.6 g 4.536 104 t 16 oz
2
2000 short ton 3.108 10
1
slug
1 short ton 907.2 kg 9.072 105 g 0.9072 t 2000 lb
1 slug 14.59 kg 1.459 104 g 32.17 lb
Area
1 square meter (m2) 1 104 cm2 10.76 ft2 1.550 103 in.2
1 106 km2 3.861 107 mi2 1.196 yd2
1 barn 1 1028 m2 1 1024 cm2
1 square centimeter (cm2) 1 104 m2 1.076 103 ft2 0.1550 in.2
1 1010 km2 3.861 1011 mi2
1 square foot (ft2) 9.290 102 m2 929.0 cm2 144 in.2
3.587 108 mi2 19 yd2
1 square inch (in.2) 6.452 104 m2 6.452 cm2 144
1
ft2
2 6 2 10 2
1 square kilometer (km ) 1 10 m 1 10 cm
1.076 107 ft2 0.3861 mi2
1 square statute mile (mi2) 2.590 106 m2 2.590 1010 cm2
2.788 107 ft2 2.590 km2
1 square yard (yd2) 0.8361 m2 8.361 103 cm2 9 ft2 1296 in.2
Vo l u m e
1 cubic meter (m3) 1 106 cm3 35.31 ft3 264.2 gal
6.102 104 in.3 1 103 liters 1.308 yd3
1 cubic centimeter (cm3) 1 106 m3 3.531 105 ft3
2.642 104 gal 6.102 102 in.3 1 103 liter
1 cubic foot (ft3) 2.832 102 m3 2.832 104 cm3 7.481 gal
1728 in.3 28.32 liters 271 yd3
c
This is the avoirdupois pound. The troy or apothecary pound is 0.3732 kg, or 0.8229 lb avoirdupois.
1 gallon (gal)d 3.785 103 m3 0.1337 ft3

1 cubic inch (in.3) 1.639 105 m3 16.39 cm3 5.787 104 ft3
1 liter (l) 1 103 m3 1000 cm3 3.531 102 ft3 0.2642 gal
1 cubic yard (yd3) 0.7646 m3 7.646 105 cm3 27 ft3 202.0 gal
Density
1 kilogram per cubic meter (kg>m3) 1 103 g>cm3
6.243 102 lb>ft3 8.345 103 lb>gal 3.613 105 lb>in.3
8.428 104 short ton>yd3 1.940 103 slug>ft3
1 gram per cubic centimeter (g>cm3) 1 103 kg>m3 62.43 lb>ft3
8.345 lb>gal 3.613 102 lb>in.3 0.8428 short ton>yd3 1.940 slugs>ft3
1 lb per cubic foot (lb>ft3) 16.02 kg>m3 1.602 102 g>cm3
0.1337 lb>gal 1.350 102 short ton>yd3 3.108 102 slug>ft3
1 pound-per gallon (1 lb>gal) 119.8 kg>m3 7.481 lb>ft3 0.2325 slug>ft3
1 short ton per cubic yard (short ton>yd3) 1.187 103 kg>m3 74.07 lb>ft3
1 slug per cubic foot (slug>ft3) 515.4 kg>m3 0.5154 g>cm3
32.17 lb>ft3 4.301 lb>gal
Speed
1 meter per second (m>s) 100 cm>s 3.281 ft>s 3.600 km>h
1.944 knots 2.237 mi>h
1 centimeter per second (cm>s) 0.01 m>s 3.281 102 ft>s
3.600 102 km>h 1.944 102 knot 2.237 102 mi>h
1 foot per second (ft>s) 0.3048 m>s 30.48 cm>s 1.097 km>h
0.5925 knot 0.6818 mi>h
1 kilometer per hour (km>h) 0.2778 m>s 27.78 cm>s 0.9113 ft>s
0.5400 knot 0.6214 mi>h
1 knot, or nautical mile per hour 0.5144 ms 51.44 cms
1.688 ft>s 1.852 km>h 1.151 mi>h
1 mile per hour (mi>h) 0.4470 ms 44.70 cms 1.467 fts
1.609 km h 0.8690 knot
Acceleration
1 meter per second squared (m>s2) 100 cm>s2 3.281 ft>s2 0.1020 g
1 centimeter per second squared (cm>s2) 0.01 m>s2
3.281 102 ft>s2 1.020 103 g
1 foot per second squared (ft>s2) 0.3048 m>s2 30.48 cm>s2 3.108 102 g
1 g 9.807 m>s2 980.7 cm>s2 32.17 ft>s2
Force
1 newton (N) 1 105 dynes 0.2248 lb-f 1.124 104 short ton-force
1 dyne 1 105 N 2.248 106 lb-f 1.124 109 short ton-force
1 pound-force (lb-f ) 4.448 N 4.448 105 dynes 2000
1
short ton-force
3 8
1 short ton-force 8.896 10 N 8.896 10 dynes 2000 lb-f
d
This is the U.S. gallon; the U.K. and the Canadian gallon are 4.546 103 m3, or 1.201 U.S. gallons.
APPENDIX 8 Conversion Factors A-29
Energy
1 joule (J) 9.478 104 Btu 0.2388 cal 1 107 ergs
6.242 1018 eV 0.7376 ftlb-f 2.778 107 kWh
1 British thermal unit (Btu)e 1.055 103 J 252.0 cal
1.055 1010 ergs 778.2 ftlb-f 2.931 104 kWh
1 calorie (cal) f 4.187 J 3.968 103 Btu 4.187 107 ergs
3.088 ftlb-f 1 103 kcal 1.163 106 kWh
1 erg 1 107 J 9.478 107 Btu 2.388 108 cal
6.242 1011 eV 7.376 108 ft lb-f 2.778 1014 kWh
1 electron-volt (eV) 1.602 1019 J 1.602 1012 erg
1.182 1019 ftlb-f
1 foot-pound-force (ftlb-f ) 1.356 J 1.285 103 Btu 0.3239 cal
1.356 107 ergs 8.464 1018 eV 3.766 107 kWh
1 kilocalorie (kcal), or large calorie (Cal) 4.187 103 J 1 103 cal
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) 3.600 106 J 3412 Btu 8.598 105 cal
3.6 1013 ergs 2.655 106 ftlb-f
Power
1 watt (W) 3.412 Btu>h 0.2388 cal>s 1 107 ergs>s
0.7376 ftlb-f>s 1.341 103 hp
1 British thermal unit per hour (Btu>h) 0.2931 W
7.000 102 cal>s 0.2162 ft lb-f>s 3.930 104 hp
1 calorie per second (cal>s) 4.187 W 14.29 Btu>h
4.187 107 ergs>s 3.088 ftlb-f>s 5.615 103 hp
1 erg per second (erg>s) 1 107 W 2.388 108 cal>s
7.376 108 ftlb-f>s 1.341 1010 hp
1 foot-pound-force per second (ftlb-f>s) 1.356 W 0.3238 cal>s
4.626 Btu>h 1.356 107 ergs>s 1.818 103 hp
1 horsepower (hp) g 745.7 W 2.544 103 Btu>h 178.1 cal>s
550 ftlb-f>s
1 kilowatt (kW) 1 103 W 3.412 103 Btu>h 238.8 cal>s
737.6 ftlb-f>s 1.341 hp
Pressure
1 newton per square meter (N>m2), or pascal (Pa) 9.869 106 atm
1 105 bar 7.501 103 mm-Hg 10 dynes>cm2 2.953 104 in.-Hg
2.089 102 lb-f>ft2 1.450 104 lb-f>in.2 7.501 103 torr
1 atmosphere (atm) 1.013 105 N>m2 760.0 mm-Hg
1.013 106 dynes>cm2 29.92 in.-Hg 2.116 103 lb-f>ft2
14.70 lb-f>in.2
1 bar 1 105 N>m2 0.9869 atm 750.1 mm-Hg
1 dyne per square centimeter (dyne>cm2) 0.1 N>m2
9.869 107 atm 7.501 104 mm-Hg 2.089 103 lb-f>ft2
1.450 105 lb-f>in.2
e
This is the International Table Btu; there are several other Btus.
f
This is the International Table calorie, which equals exactly 4.1868 J. There are several other calories;
for instance, the thermochemical calorie, which equals 4.184 J.
g
There are several other horsepowers; for instance, the metric horsepower, which equals 735.5 W.
1 inch of mercury (in.-Hg) 3.386 103 N>m2 3.342 102 atm

25.40 mm-Hg 0.4912 lb-f>in.2
1 pound-force per square inch (lb-f>in.2, or psi) 6.895 103 N>m2
6.805 102 atm 6.895 104 dynes>cm2 2.036 in.-Hg
7.031 102 kp>cm2
1 torr, or millimeter of mercury (mm-Hg) 1.333 102 N>m2 1>760 atm
1.333 103 bar 1.333 103 dynes/cm2 0.03937 in.-Hg 0.01934 lb-f/in.2
Electric Chargeh
1 coulomb (C) 3 2.998 109 statcoulombs, or esu of charge 3 0.1 abcoulomb,
or emu of charge
Electric Current
1 ampere (A) 3 2.998 109 statamperes, or esu of current 3 0.1 abampere, or
emu of current
Electric Potential
1 volt (V) 3 3.336 103 statvolt, or esu of potential 3 1 108 abvolts, or emu
of potential
Electric Field
1 volt per meter (V>m) 3 3.336 105 statvolt/cm 3 1 106 abvolts/cm
Magnetic Field
1 tesla (T), or weber per square meter (Wb>m2) 1 104 gauss
Electric Resistance
1 ohm () 3 1.113 1012 statohm, or esu of resistance 3 1 109 abohms, or
emu of resistance
Electric Resistivity
1 ohm-meter (m) 3 1.113 1010 statohm-cm 3 1 1011 abohm-cm
Capacitance
1 farad (F) 3 8.988 1011 statfarads, or esu of capacitance 3 1 109 abfarad,
or emu of capacitance
Inductance
1 henry (H) 3 1.113 1012 stathenry, or esu of inductance 3 1 109 abhen-
rys, or emu of inductance
h
The dimensions of the electric quantities in SI units, electrostatic units (esu), and electromagnetic units
(emu) are usually different; hence the relationships among most of these units are correspondences ( 3 )
rather than equalities ().
APPENDIX 9 The Periodic Table and the Chemical Elements A-31
Appendix 9: The Periodic Table and Chemical

Elements
TA B L E A 9 . 1 THE PERIODIC TABLE
IA VIIIA
1 (18)
1 2
1 H IIA Group designation IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.00794 (2) Atomic number (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.002602
3 4 Symbol for element 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 Li Be Atomic mass B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012182 10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.99840 20.1797
11 12 VIIIB 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.98977 24.3050 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98154 28.0855 30.97376 32.065 35.453 39.948
Periods
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.0983 40.078 44.955910 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938049 55.845 58.93320 58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.92160 78.96 79.904 83.798
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 98.9072 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.293
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.90545 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.96654 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98037 208.9824 209.9871 222.0176
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Uuu Uub Uuq
223.0197 226.0277 227.0277 261.1089 262.1144 263.118 262.12 265.1306 (268) (271) (272) (285) (289)
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.116 140.90765 144.24 144.9127 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.26 168.93421 173.04 174.967
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0381 231.0359 238.0289 237.0482 244.0642 243.0614 247.07003 247.0703 251.0796 252.083 257.0951 258.0984 259.1011 262.110
A-32 APPENDIX 9 The Periodic Table and the Chemical Elements
TA B L E A 9 . 2 ATOMIC MASSES AND ATOMIC NUMBERS OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
Data were obtained from the National Institute for Standards and Technology; values are for the elements as they exist naturally on Earth or for the most stable isotope, with
carbon-12 (the reference standard) having a mass of exactly 12 u. The estimated uncertainties in values between and 9 units in the last digit of an atomic mass are in
parentheses after the atomic mass.
(Source: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Compositions/index.html)
ATOMIC ATOMIC
ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER ATOMIC MASS (u) ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER ATOMIC MASS (u)
Actinium Ac 89 227.027 7 Mercury Hg 80 200.59 (2)

Aluminum Al 13 26.981 538 (2) Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 (1)
Americium Am 95 243.061 4 Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 (3)
Antimony Sb 51 121.760 (1) Neon Ne 10 20.179 7 (6)
Argon Ar 18 39.948 (1) Neptunium Np 93 237.048 2
Arsenic As 33 74.921 60 (2) Nickel Ni 28 58.693 4 (2)
Astatine At 85 209.987 1 Niobium Nb 41 92.906 38 (2)
Barium Ba 56 137.327 (7) Nitrogen N 7 14.006 7 (2)
Berkelium Bk 97 247.070 3 Nobelium No 102 259.101 1
Beryllium Be 4 9.012 182 (3) Osmium Os 76 190.23 (3)
Bismuth Bi 83 208.980 38 (2) Oxygen O 8 15.999 4 (3)
Bohrium Bh 107 264.12 Palladium Pd 46 106.42 (1)
Boron B 5 10.811 (7) Phosphorus P 15 30.973 761 (2)
Bromine Br 35 79.904 (1) Platinum Pt 78 195.078 (2)
Cadmium Cd 48 112.411 (8) Plutonium Pu 94 244.064 2
Calcium Ca 20 40.078 (4) Polonium Po 84 208.982 4
Californium Cf 98 251.079 6 Potassium K 19 39.098 3 (1)
Carbon C 6 12.010 7 (8) Praseodymium Pr 59 140.907 65 (2)
Cerium Ce 58 140.116 (1) Promethium Pm 61 144.912 7
Cesium Cs 55 132.905 45 (2) Protactinium Pa 91 231.035 88 (2)
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 (9) Radium Ra 88 226.025 4
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 1 (6) Radon Rn 86 222.017 6
Cobalt Co 27 58.933 200 (9) Rhenium Re 75 186.207 (1)
Copper Cu 29 63.546 (3) Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 50 (2)
Curium Cm 96 247.070 3 Rubidium Rb 37 85.467 8 (3)
Darmstadtium Ds 110 271 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 (2)
Dubnium Db 105 262.114 4 Rutherfordium Rf 104 261.108 9
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.500 (1) Samarium Sm 62 150.36 (3)
Einsteinium Es 99 252.083 Scandium Sc 21 44.955 910 (8)
Erbium Er 68 167.259 (3) Seaborgium Sg 106 263.118 6
Europium Eu 63 151.964 (1) Selenium Se 34 78.96 (3)
Fermium Fm 100 257.095 1 Silicon Si 14 28.085 5 (3)
Fluorine F 9 18.998 403 2 (5) Silver Ag 47 107.868 2 (2)
Francium Fr 87 223.019 7 Sodium Na 11 22.989 770 (2)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 (3) Strontium Sr 38 87.62 (1)
Gallium Ga 31 69.723 (1) Sulfur S 16 32.065 (6)
Germanium Ge 32 72.64 (1) Tantalum Ta 73 180.947 9 (1)
Gold Au 79 196.966 55 (2) Technetium Tc 43 98.907 2
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 (2) Tellurium Te 52 127.60 (3)
Hassium Hs 108 265.130 6 Terbium Tb 65 158.925 34 (2)
Helium He 2 4.002 602 (2) Thallium Tl 81 204.383 3 (2)
Holmium Ho 67 164.930 32 (2) Thorium Th 90 232.038 1 (1)
Hydrogen H 1 1.007 94 (7) Thulium Tm 69 168.934 21 (2)
Indium In 49 114.818 (3) Tin Sn 50 118.710 (7)
Iodine I 53 126.904 47 (3) Titanium Ti 22 47.867 (1)
Iridium Ir 77 192.217 (3) Tungsten W 74 183.84 (1)
Iron Fe 26 55.845 (2) Ununbium Uub 112 285
Krypton Kr 36 83.798 (2) Unununium Uuu 111 272
Lanthanum La 57 138.905 5 (2) Ununquadium Uuq 114 289
Lawrencium Lr 103 262.110 Uranium U 92 238.028 9 (1)
Lead Pb 82 207.2 (1) Vanadium V 23 50.941 5 (1)
Lithium Li 3 6.941 (2) Xenon Xe 54 131.293 (2)
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 (1) Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04 (3)
Magnesium Mg 12 24.305 0 (6) Yttrium Y 39 88.905 85 (2)
Manganese Mn 25 54.938 049 (9) Zinc Zn 30 65.409 (4)
Meitnerium Mt 109 268 Zirconium Zr 40 91.224 (2)
Mendelevium Md 101 258.098 4
APPENDIX 10 Formula Sheets A-33
Appendix 10: Formula Sheets

Chapters 121
dL
v dx>dt E mc 2 rF
dt
a dv>dt d 2x>dt 2 P dW>dt x A cos(vt d)
x x0 v0t 12at 2 PF v T 2p>v; f 1>T v>2p
1 2
a(x x0) 2 (v v20) F GMm>r 2
m d 2x>dt 2 kx
Ax A cos u v2 GMS >r
2k>m
A 2Ax2 Ay2 Az2 g GME >R2E
A B AB cos f U GMm>r
v 2g>l ; T 2p2l>g
Ax Bx Ay By Az Bz p mv v 2mgd>I
A B AB sin f
y A cos k(x ; vt) A cos(kx ; vt)
1
rCM r dm
a v2>r
M
l 2p>k; f v>l; v 2pf

t
v v VO I F dt v 2F>(M>L)
0
m a Fnet f beat f 1 f 2
m1 m2 2m1
v1 v1; v2
f f (1 ; VR>v)
v1
w mg m1 m2 m1 m2
fk mk N df>dt f f >(1 < VE >v)
fs ms N dv>dt d 2f>dt 2 sin u v>VE
F kx v R p p0 rgy
2
W Fx x K 1
2 I 1 2
rg y p constant
2 rv
WF s I R 2
dm pV NkT
W F ds TC T 273.15
ICM MR2 (hoop); 12MR2 (disk);
K 12mv2 2
5 MR
2
(sphere); 121 ML2 (rod) . vrms 23kT>m
U mgy I ICM Md 2 TV g1 [constant];
t FR sin u pV g [constant]; g Cp >CV

E K U constant
x
I t E Q W
U(x) F (x) dx
x0
x
P tv e 1 T2 >T1
dU
Fx L Iv B
dx S dQ>T
U 12kx 2 L rp A
g 9.81 m>s2 me 9.11 1031 kg NA 6.02 1023>mole
G 6.67 1011 N.m2>kg2 mp 1.67 1027 kg k 1.38 1023 J>K
ME 5.98 1024 kg c 3.00 108 m>s 1 cal 4.19 J
RE 6.37 106 m
Chapters 2241
1 qq dF I d l B Interference minima:
F
4p0 r 2 d sin u 12l, 32l, 52l,
m I area of loop
1 q Interference maxima:
E B
4p0 r 2 d sin u 0, l, 2l, . . .
E s20
U B Diffraction minima:
E vBl a sin u l, 2l, 3l, . . .
p lQ
d B a sin u 1.22l
t pE E
dt
U p E B B dA f
1<v>c
f
B 1 ; v>c
!E E dA
d B x Vt

E d A E d A
Qinside
H
E ds
H
E ds
dt
x
21 V 2>c 2
H H 0
B LI y y
1 q
V dI t Vx>c 2
4p0 r E L t
dt 21 V 2>c 2
0V 0V 0V
Ex , Ey , Ez t
U 12 LI 2 t
21 V 2>c 2
0x 0y 0z
U 1
1
1
1 2
2 Q1V1 2 Q2V2 2 Q3V3 u
2m0
B L 21 V 2>c 2 L
u 120E 2 vx V
0 1>2LC vx
C Q>V 1 vxV>c 2
2
R2 a vL b
1
C 0A>d Z mv mc2
B p ; E
21 v2>c 21 v2>c2
vC
E Efree>k
2
N2
E2 E1 E 2 p2c 2 m2c4
Qfree, inside N1
kE d A
H 0 E hf
H
B dA
H
B1dA 0
p hf >c
Y PP F ds
0
d E y py h4p
u 12k0E2
H
B ds
H
B
ds m0I m00
dt
I V>R L nU
B E>c
R rl>A mee4 1 13.6 eV
En
1 2(4p0)2 U2 n2 n2
P IE ; P I V S EB
m0
m0 qvI l h>p
F [pressure] S c
2p r eU
0 2E 0 2E mspin
F qv B m00 2me
0x2 0t 2
m0 I ds r J ( J 1) U2
dB c 1 2m00 E
4p r3 2I
v c/n
R (1.2 1015 m) A13
H
B ds
H
B ds m0I n1 sin u1 n2 sin u2
B m0nI f ; 12R n n0ett; t t12 0.693
p 1 1 1
r
qB s s f
e 1.60 1019 C me 9.11 10 31 kg

m0 1.26 106 Hm
mp 1.67 10 27 kg
0 8.85 1012 Fm c 3.00 108 m/s
h 2p U 6.63 1034 Js
ANSWERS A-35
Appendix 11: Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems and

Review Problems
Chapter 1 81. yes, because the distance traveled while gliding

18.7 km
1. 5.87 ft; 1.78 m (Assuming a height of 5 ft 10 in) 83. a) 3840 km; b) 296 km; c) 0.315 or 1:3.2
3. 48.7 m
5. 66 picas long and 51 picas wide
7. 12.7 mm; 6.35 mm; 3.18 mm; 1.59 mm; 0.794 mm; 0.397 mm
9. a) 1 mm; 3 106 m (Assuming grapefruit diameter 0.1
Chapter 2
m); b) 7 mm; 0.5 km (Assuming head diameter 0.2 m) 1. 0.3 s
11. 1 mm 3. 6.3 107 m/s; 5.4 cm/day
13. 4.41 m; 6.94 m 5. 32.5 km/h
15. 6.3 106 m 7. 600 km/h
17. 1.4 1017 s 9. 14 km/h
19. 7761 s 11. 2.5 104 yr; 2.5 107 yr
21. 23 h 56 min 13. 12.8 m/s; 46 km/h
23. 12 days 15. 5.87 h; 150 h
25. 3.7 107 beats/year 17. 0.06 m
27. 0.25 min of arc; 0.463 km 19. a) 14 s; 380 m; b) 72 m
29. 0.134 % in planets; 99.9% in sun 21. 4.83 m/s
31. 0.021 % electrons; 99.98 % nucleus 23. 2.0 m/s
33. 373.24 g 25. a)
35. a) 8.4 10 24 molecules; b) 4.3 10 46 molecules; ORBIT LOG LOG
c) 1680 molecules PLANET CIRC (km) PERIOD (s) SPEED SPEED CIRC
37. 28.95 g/mol
Mercury 3.64 108 7.61 106 47.8 1.68 8.56
39. 6.9 108 m 8 7
41. 2.1 1022 m Venus 6.79 10 1.94 10 35.0 1.54 8.83
8 7
43. a) 1 pc 2.06 105 AU; b) 1 pc 3.08 1016 m; Earth 9.42 10 3.16 10 29.8 1.47 8.97
c) 1 pc 3.25 ly Mars 1.43 10 9
5.93 10 7
24.1 1.38 9.16
45. 35.31 ft3 Jupiter 4.89 10 9
3.76 10 8
13.0 1.11 9.69
47. 2.72 m 9 8
Saturn 8.98 10 9.31 10 9.65 0.985 9.95
49. 8.9 103 kg/m3; 5.6 102 lb/ft3; 0.32 lb/in3
10 9
51. 8.0 m3/day Uranus 1.80 10 2.65 10 6.79 0.832 10.26
53. 108; 1013 Neptune 2.83 10 10
5.21 10 9
5.43 0.735 10.45
55. a) 7.4 102; b) 1.855 102; c) 8.47 103 Pluto 3.71 10 10
7.83 10 9
4.74 0.676 10.57
57. 6.0 107 metric tons/cm3
59. 5.00 103 m3/s; 5.00 kg/s b)
61. 7.1 1015 m; 3.0 1015 m 2
63. 354 m2
1.5
log (speed)
65. 11; 5.7; 570 atoms

67. 359.76; 1440.0 1
69. 8.9 m; 9295 tons
0.5
71. 3.902 1025 kg; 235.0 u
0
73. 2.8 1019 molecules 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11
75. 0.125 mm log (circumference)
77. 88.5 km/h; 80.7 ft/s; 24.6 m/s slope 2.01
79. 3.81 109 s 27. 20 m/s; 16.3 m/s
A-36 ANSWERS
29. 1.2 m/s; 0.5 m/s 49. a)

31. 12 m/s; 0 m/s 2.0
33. 0.67 m/s; 0.53 m/s 1.0
35. 32.4 m/s x (m) 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
37. 3.4 103 m/s2 1.0 t (s)
39. a) t(s) a(m/s2) a(in g) 2.0
0 6.1 0.62 Method:
10 1.4 0.14 i) draw tangent to curve
20 0.83 0.085 ii) get slope of line by
30 0.56 0.057 counting squares b) 1.6 s; 4.7 s; c) 0 s; 3.1 s; 6.3 s; v(0) v(3.1) v(6.3)
40 0.49 0.050 iii) to find v and t 0 m/s; a(0) a(6.3) 2 m/s2; a(3.1) 2 m/s2
convert from km/h to m/s 51. 2.4 m/s2
b) t(s) a(m/s2) a(in g) 53. 6.36 107 s; 6.2 108 m/s
0 0.74 0.075
55. 350 m/s2; will probably survive
10 0.44 0.045
20 0.44 0.045 57. 7.1 m/s2; 3.8 s
30 0.31 0.032 59. 30 m/s; 300 m
40 0.22 0.022 61. 16 s
41. 0 s; 1 s; x(0) 0 m; x(1) 1.2 m 63.
43. 1 m/s2; 0.9 m/s2; 1.3 m/s2
45. at t 0, a 0; at t 2 s, a 2.5 m/s2; at t S ", a S 0
47. a)
18
v (m/s)
660
640
620
Speed, v (m/s)
600
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
580 t (s)
560
540
60
520 54
x (m)
500
0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
Time, t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (s)
b)
TIME INTERVAL (s) AVG SPEED (m/s) DISTANCE TRAVELED (m)
65. 32.9 m/s; 40.4 m/s
00.3 647.5 194 67. 0.875 m/s2; 4.4 m/s
0.30.6 628.5 189 69.
0.60.9 611.5 183 TOTAL STOPPING
v20
0.91.2 596.0 179 v 0(km/h) v 0(m/s) v 0 t (m) (m) DISTANCE (m)
2a
1.21.5 579.5 174
15 4.17 8.3 1.1 9.4
1.51.8 564.0 169
1.82.1 549.5 165 30 8.33 16.7 4.3 21.0
2.12.4 535.0 161 45 12.5 25.0 10 35.0

2.42.7 521.0 156 60 26.7 33.3 18 51.3
2.73.0 508.0 152 75 20.8 41.7 27 68.7
c) 1722 2 m 90 25.0 50.0 39 89.0
ANSWERS A-37
71. 15.5 m/s 45. (3.9 106 m)k

73. a get/ 47. Because the vectors are nonzero, a zero result for the dot
75. 66 m product means they must be perpendicular.
77. 6.1 m/s 49. Bx 6.83, Bz 4.5, Cz 1.34
79. 44 m 51. 0.44i 0.22j 0.87k
81. 7.96 m or 3 floors; 22.1 m or 8 floors; 43.5 m or 15 floors 53. 0.49i 0.81j 0.32k
83. 2.8 s; 14 m/s up 55. 24
85. 3.7 m above launching point; 8.6 m/s 59. 12i 14j 9k
87. 1.1 m/s; 5.5 m/s 61. 0.45i 0.59j 0.67k
89. 0.22% 65. Coordinate system rotated at 26.6
91. 1.6 104 m/s2 67. 415 m, 29.8 W of N
93. 1.9 103 m/s; 2.6 102 s 69. x 1.0, y 1.7
95. 802 m/s; 1.9 s 71. A B 5.4i 12.7j; A B 5.4i 6.5j
97. 14.9 m/s; 5.1 m/s 73. 4.58
99. a) n12h/g ; b) (3/4)h above the ground; c) (2/3)h 75. 304 m2
101. 18.3 m/s; 26.7 m/s; 33.3 m 77. 4.0, 5.0
105. 13.7 m
107. average speed 1.3 m/s; average velocity 0 m/s
109. 0.95 s; 28.8 m Chapter 4
111. 2.9 s
113. a) 4.3 m; b) 3.0 m/s; c) 6.0 m/s2 1. a) 7 km, 5 degrees E of N; b) 5.6 km/h, 5 degrees E of N;
115. 21.1 m/s c) 8.24 km/h
117. 33.1 m/s; 2.21 103 m/s2 3. 3.93 m
119. a) 8.10 m above ground; 11.1 m above ground; b) 9.8 m/s 5. a) 2 i (5 8t) j (2 6t) k; b) 8 j 6 k, magni-
down; c) 0 m/s2 tude 10 m/s2, direction 37 below the y-axis in the
y-z plane
7. 19.6 m at 90 below the direction of travel of the airplane
Chapter 3 at 2 s; 24.7 m at 83 below the direction of travel of the
plane at 3 s
1. 11.8 km, 30 N of E 9. 13.3 km/h i 123 km/h j
3. 11.2 km, 27.7 S of E 11. velocity (90 i 15 j) m/s, speed 91 m/s; direction
5. 612 m, 11.3 W of S 9.5 below the x-axis
7. 436 km, 7.4 W of N 13. a) v (3t i 2t j) m/s; b) r [(3t2/2)] i t2 j m
9. B (1.26 m)i (3.2 m)j 15. 2.4 m/s
11. 13.6 nmi, 88 E of N 17. 38 m/s
13. 1.88 104 km, 1.98 104 km 19. 65.8 m/s, 93.4 m/s
15. 6.07 mi, 78.3 W of S 21. a) 7.25 b) 13 m
17. 9.19 km N, 7.71 km W 23. 1.74 sec, 14.9 m, 59.5 m
19. 1.7 m 25. 3.13 103 m/s, 2.5 105 m/s, 452 sec
21. (2i 5j) cm 27. 64.8 m, 3.04 sec
23. Az 4.2 units 29. 76
25. a) 3i 2j 2k b) 7i 4j 4k c) 16i 9j 11k 31. 12 m/s, r 21 m i 55 m j
27. x 9.9 m, y 9.9 m 33. 21 m/s
29. (1/3) i (2/3) j (2/3) k 35. The lake surface is 34.3 m below the release point and the
31. c1 8/7, c2 9/7 horizontal distance from release point is 68.8 m
33. 4940 km 37. Yes, puck passes 2.2 m above the goal, 0.391 sec
35. (6/7) i (12/7) j (4/7) k 41. 63.4
37. 9 43. 9.29 and 80.5
39. 8, 112 45. 5.19, when angle off 0.03 in vertical direction arrow still
41. 56.1 hits bulls-eye (arrow hits 4.6 cm off center, which is still
43. 45 within 12 cm diameter), when angle off 0.03 in horizontal
A-38 ANSWERS
direction arrow still hits bulls-eye (arrow hits 4.7 cm off 11. 1.8 103 m/s2; 1.3 105 N
center, which is still within 12 cm diameter) 13. 35 N
47. 7.49 15. 4.2 m/s2; 2.4 m/s2; 1.0 103 N; 5.7 102 N
49. No, projectiles will never collide 17. 0.063 m/s2
51. 45.8 km 19. 2.90 103 N; 1.82 103 N
1 21. v bx 0 sin(bt); a b 2 x 0 cos (bt); F mb 2 x 0 cos (bt);
53. u (d p/2)
2 F mb2 (x x0)
u2cos2u 23. No, since the tension in the rope 150 000 N breaking
55. h R(1 sin u) ; the maximum possible
2g tension
height is 4.4 m 25. 36o south of east; 260 N
27. 3.7 m/s2; 23.4o east of north
57. 9.94, 17 km
29. 4.7 1020 N; 25o clockwise from the Moon-Sun direction
59. 2.1 rev/min
31. 770 N in the positive x-direction
61. 9.4 m/s2
33. 2.6 kg; 34 N
63. 3.95 m/s2, 4 105 g
35. 285 N on Mars; 1900 N on Jupiter
65. 8.99 1013 m/s2, 9.16 1012 g
37. a) 9.9904 104; b) no
67. 5.9 1013 m/s2
39. 128 N in the upper cord; 29.4 N in the lower cord
69. aeq 3.39 102 m/s2, a45 2.4 102 m/s2
41. F T1 (m1 m2 m3)g ; T2 (m2 m3)g ;
71. aM 0.0395 m/s2, aV 0.0113 m/s2, aE 0.00595 m/s2
T3 m3g
73. 5.5 m/s, 2.5 m/s
43. Mg; Mg/2
75. 633 m/s i 226 m/s j
77. V 12 m/s, 83 pd 2lrg pd 2lrg
79. 4.60 m/s 45. T at the upper end; T at the midpoint
4 8
81. 60 cm/s at 34 above the horizontal 47. 1.2 m/s2; 36 N to the right; 36 N to the left
83. speed 27 km/h, 33 49. 600 N
85. a) 50 103 m; b) 33 103 m, 67 103 m 51. 5.2 103 N
87. 15.1 km/h at 15 E of N 53. 165 N; 19.5o clockwise from positive x
2v0 57. 1.8 103 N upward
89. vrel m2 m3
2
(h 4v20t 2 1)1>2 59. F in the first cable; F a b in the second
m1 m2 m3
91. 528 km/h at 8.5 N of W
cable; F a b in the third cable;
m3
93. a) vertical component 62.1 km/h down, horizontal com-
m1 m2 m3
ponent 232 km/h in direction of planes travel; (b) 1.9 min
F (m1 m2 m3)g
95. vE 3.9 km/h, vN 1.4 km/h (1.4 km/h south) a
97. a) 13 m/s; b) 56.3 m1 m2 m3
99. a) 25 km; b) 50 km; c) No 61. 1.14 103 N or 265 lb; 820 N or 184 lb
101. 26 m/s 63. 0.51 N
103. 8.9 m/s2 65. 1.9 m/s2; 14 m/s
105. 10.8 sec 67. 64 m; 5.1 s
mgR
69.
2l(l 2R)
Chapter 5
y
1. 442 kg T
3. 2.69 1026 kg; 3.7 1025 atoms y

5. 3.8 m/s2; 6.2 103 N
7. 6.6 103 N; 12 times the weight R
N
9. 1.2 103 N R
x
Fnet
Direction mg
of motion
ANSWERS A-39
71. N 680 N, F 340 N 87. a) N
N
P
F cos 30
30 mg cos
F mg

F sin 30
588 sin 30
30
mg sin
588 cos 30
60 9.8 = 588 N
b) 1.8 104 N; c) same as b)

89. a) 590 N; b) 700 N; c) 590 N; d) 0 N
73. a) Incline forward; b) 22.3 m/s2 91. a) 0.98 m/s2; b) 99 m; c) 50 km/h, same as speed when
x first decoupled
75. /4; 2 m2 m1m2
B g 93. a) a g; b) T g
2g m1 m2 m1 m2
77. a x ; x(t) x0e22g/l t
l
79. 7.9 105 m/s2; 0.14 m
81. a) Fnet 2i 3j 4k N; b) a 0.33i 0.50j 0.67k Chapter 6
2 2
m/s , 0.9 m/s 1. 5.7 103 people
83. a) 3. 0.83
5. 1.6 102 m
y
7. 53 m
9. 3.4 m, so he will reach the plate; 1.9 m/s
11. 0.48
13. 2.1 103 N
B 15. 0.27
17. 2.0 102 N
T cos
x 19. 2.8 m/s
7000 N
T sin T 21. 1.9
23. 0.78
mg 25. 1.4 103 m/s (1.4 mm/s)
27. 39.5 m
29. a)
b) 7.1 103 N; c) 2.6 104 N

85. a) Ff = s cos
F cos F
Ff = s N
boy girl
Frope on boy Frope on girl
N F sin N F cos
Fground on boy Fground on girl
mg
F boy on rope T T Fgirl on rope
F sin F
b) 250 N; c) 250 N; d) 250 N mg
A-40 ANSWERS
mg
b) F ; c) u tan1 ms; b) 3.9 102 j N; c) 3.1 102 i N.; d) 3.9 102 j N;
cos u ms sin u 3.1 102 i N; e) a 7.85i m/s2; 31 m
mg 81. 0.15 m
F ; d) u tan1 ms, but now is the
2(1 ms )2 m2 mkm1
angle between the force F and the positive x direction 83. a1 g
m1 m2
31. The quantity cos u mk sin must be positive in order to 85. 4.1 cm; 2.5 cm, 1.6 cm
find a solution for P
1 87. a) 1.2 102 m; b) 1.7 m/s2 up the incline; c) 1.0 102 m
This gives the condition tan u 89. Yes, since the centripetal force exceeds the maximum fric-
mk
33. 3.6 m/s2 tional force
mkm1m2 g cos u
35. T
(m1 m2) cos f (m1 2m2)mk sin f
37. 23 N; 11 N Chapter 7
39. No, since k is not constant
41. 50 N/m 1. 1.5 103 J
43. 8.8 102 N/m 3. 252 J
45. 1.1 103 m 5. 3.7 103 J
49. 4.4 102 N 7. 2.35 105 J; 357 J/s
51. 7.8 102 N at top; 8.1 102 N at bottom 9. 2.2 107 J by first tugboat; 1.0 107 J by second tugboat;
53. 6.3 3.2 107 J total
55. 0.13 m 11. 2.6 103 J
57. 0.224 N 13. 7 104 J by gravity; 7 104 J by friction
59. 6.9 m/s 15. 54
61. 22 m/s 17. a) 1.3 104 J; b) 290 N; 1.3 104 J
63. 68 19. a) 1.4 104 N; 8.3 103 N; b) 4.3 103 J; c) 2.2 104 J
65. 2gl sin u tan u 21. a) 7.1 103 N; b) 2.2 105 J; 8.1 103 N
67. 1.40 103 m 23. 6 J
69. The equilibrium conditions when the balls are at maximum 25. 26 J
angular displacement is cos u2 cos u1 m1 m 2, and the 27. 3W0; (2N 1)W0
condition when they are both vertical is (m 1 m 2 )g l2
29. a) k c y2 2(l/2)2 y2 d ;
l
m2v22 m1v21 2 2
. These conditions cannot both be satisfied,
b) P 2ky c 1 d
l (l/2)
so the motion described is impossible 2(l/2)2 y2
mv2 31. 17 J
71. T
2pr 6 A B2
33. a) xeq ; b)
BB 12A
73. f tan1 a b u; at 45, 0.099
tan u 35. 2.7 1033 J
1 4p2 Rt 2g 37. 1.3 105 J; 5.8 103 J; 22
39. a) 4.0 105 J; b) 2.5 104 J; c) 1.2 106 J
75. 0.89 m/s
41. 4.1 106 J
77. 40 m; 3.2 s
43. Kball 46 J; Kperson 38 J; they are of the same order of
79. a)
magnitude
N
45. 1.9 J; 0.44 m
47. 6.2 109 J
49. 196 m/s
51. 3.4 1018 J
fk
53. a) 80 J; b) 1.295 103 J; c) 1.375 103 J
55. 7.4 103 J; 1.6 % of the energy acquired by eating an apple
57. 8.2 106 m3
mg
ANSWERS A-41
59. 5.1 m mv2

61. 99 m/s; 9.8 1010 J; 23 tons 29. x ;
2A
63. 0.16 31. x 1.0 m; unbound for E 0 J
65. 79% 33. a) 0.382 nm; b) 1.67 1019 J; c) 0.34 nm, 0.89 nm
67. 7.7 m/s 35. 6.3 eV/molecule
69. 1.1 104 J 37.
71. 53 N ENERGY PER PASSENGER
VEHICLE ENERGY PER MILE (J/mi) PER mi (J/ passenger-mi)
73. 100 m/s
77. a) 24 m/s; b) 7.1 m; c) 26 m Motorcycle 1/60 gal/mi 1.3 108 J/gal
79. 48.2 2.2 106 J/mi 2.2 106
81. 2.1 103 J
Snowmobile 1/12 1.3 108 1.1 107 1.1 107
83. 1.69 105 J; 2.06 105 J
85. a) 8.8 m/s2; 35.4 m; b) 1.06 104 N; 3.75 105 J Automobile 1/12 1.3 108 1.1 107 1.1 107/4 2.7 106
87. a) U 2.35 107 J; K 2.89 106 J; b) U 17.7 Bus 1/5 1.3 108 2.6 107 2.6 107/ 45 5.8 105
106 J; K 8.7 106 J; 120 m/s (or 430 km/h) Jetliner 1/0.12 1.3 108 1.1 109 1.1 109/ 110 9.8 106
89. a) 150 J; b) 150 J; c) 122 m/s; d) 1520 m; e) 122 m/s
Concorde 1/0.1 1.3 108 1.3 109 1.3 109/ 360 3.6 106
91. 4.1 104 J
93. a) 25.8 m/s; b) 10.3 m/s Most efficient is the bus, least efficient is the snowmobile.
39. 183 m, assuming a mass of 70 kg for the climber

41. 1.05 104 kJ
Chapter 8 43. Walking 1.7 kcal/kg; Slow running plus standing 2.8
1. 0.076 m kcal/kg; Fast running plus standing 2.8 kcal/kg
Ax4 45. 1.88 109 eV
5. U (x) , assuming that x0 0; 5.6 m/s 47. Thermal energy is 0.0001 % of mass energy
4
49. 511 keV; 939 MeV
x4
7. U (x) x2 , assuming that x0 0; 1.3 J; 8 J; 29.3 J 51. 1.4 109 kg; .00000005% of the mass of the gasoline
4
53. 9.40 108 eV
9. F 4x 4x3
55. 542 kcal
11. 64.5 m/s
57. 18 kWh
13. a) bxy; b) bxy
59. 2.88 108 J
15. 2.61 106 J
61. 1.5 103 hp; 23 kcal
A B
17. U(x) 12
6 63. a) 769 gal; b) 5.8 kW
12x 6x 65. 526 kWh/year; $79
19. a) 13 kN; b) 13 kN. The force is independent of the
67. 1100 W; 0 W
rope length
69. 0.61 hp
xi yj
21. F a 2 71. 746 J
(x y2)3/2 73. 50
23. 1.89 105 N 75. 2.0 W
25. a) 4.58 m; 14.9 m/s; b) 14.7 m; 21.7 m/s2 77. 4.24 105 W
27. a) 79. 2500 km2
81. a) 1.7 1010 J; b) 17 min; c) 3.73 km
83. 1.2 104 W
85. 195 m diameter
U (x) 87. a) 487 hp; b) 2593 hp
89. 52 hp
x
0.5 1.0 91. 37%
93. a) 3.2 104 W; b) 784 W; c) 3.1 104 W
1.0
95. 2.3 W
97. 2.1 107 kW
99. 3.4 kW
b) x1,2 (2 ; 22) (b/c); c) x (26 2)(b/c)
A-42 ANSWERS
101. a) 4.3 1012 J; b) 6.39 1014 J; c) 6.1 1011 kg/s; 63. a) No, speed is less than that needed for circular orbit;
d) 7.8 1010 years b) 1.22 104 m/s
103. a) 5 J; b) 4 J; no 65. ES 4.4 109 J, EE 6.06 108 J
105. a) 7.2 106 N; b) 0.414 m/s 67. vperigee 6.96 104 m/s, vapogee 5.75 103 m/s
107. 4.2 109 W 71. h 4.26 106 m, v 817 m/s
109. a) P 1.82 106 3.63 105 t 2.71 104 t2 73. a) 2.6 10 3 m/s; b) 2.8 10 3 m/s; c) 0.401 years;
964 t3; b) 9.757 106 J; 5.714 106 J; c) 1.35 d) Venus moves 234.7, Earth moves 144
106 W 75. 1 rev/min
111. 14 min 77. 1.6 109 N
113. a) 1.6 107 kWh; b) 3.8 102 m3/s 79. 4.9 years
81. 1.90 1027 kg
83. a) vrel 1.53 104 m/s; b) 3.91 g
Chapter 9 85. height above earth 9.89 106 m
87. a) 3.30 109 J; b) 3.30 109 J
1. 8.2 N
3. 3.46 108 m
5. FSun 0.41 N, FMoon 2.3 103 N Chapter 10
7. FAlpha 1.5 1017 N, FEarth 3.5 1022 N
1. 9.0 kgm/s; 3.2 kgm/s.
9. aJ 24.9 m/s2, aS 10.5 m/s2, aU 8.99 m/s2
3. 1.8 1029 kgm/s; 4.3 107 kgm/s; 3.8 104 kgm/s;
11. 1 109 N
95 kgm/s; 2.0 1024 kgm/s
13. 2.54 1010 N at 52
5. (1.6 1025 i 7.7 1026 j) kgm/s
15. 2.76 104 g
7. a) (9.7i 5.6j) kgm/s; b) (9.7i 0j) kgm/s; c) (9.7i 5.6j)
17. aEarth-Moon 2.21 106 m/s2, aEarth-Moon /g 2.25
kgm/s
107, aJupiter -Io 0.0123 m/s2, aJupiter - Io /g 0.00687
9. 9.81 kgm/s down; 98.1 kgm/s down
19. 101 m/s
11. 9.0 i m/s
21. 3.08 103 m/s
13. 2.2 105 j
23. 5.8 1015 sec 1.8 108 years, 3.1 105 m/s
15. 2.02 105 i m/s
25. TIo 1.77 days, TEuropa 3.55 days, TGanymede 7.15 days
17. 8.26 103 m/s; 1.29 1017 J
27. 0.927 days
19. (1.3 m/s)i 0j
29. About 10 times
21. 66 N; 1.3 106 J
31. Same latitude 22.6 West, around Lincoln, Nebraska
23. 150 Ns
33. m1/m2 1.6
25. (4.10 103i 929j) m/s
35. 3.0 1010 m
27. 5.2 N
37. a) 7.50 10 3 m/s, 8.32 10 3 m/s; b) 3.94 10 8 J,
29. 5 1011 kg/s; 5 105 N
4.85 108 J
m n 1
39. 8.2 103 m/s 31. u a
M k1 1 km/M
41. TS 96.5 min, TE 115 min
33. 1.9 m from woman
43. 5.33 10 10 km, about 10 times Plutos mean orbital
35. 7.42 105 m; 0.107% of the suns radius
distance from sun
37. h/3 along the height, away from the unequal side
45. 7.8 103 m/s, 1.4 1011 J
39. 0.027 cm directly away from the 40 g piece
47. 22 41. 0.23 nm from the hydrogen atom
49. U 1.04 106 J, K 5.2 105 J, E 5.2 105 J 43. (950 103, 180 103, 820 103) light-years
51. 8.86 mm 45. (L/3, L/3, L/3)
53. 0.253 47. (0.061L, 0, 0)
55. a) 1.11 104 m/s; b) 1.23 1011 J 29 tons of TNT; 49. 950 m from the base
c) 1.23 105 m/s2 51. 31.5 J; 63 J
57. 2270 m/s, 1.11 104 m/s 53. 9.0 107 J
59. elliptical 55. CM is on the axis of symmetry, a distance R/2 away from
61. a) speed 1680 m/s, time 6510 sec 109 min; b) this either the base or the top of the hemisphere
will give an elliptical orbit; c) this orbit will not be closed 57. 6.9 106 m/s in the direction of motion of the proton
because the launch speed is greater than the escape speed 59. 953 kg
ANSWERS A-43
61. 1.05 m 43. 9.3 m/s

63. 1.6 m/s in the direction of motion of the bullet 45. a) 9.8 m/s; b) 4.8 105 J; c) 130 m/s2, 850 m/s2
65. 4D from the launch point 47. 4.0 1013 J
67. (17.4 km/s, 17.4 km/s) 49. a) 3.9 105 J, 3.9 105 J; b) 7.8 105 J, 3.9 105 J
69. KCM 3.8 104 J; KTOT 6.38 105 J 51. 210 m/s
71. 4.76 104 J; 3.6 105 J; 4.76 104 J 53. a) 440 m/s; b) 1200 J; c) 9.6 J; d) missing kinetic energy
73. 3.9 103 J; 4.0 103 J is energy that shows up as heat in bullet and block,
75. 0.955 103 compression/deformation, and noise
77. 1.1 m/s 55. 620 m/s
79. aboy 5.0 m/s2 toward girl; agirl 6.7 m/s2 toward boy; 57. 860 m/s
1.7 m from boy 59. (a) 3 m/s i (b) 79 m/s2
81. 8 km/h 61. 21 m/s
83. 0.0927 nm b2
63. a) p 2 sin1 a b ; b) 2mv sin1 a 1 b
b
85. 59 cm 2R 4R2
87. If the stack of two books is at the top of the triangle, the
v v v
CM is at a point halfway between the other two books and 65. v1 (1 cos) i sin j; v2 (1 cos) i
2 9 2
0.43 m above the line connecting them
89. Halfway along the line joining the centers of the plates v v2
sin j v1 v2 (1 (sin 2 cos 2 )) 0
2 4
so v1 v2
Chapter 11 67. 3.2 kgm/s, 3200 N
3
1. 1.13 10 kgm/s, 2.3 10 N 4 69. v1 2.6 km/h, v2 13 km/h
3. a) 12 m/s, 7m/s, 3 m/s, 1 m/s, 1 m/s, 250 m/s2, 200 m/s2, 71. 1.2 1012 J
100 m/s2, 100 m/s2; b) 4.2 105 N, 3.4 105 N, 1.7 73. a) v1 0 and v2 20 m/s; b) The ball that had an initial
105 N, 1.7 105 N; c) 1.1 105 Ns velocity lands on ground next to fence and the ball with no
5. 12.6 kgm/s, 4200 N initial velocity lands 11 meters away from the fence
7. 1400 N 75. 0.964, 0.036
9. 1.8 kgm/s, 1.35 104 N 77. a) 3.3 1012 m/s; b) 2.4 107 tons of TNT;
11. 8.1 kgm/s, 0.045 s c) 8.1 1014 N
13. 18 kgm/s 79. a) Ball height h (1 cos) where is the angle with the
15. 7.5 102 s, 2.8 104 N vertical; b) height h L 4 (1 cos ) where
17. a) vproj 0.27 m/s, vtarg 0.53 m/s; b) Kproj 1.9 102
cos1Q3414 cos uR
J, Ktarg 0 J Kproj 2 103 J, Ktarg 1.7 102 J
19. 39 m/s 80. a) 21 m/s and 11 west of north; b) 1.4 105 J
21. 0.57 J
23. 0.22v
M
Chapter 12
25.
7 1. 1.7 103 rad/s; 3.5 104 m/s
27. v1 15 m/s, v2 17 m/s 3. 81.5 rad/s; 13 rev/s
29. Last ball has velocity v and other two balls have 5. a) 0.52 m/s; 0.17 m/s; b) 1.8 m/s2; 0.61 m/s2
velocity 0 7. 22.0 rad/s; 1.28 m/s; 55.4 rad/s; 8.83 rev/s
h 4h 9. 9.4 rad/s; 0.94 m/s; 1.9 rad/s2
31. a) mass m rises to , mass 2m rises to ; b) mass m rises
9 9 11. 88 rev/s for aluminum; 2.1 rev/s for steel
to h, mass 2m stops and does not rise 13. At t 0, 0; 0; 40 rad/s2; at t 1.0 s, 15
33. 13.5 m/s rad; 25 rad/s; 10 rad/s2; at t 2.0 s, 40 rad;
35. a) The 1400 kg mass has a velocity 1.3 m/s and the 20 rad/s; 20 rad/s2
800 kg mass has a velocity 6.1 m/s; b) t 0.98 s x 1.7 m 15. 5.5 103 cm/s; 51 cm/s; 22 cm/s
37. Yes 17. 611 rad/s2; 70 revolutions
39. a) 7.5 m/s; b) 15 m/s; c) 15 m/s 19. 1.5 102 rad/s2
41. 0.17 m/s, 0.18 m/s, 0.41 m/s, 0.34 m/s 21. 4.36 102 rad/s2; 0.89 revolutions
A-44 ANSWERS
23. 23 rad/s2; 1.7 s Chapter 13

25. 9.5 1022 rad/s2
27. 10 rad/s; 8 rad 1. (4610 Nm)R, 613 kg, 940 kg
31. 3.8 104 J 3. 310 N
33. 1.21 1010 m 5. 59 Nm
35. 6.50 1046 kgm2 7. 130 hp, 176 Nm
37. 0.44 kgm2 9. 2900 Nm
39. 0.46 kgm2 11. 5.4 m/s, 7.7 m/s
41. 2.13 1029 J 13. 230 W
43. 0.96 kgm2; 1.5 107 J 15. 1.9 106 J
45. 1.10 1022 kgm2 17. 19 J, 75 J
47. 0.379MER2E 19. 5.6 104 W, 1.1 104 Nm
21. 4.6 rad/s
ML2 sin2 u 23. a) 1140 Nm; b) 2.1 m/s2
49.
12 25. 820 N
Ml 2 27. 2.7 104 Nm
51. I 29. 9.7 m/s2
3
53. 0.426 MR2 31. Proof required.
33. 9.6 m/s2
55. a b MR2
1 1
35. rolls to the right, f 2F/3
2 10 30h4R
37. 17 rev
5
2 M(R2 R1)
5 39. 0.024 Nm, 0.16 N
57. 41. Proof required.
5 R32 R31
43. 2.83 m/s2, 2.94 m/s2, 3.89 %
3 2 45. 1.6 m
59. I M
5 I 47. 2.8 1034 kgm2/s
61. a) 225 kgm2; b) 4.4 103 J 49. 1.6 kgm2/s
63. 3.49 105 J; 3.9% 51. 1.05 10 34 kgm 2/s, 2.11 10 34 kgm 2/s, 3.15
65. 2 1025 J/s; 1.05 1015 s or 3.3 107 yr 1034 kgm2/s
MR2 53. a) 1.8 109 kgm2/s, upward; b) zero kgm2/s
67.
4 55. 7.9 1022 rad/s, 7.9 107 m/s, 2.1 1012 J, 1.5 1010 J
Ml 2 57. 0.051 kgm2/s2
69. 59. 5.6 1041 kgm2/s, 3.14 1043 kgm2/s, 1.8 %
6
61. 0.57 rad/s, 5.5 rad/s
MR2
71. 63. 14 rad/s
4
65. 1.5 1019 rev/day
3
73. mR2 GME GME
10 67. v1 and v2 . The satellite closer to
75. (160 km/h) i at top; 0 km/h at bottom; (80 km/h) i (80 B 1 r B r2
earth has the greater speed. L1 m1r1GME and
km/h) j at front
L2 m1r2GME . The satellite closer to earth has the
77. 12 rad/s2; 74.1 rad/s; 35 turns
smaller angular momentum.
79. 0.012 J; 0.37 m/s
69. 4.3 1022 rad/s2, 3.5 1016 Nm, 2.6 1012 W
2 4 71. 7
81. I1 2 MR2 MR2;
5 5 73. a) 5.0 m/s; b) 0.009 rad/s; c) 6860 or 19 rev
I2 2 a MR2 MR2 b
2 14
MR2 m2v2
5 5 75.
2g (m 3M )(m 12M )
1
83. MR2 a b
5 1
8 27p mv30 mv30
77. ,
85. 4.4 m/s g132 g12
79. 0.37 rad/s
ANSWERS A-45
81. The instantaneous change in angular momentum opposes 39. 7.2 m/s2
the original direction of the angular momentum and makes 41. a) 8.8 m/s2; b) 5.4 m/s2; c) 3.8 m/s2
the tilt worse mg mg
83. a) 110 kgm2/s; b) 34 Nm; c) 34 Nm 43. 2mg; ;
13 13
85. 1.6 108 kgm2/s, east or west, 1.2 104 Nm, 1.0 104 N 45. tan1 (2 s)
87. 3100 Nm
a b and T2 a b
89. 3100 J t 1 t 1
47. T1
91. a) 76.2; b) 290 N, 250 N R emsp 1 R 1 emsp
93. a) 4.10 105 kgm2; b) 0.12 rad/s2; c) 4.8 106 Nm; 49. 1580 N; 1340 N
d) 0.0023 J 51. 400 N
95. 420 N 53. 240 N
97. 8.50 s 55. 0.010 micrograms resolution; 0.20000 milligrams max load
99. a) 2.0 1010; b) 4.9 109; c) 4.9 109 rev/month 57. 736 N
or 1860 rev/s (R1 R2)
101. 1.3 1014 kgm2/s, north 59. a) 12 mg (R1 R2); b) F 12 mg ;
l
F 2l
c)
F R1 R2
61. 8.9
Chapter 14 63. 393
1. 590 N 65. 36
3. 5.5 106 N; 5.1 106 N 67. 2 103 m
5. 5200 N 69. 3.5 104 m
7. 8 cm; 18 cm 71. a) 4 103 m; b) 3.5 103 N
9. 5.88 kg 73. 0.057 m
11. 3500 N; 6800 N 75. 0.033%
13. 51 N; 29 N 77. 4.3 106 m
15. 1420 N; 2500 N 79. 0.52 cm
17. 30 81. 1.5
19. 7.65 m 83. 3.96 108 N/m2
21. Proof required. 85. 624 rad/s
87. 425 rad/s
2R2 (R h)2 R 89. 360 N
23. F Mg ; F Mg
(R h) 2R (R h)2
2
91. 1.23 104 N; 2.13 104 N
25. a) 9 103 N; b) 2.6 103 N 93. 2400 Nm
27. 0.408 Mg 95. 0.577 Mg; 0.289 Mg
LR 97. 490 N
29.T Mg a b ; N Mg
R
2(L R)2 R2 2(L R)2 R2
99. 1200 N
101. 0.71 mm
31. 0.62 mg 103. 5.0 103 m
33. a); b) 26.6; c) 56 J 105. 4.85 105 N
U
53 J
Chapter 15
1/2 53 J
1. a) 3.0 m; 0.318 Hz; 2.0 rad/s; 3.14 s;
b) tmidpoint 0.785 s; tturn.point 1.57 s

10 20 30 40 50 60 3. a) 0.83 Hz; 5.2 rad/s; b) 0.20 m; c) 0.30 s; 0.40 s;
d) 1.05 m/s; 0.91 m/s
35. 1.04 L 5. a) 251 m/s; b) 251 m/s
37. 17.5 m/s 7. 211 N; 4.2 m/s
A-46 ANSWERS
v02 A2 3A 2 2
; d tan1 a b sin a tbR ;
v0 g
9. A x20 75. a) mg B1
B v 2 vx0 2 2 Bl
6
11. 3.98 10 m p l
b) ; mg (1 A 2)
3p 2 Bg
13. d
2
77. 1.0 103
2
15. a) x 0.292 cos(6 t 0.815); b) 0.043 s; 103 m/s 79. 92; 0.32 W
17. 2.8 106 N/m; 3.16 Hz 81. 30
19. 1.9 104 N/m 83. 395
21. 1.13 1014 Hz 85. 21
23. 0.20 m; 7.3 rad/s; 0 rad; 1.46 m/s; 10.7 m/s2 87. 1.5 cm; 66.7 Hz
25. 5.51 103 Hz; 1.0 104 g; 6.7 106 cm 89. a) midpoint at 2 s; 6 s, 10 . . .; turning point at 0 s, 4 s, 8 s, . . .;
27. x 0.27 cos 6t, with the axis chosen so the initial position b) midpoint at 0 s, 4 s, 8 s, . . .; turning point at 2 s, 6 s, 10 s, . . .
of the unstretched spring is at x 0.27 m. 91. 26.7 m/s; 1.68 104 m/s2; 2.0 104 N
mg sin u 1 k 93. 2.12 Hz
29. ; 95. 1.25 Hz
k 2p B m
97. 18.75 J; 3.54 m/s
1 k 99. 0.375 m
31. f 103. 0.35 Hz
2p B (m 6M)
33. 3.6 J
35. 2.12 Hz; E same; A same; 2.0 m/s; 26.7 m/s2
Chapter 16
37. 0.34 m 1. 4.3 1014 Hz to 7.5 1014 Hz (violet)
kd 2 3. 2.08 cycles/hour, 356 km
39. Fd 5. a) 4.4 m/s; b) 205 m/s
2
7. a) 10.8 hour; b) 2.5 /hour
43. 10.4 s 9. a) vmax 0.27 m/s as it passes through equilibrium between
45. 34.8 s crests; b) amax 6.2 m/s2 at the wave crests.
47. 0.188 Hz 11. a) 0.02 m; b) 1.4 Hz; c) 10 m
49. a) 0.73 min/day; b) 1.0 mm 13. a) 0.2 sec, 5.0 Hz, 31 rad/sec, 5.2 m1;
51. 24.8 m b) y 0.020 cos (5.2 x 31.4 t)
53. 3.0 s 15. wavelength decreases by 20 cm
2k 2k 17. amax 2.41 m/s2; wavelength 156 m
55. a) ; b) 0 ; c) 0 1 radian 19. 0.45 m/s
B MR 2 B MR2
21. 0.97 sec
L 23. 2.0 kg/m
57. 2.09
Bg 25. 250 m/s
27. 1280 N
59. a) 1.26 103 J; b) 0.145 m/s
29. 184 km
61. 1.64 s
63. 9.8 103 m/s2 m
31. v v
65. 1.6 s Bm
L m1 m2 33. 0.017 sec

67. 2p a b 35. 22l /g
B g m1 m2
69. 3.6 rad/s; 3.3 m/s mV 2
37. ; Proof required.
2pR
k
71. m
g p
41. a) ; b) 0.20 m
2
4L 43. 6.0 m, .6 m, 0.80 Hz; 3.2 m
73. 2p
B 5g 45. 1.14 m, 6.28 m
ANSWERS A-47
47. a) 0.0194 m; b) 0.0179 m 93. l 4L,

4L 4L 4L
, , , . . ., where 4L is the longest possible
49. a) y 0.0060 cos(400t) 0.0040 cos(1200t); b) 3 5 7
y wavelength
0.010 m Chapter 17
1. 17 m (20 Hz) to 1.7 cm (20 kHz)
0.005
3. 765 m; 166 m
0.003 5. about 9 cm
0 t 7. 1.9 mm and 0.10 mm
0.001 0.002 0.004 0.005 s
9. 6.8 m/s
0.005 11. DD# 1.9 cm, D#E 1.8 cm, EF 1.7 cm, FF# 1.6 cm,
F#G 1.5 cm, GG# 1.5 cm, G#A 1.3 cm, AA# 1.3 cm,
A#B 1.2 cm, BC 1.1 cm, CC# 1.1 cm, C#D 1.0 cm
0.010
13. 1.0 103 W/m2
15. D#, 6 octaves above the one listed in Table 17.1
51. 0.028 is the fractional increase or decrease. We cannot tell 17. 3.0 dB
which from the given information. 19. 83 dB
53. 392 Hz, 588 Hz, 784 Hz, 980 Hz 21. 0.11 W
55. 1.58 Hz, 3.16 Hz 23. 130 times (intensity measured in W/m2), 21 dB
57. 28 Hz 25. 9.1 sec
59. 7.07 m, 66.6 m/s, 628 m/s2 27. 249 m
61. 9.3 ms, down, 54 Hz 29. a) f 3.0 105 Hz; T 3.3 104 s (about 9 h); b) Its
63. 8.16 Hz, 16.3 Hz, 24.5 Hz, 32.7 Hz, 40.8 Hz possible because the period of the first overtone is close to
65. 71 N 1/4 of the tidal period.
67. 1.3 107 m, 2.5 107 m 31. a) 3.0 105 s; b) glass
69. 3.7 m/s, 6.8 103 m/s2 33. 272 Hz, 3.9%
71. a) 4.82 103 N; b) 8.2 Hz 35. about 4000 Hz
73. y (0.20 mm) sin(2x 880t) (0.20 mm) 37. 2.0 km
sin(2x 880t), A 0.20 mm, v 440 m/s 39. 3.3 km in sea water
F 1 F 41. 2.8 km
75. a) v(x) ; b) l(x) ; 43. 92.4 m
B A Bx f B A Bx
45. 337 m/s
n F 49. a) 0.632 m; b) CC# 3.5 cm, C#D 3.4 cm, DD# 3.2 cm,
c) f
2L B A BL D#E 3.0 cm, EF 2.8 cm, FF# 2.7 cm, F#G 2.5 cm,
GG# 2.4 cm, G#A 2.2 cm, AA# 2.1 cm, A#B 2.0 cm,
np BC 1.9 cm
77. Large amplitude is at x . Smallest amplitude is at
k 2L
(2n 1)p 51. ln
n
x where n is an integer.
k nv
fn , n 1, 2, 3, . . .
79. a) 0.030 m; b) 5.2 m; c) crests: 0 m, 5.2 m, 10.4 m, . . .; 2L
troughs: 2.6 m, 7.9 m, 13.5 m, . . . 53. 619 Hz
81. 2.1 m/s2, 4.9 m/s 55. 21.5 m/s, 0.215 Hz
83. 13 m/s, 7.9 103 m/s2 57. 381 m/s
85. 0.0731 kg/m, 261 m/s 59. 2.63 m/s
22 2 61. 30
87. a) T1 T, T2 T;
1 23 1 23 63. 405 Hz
65. 594 Hz, 595 Hz
b) v1 7.2 m/s, v2 8.6 m/s
67. 476 Hz
89. 12 Hz 69. 481 Hz
91. a) v(x) 2g (L x), 14 m/s, 9.9 m/s, 0 m/s; b) 2.9 sec 71. 29.4
A-48 ANSWERS
73. a) Proof required; b) 165 m/s 57. 12.6 cm

75. 0.15 mm 59. a) Proof required; b) 2g; c) "
77. 1.5 mm, 0.33 mm 61. 4.4 cm
79. 5.0 m/s, 3.2 107g 63. a) Proof required; b) 0.094 Hz
81. 3 women 65. 1.13 105 Pa
83. 3.0 dB patm
85. a) 3.0* 103 sec; b) The bat will think distances are 0.77 67. 2gh 2
B r
times the real distances.
87. a) 33.5; b) 30.2 sec 69. 1.9 104 N
89. a) 660 Hz; b) 691 Hz; c) 723 Hz 2ptank
71. v
B r
Chapter 18
73. 0.013 m/s
1. In the hose: 1.39 m/s; 2.8 m/s; 4.2 m/s; In the nozzle: 75. a) 332 N; b) Average rate 4.3 kW; Peak rate 8.6 kW
22.3 m/s; 25.1 m/s; 23.9 m/s 77. 12.4 hp
3. 7.23 105 W 79. 2.7 m/s; 190 liters/s
5. 12 m/s 81. 7.3 103 N
7. 8.84 cm/s; 8.84 m/s 83. 1.12 1012 Pa
9. a) 11.5 m; b) 8.1 cm; 11.7 cm 87. 8.06 mm-Hg
11. 84 m 89. 1.21 105 Pa; 1.01 105 Pa; 2 103 N
13. 1370 lbf 6090 N 91. 0.73 cm
15. 132 cm2 93. 2.5 105 kg
17. 2.34 105 Pa 95. 5.3 103 m3
19. 5.08 104 N 97. 1.07 103 kg/m3
21. 48.6 cm2 99. 2.0 103 m3/s
23. 2.0 104 Pa; 7.5 106 Pa 101. The pressure inside increases by 209 Pa; Smaller
25. a) 360 N; b) 330 N
27. 3.56 105 Pa; 3.60 105 Pa; 4 103 N
29. 0.85 m Chapter 19
31. 10.3 m 1. 32F, 380F, 423.4F, 452.2F, 454F, 459.67F
33. 3.3 104 Pa 3. 5.3 1021 atoms
35. 2.94 105 Pa 5. 78% N2, 22% O2
37. 2.1% 7. The frequency decreases by 14 Hz
39. 3.1 108 N 9. 1.9 atm
41. a) Proof required; b) 5.0 109 Pa 11. a) pO2 7.5 104 Pa, pN2 8.6 104 Pa; b) 1.6 105 Pa
prgh(R2 R1)(R1 2R2) 13. 3.4 atm
43. a) Fb rghp R22; F ;
3 15. i/0 1.05
17. 1.4 109 Pa
prghQR21 R1R2 R22R
Ftotal ; 19. 12 kg/m3
3 21. 4.3 atm
prgh(R2 R1)(2R1 R2) 23. 500 kg/m3
b) Fb rghp R21; F ; 25. 100 kg/m3
3
27. 1.3 cm
prghQR21 R1R2 R22R 29. 4.5 107 Pa
Ftotal
3 31. 96.3 g
33. 3150 kg, 2.8 103 m3
45. a) 4.7 10 m ; b) 4.3 1010 kg
7 3
35. a) Water rises 1.2 m; b) 6.8 kg at 2.6 105 Pa
47. Yes
37. 29 g/mol
49. 0.32 m
39. Differentiating p p0 gy yields dp gy. Using the
51. 61 m/s2
53. 113 kg m m pM
Ideal-Gas Law and n ,r .
55. 31 m M V RT
ANSWERS A-49
pMg 81. 615 m/s

Substituting into the differential equation: dp dy
RT 83. a) 22; b) 1; c) 1; d) 0.5
dp Mg 85. 375 K
or, dy.
p RT
41. 615 m/s
43. 1200 K Chapter 20
45. 4100 m/s, 1.4 1020 J
47. 0.12 m/s 1. 540 s
49. 5.65 1021 J 3. 0.28C
51. For O2, vrms 428 m/s, For O3, vrms 349 m/s, For O2, 5. 1.6 km
(translational) K 4.87 1021 J, for O3, (translational) 7. 750 s
K 4.85 1021 J 9. 8500 steps
53. 0.43% 11. 0.17C
55. 9.7 106 K 13. 1.7C
57. 0.47 m/s 15. 1.7 104 C/km
59. Using the hint, the volume swept out per molecule with an 17. The heat produced from electric power 2.6% of the inci-
effective radius 2R0 going a distance l is cylindrically shaped dent solar heat. This is enough to slightly increase the local
with volume V/N (2R0)2 l. Solving for l yields the temperature.
desired result. 19. 1.1 103 m3/s
61. a) for 1 atm: 0.091%; b) for 1000 atm: 91% 21. a) 1.7 103 Nm; b) 2.3 103 W; c) 4.0 104 C
63. 1.9 105 J, translational 0.6, rotational 0.4 23. 27C
65. A 7% increase in kinetic energy by changing temperature, 25. 136C
no change in the kinetic energy by changing the pressure. 27. 0.67C
67. 1.0 105 J 29. 38C
69. 291 J 31. 0.18 liter
71. 1.88 1025 molecules 33. 0.028 J of work done by iron, 2.7 107 J of heat absorbed
73. 1.3 103 N by iron, amount of work is 1.0 106 times the heat
75. 1.1 1023 nitrogen molecules, 2.9 1022 oxygen mole- absorbed
cules, 1.4 1023 total 35. 4.9 104 m, 17 N
77. a) 1.8 1032 particles/m3 3.7 1016 Pa; b) 9.0 1031 37. a) 3.8 104, 1.9 104; b) 16 s
particles/m3, 1.9 1016 Pa; c) 4.5 1031 particles/m3, 39. Proof required.
9.3 1015 Pa 41. 100.28C
79. From the Ideal-Gas Law at constant temperature 43. 23000 W, the rate through window is 13 times greater
pV pV. So, than the rate through the wall
45. a) 2.4 m2sC/J; b) 13.6 ft2hF/BTU
Z V V V p p p p
1 1 . 47. 4.2 103 W
V V V p p p 49. The solution is a proof.
51. 11 W, 79C
V V a b,
p
53. The solution is a proof.
p
This can be rearranged to where V is the 55. 0.51 cm/h
decrease in volume and p is the corresponding increase in 57. a) 4.26 1014 J; b) 5.3 bombs
pressure. 59. 270 g
p p p p 61. 1.1 109 J, 1.2 104 W
Furthermore, 1 and 63. 3.9 kg
p p p
65. a) 2.0 1011 kg; b) 1.1 1017 cal; c) 2.9 1015 J 7.0
V V a 1 b V a b for p p.
p p
1014 cal; d) 1.0 1013 J 2.4 1012 cal. The kinetic
p p energy is smaller than the potential energy due to fric-
tional losses with the air.
Using the specifics of the problem, Vc Vs V or Vs
67. 0.092 kg
Vc V Vc V a b
p 69. 4.3 km3/h
p 71. 41C
A-50 ANSWERS
73. myou(9.81 m/s2) (3.0 m)

a b
GAS C V (J/(kG . K) 1 kcal
Q
0.055 4187 J
He 3.12 103 6
31. 8.2 10 J/s, 0.19 kg/s
Ar 3.13 102 33. 0.999 999 997
N2 7.42 102 35. 1.4 105 J
O2 6.50 102 37. 44%, 1100 W
39. 75 W
CO 7.39 102
41. 19.5
NH3 1.60 103 43. 8.5 103 J, 3.4
CH4 1.69 103 45. a) 1.3 103 J; b) Heat is absorbed during step 2 and
rejected in step 3; c) heat is rejected by the system in step 1,
d) 0.39
The gas with the highest specific heat per kilogram is 47. a) 0.067; b) 1.39 107 W; c) 180 kg/s
helium; and that with the lowest is argon. 49. a) 48 W; b) 20 times
75. 971 m/s 51. a) eturbine 0.34, eengine 0.42; b) 0.62, the two efficien-
77. V 3.7 102 m3, W 3.7 103 J cies are the same
79. Cp 26.3 J/(molK), CV 18.0 J/(molK) 53. 9.5 103 J/K
81. 110 kcal/h 55. 3.0 W/K
83. 1 K 57. 12 400 W/K
85. a) 0.072 m3; b) 0.42 m3, 145 K 59. 3 103 J/K
87. 214 K 61. SAl 430 J/K, SFe 150 J/K, SAg 80 J/K, SHg
89. 3.6C 47 J/K. The change in entropy seems to decrease with
91. 160 liters/h increasing atomic number. Largest is aluminum; smallest
93. 0.33 m, 0.050 m, 46 m2 mercury.
95. 2.3 105 kg/s 63. 41 W/K
97. 0.52 kg 65. 9.5 106 W/K
99. 880 J, 1500 J 67. 0.94 W/K
101. a) 1700 J; b) 1200 J; c) 0.029 m 3 , 1.7 10 4 N/m 2 ; 69. 5.8 J/K
d) 5.0 102 J, 2.4 103 J 71. a) Proof required; b S 780 J/K
73. 37 J/K
75. Proof required.
77. 120 K
Chapter 21 79. a) 4.16 105 Pa, 2.27 105 Pa; b) W Q 3.0
102 J
1. Q 1.9 103 J, E 1.1 103 J
81. 24%, 4.8 104 W
3. a) W 0, Q E 610 J; b) W 810 J, Q 2.0 103 J,
83. 4.0 102 W
E 1.2 103 J
85. a) Beginning with the point at the upper left, the gas under-
5. 470 J
goes an isobaric expansion in step 1 as the volume increases,
7. a) 4.29 moles; b) W 1010 J, E 2490 J; c) 5/2, diatomic
followed by a isovolumetric reduction of pressure in step 2
9. a) W 9.19 J, E 3.34 105 J; b) 18.4 J, the heat
as the temperature is reduced. The gas is then compressed
of vaporization remains unchanged
isobarically in step 3 by reducing the volume, before an
11. W 37.9 J, E 37.1 J
isovolumetric increase in pressure in step 4 by increasing
13. 4.87 104 J, 2.56 J
the temperature.
15. 4.3 104 J
b) W 1 2100 J, W 2 0 J, W 3 700 J, W 4 0 J;
17. 0.014 m3, 7.2 105 Pa
c) Q1 5260 J, Q2 3160 J, Q3 1750 J, Q4 1050 J;
19. 2.43 106 J/kg
d) 44%
21. 35%
87. 48%, 1 107 W
23. 14%
89. SN 2600 J/K, SO 2300 J/K, SH 22 500 J/K.
25. 60%, 1.2 107 J
Hydrogen is largest and oxygen smallest.
27. 44.5%
91. a) S 1.1 J/K; b) Q2 340 J, S 1.1 J/K; c) S
29. 5.5%, W myou (9.81 m/s2) (3.0 m), 0 J/K
GK023A-1423G-credits.qxd 6/10/06 11:11 AM Page A-51 PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:Credit: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK]
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Inc.; 105: G. Murti/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 106: DOE/Science Source.; 107: Kenneth
Eward/Photo Researchers, Inc..; 108: Eurelios/Phototake.
Chapter Opener 1: Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis; fig. 1.5: Photo by H. Mark Helfer/NIST; fig.
1.7: Photo by Barry Gardner; fig. 1.8: 2004 Bruce Erik Steffine; table 1.1a: NASA/JSC; table
1.1b: Charles O Rear/Corbis; table 1.1c: U.S. Mint Handout/Reuters/Corbis; table 1.1d:
Courtesy of Robert G. Milne, Plant Virus Institute, National Research Council, Turin, Italy; fig.
1.9: NIST; fig. 1.10: Robert Rathe/NIST; fig. 1.11: BIPM (International Bureau of Weights
and Measures/Bureau International des Poids et Mesures), www.bipm.org; table 1.7a: NASA/JSC;
table 1.7b: Gene Blevins/LA Daily News/Corbis; table 1.7c: Royalty-Free/Corbis; table 1.7d:
Clouds Hill Imaging Ltd./Corbis; fig. 1.13: Reuters/Corbis; fig. 1.15: National Maritime
Museum, UK; fig. 1.19: John Brecher/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 2: Reuters/Corbis; table 2.1a: Corbis; table 2.1b: Randy Wells/Corbis; table
2.1c: David Muench/Corbis; fig. 2.19: James Sugar/Black Star; p.51: The Granger Collection,
New York; fig. 2.22: Tom Sanders/Photri/Microstock; fig. 2.23: Wally McNamee/Corbis;
fig. 2.26: Taxi/Getty Images; fig. 2.31: NASA/JPL.
Chapter Opener 3: NOAA/Hurricane Research Division; fig. 3.3: Ron Watts/Corbis; p.71:
(Pip) Galen Rowell/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 4: Dr. J. Alean (Stromboli); p.99: (Pip fig. 2) Photo Courtesy of Mark
Wernet/NASA/Glenn Research Center, Cleveland Ohio; fig. 4.7: Krafft-Explorer/Photo
A-52 Photo Credits
Researchers, Inc.; fig. 4.9: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; fig. 4.19: Aero
Graphics/Corbis; fig. 4.15: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; fig. 4.16: Wally
McNamee/Corbis; fig. 4.22: NASA/JSC; fig. 4.27: Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis; fig. 4.34: Fermilab;
fig. 4.35: Robert Harrington, www.BobQat.com.
Chapter Opener 5: Bob Krist/Corbis; fig. 5.1: Courtesy of John Markert; p.131: The Granger
Collection, New York; fig. 5.5: Courtesy DYNCorp/NASA/JSC; table 5.1a: NASA/JSC; table
5.1b: Mark Bolton/Corbis; fig. 5.6: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 5.8: TEK Image/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; fig. 5.14: Tim Kiusalaas/Corbis; fig. 5.15: Jim Sugar/Corbis; fig. 5.16: Roger
Ressmeyer/Corbis; fig. 5.44: Science Museum, London.
Chapter Opener 6: Michael Kim/Corbis; p.174: James L. Amos/Corbis; fig. 6.17: Kai
Pfaffenbach/Reuters/Corbis; p.189: (Pip fig. 2) Photodisc Green/Getty Images; p.189: (Pip
fig. 3) Courtesy Beckman Coulter, Inc.; fig. 6.25: Duomo/Corbis; fig. 6.26: George Hall/Corbis;
fig. 6.27: October 2001 Physics Today (Volume 54, Number 10, p.39), Courtesy of John Yasaitis,
Analog Devices, Inc.; fig. 6.28: Brian Erler/Corbis; fig. 6.39: Duomo/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 7: Lester Lefkowitz/Corbis; p.207: Hulton Deustch/Corbis; fig. 7.17: Jim
Cummins/Corbis; fig. 7.19: Courtesy Klockit, Inc.; p.221: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 7.23: David
Cumming/Eye Ubiquitous/Corbis; fig. 7.32: Jim Cummins/Corbis; fig. 7.34: Lester
Lefkowitz/Corbis; fig. 7.37: Image Bank/Getty Images.
Chapter Opener 8: Courtesy Blenheim-Gilboa Pumped Storage Power Project/New York

Power Authority; p.236: The Granger Collection, New York; p.242: (Pip) Courtesy New York
Power Authority; fig. 8.11: Paul A. Souder/Corbis; p.248: Corbis; table 8.1a: Courtesy
International Dark Sky Association, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP).table
8.1b: Royalty-Free/Corbis; table 8.1c: Mika/Zefa/Corbis; p.254: North Wind Picture Archives;
table 8.2a: Earth Observatory/NASA; table 8.2b: Stone/Getty Images; table 8.2c: Taxi/Getty
Images; fig. 8.17: Courtesy New York Power Authority; fig. 8.18: Corbis; fig. 8.21: Paul A.
Souders/Corbis; fig. 8.27: National Archives.
Chapter Opener 9: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 9.5: Science Museum and Society Picture Library;
p.277: The Granger Collection, New York; p.279: The Granger Collection, New York; fig. 9.8:
NASA/Corbis; p.281: (Pip) NASA; table 9.1a: JPL/NASA; p.285: The Granger Collection,
New York; fig. 9.15: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 9.28: NASA; fig. 9.30: 2002 Calvin J. Hamilton;
fig. 9.36: National Astronomy Observatiries/AP Images; fig. 9.37: Dennis di Cicco/Corbis;
fig. 9.40: Photofest; fig. 9.41: JPL/NASA; fig. 9.42: Photographer: Mark Avino Copyright
1995 by Smithsonian Institution.
Chapter Opener 10: Reuters/Corbis; fig. 10.6: Richard Megna 1990 Fundamental Photographs;
fig. 10.13: 2005 Estate of Alexander Calder/Artist Rights Society (ARS), New York; fig.
10.15: Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis; p.320: (Pip fig. 1) Macduff Everton/Corbis; p.320: (Pip fig. 2)
Right George D. Lepp/Corbis; fig. 10.18: Jason Reed/Reuters/Corbis; fig. 10.22: NASA/Roger
Ressmeyer/Corbis; fig. 10.25: Philip James Corwin/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 11: Tom Wright/Corbis; fig. 11.1: Daimlerchrysler; p.343: (Pip: top and
bottom) Robert Laberge/Allsport/Getty Images; fig. 11.6: Smithsonian Institute; fig. 11.11:
Photo Credits A-53
Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc; fig. 11.17: Reuters/Corbis; fig. 11.20: Oxford
University Press, UK; fig. 11.21: Charles & Josette Lenars/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 12: Courtesy Sandia National Laboratories; fig. 12.1: Courtesy Palm Press, Inc.;
fig. 12.3c: Royalty-Free/Corbis; fig. 12.3b: Picture Arts/Corbis; fig. 12.3d: Hans C. Ohanian;
fig. 12.3d: Richard T. Nowitz/Corbis; fig. 12.3a: Hans C. Ohanian; fig. 12.20: Corbis; fig.
12.32: Neil Rabinowitz/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 13: Don Harlan/Gravity Probe B; fig. 13.6: Courtesy of Gravity Probe B
Photo Archive, Stanford University; fig. 13.11: Wally McNamee/Corbis; fig. 13.14: Nancy
Ney/Corbis; p.414: (Pip fig. 2) Ron Keller, N.M. Museum of Space; p.414: (Pip fig. 1) Science
& Society Picture Library; fig. 13.25: Lawrence Lucier/Getty Images; fig. 13.34: Reuters/Corbis;
fig. 13.37: NASA/JSC.
Chapter Opener 14: Kroll Cranes A/S - Denmark; fig. 14.5: Corbis; fig. 14.29: Tom Pantages;
fig. 14.50: Tim De Waele/Isosports/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 15: NASA/JSC; fig. 15.6: Courtesy of David Hammond; fig. 15.8: Courtesy
of John Markert; fig. 15.15: Loren Winters/Visuals Unlimited; fig. 15.19: National Maritime
Museum; fig. 15.23: Bibliotheque Nationale de France; p.493: (Pip fig. 3) Courtesy John Markert;
fig. 15.26: P.B. Umbanhowar, F. Melo, and H. L. Swinney, Localized excitations in a vertically
vibrated granular layer, Nature 382, 793-796 (1996); fig. 15.27: Jim Craigmyle/Corbis; fig.
15.36: Courtesy of John Markert; fig. 15.37: NASA/JSC.
Chapter Opener 16: Vladimir Smolyakov/Stolichnaya Vechernyaya Gazeta /AP Images; fig. 16.1:
Richard Megna Fundamental Photo; fig. 16.17: Richard Megna Fundamental Photo; fig. 16.18:
Keystone/Getty Images; fig. 16.19: Royalty-Free/Getty Images; fig. 16.20: David Nock of
British Car Specialists; fig. 16.21: Royalty-Free/Corbis; fig. 16.27: Francois Gohier/Photo
Researchers, Inc.
Chapter Opener 17: Stone/Getty Images; fig. 17.1: Aaron Horowitz/Corbis; fig. 17.2 Engineering
Applications of Lasers and Holography by Winston E.Kock, Plenum Publishing Co., New York
1975; fig. 17.5: William B. Joyce; fig. 17.7: Courtesy of C.F. Quate and L. Lam Hansen
Laboratory; p.546: (Pip fig. 1) www.777life.com/free photo stock; p.546: (Pip fig. 3) John Ross
Buschert, Goshen College, IN; p.549: AIP Emilio Segre Visual Archives; fig. 17.19: Gary S.
Settles/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p.552: The Granger Collection, New York; fig. 17.20: Museum
of Flight/Corbis; fig. 17.21: John Shelton Photography; fig. 17.22: PSSC Physics 2nd edition
1965 DC Health & Company and Educational Development Center, Inc., Newtown, MA; fig.
17.23: PSSC Physics 2nd edition 1965 DC Health & Company and Educational Development
Center, Inc., Newtown, MA; fig. 17.27: Tim Bird/Corbis.
Chapter Opener 18: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution fig. 18.3: Hans C. Ohanian; fig.
18.8: AD Moore from Introduction to Electromagnetic; fig. 18.9: D.C. Hazen and R.F. Lehnert,
Subsonic Aerodynamics Laboratory, Princeton; fig. 18.10: D.C. Hazen and R.F. Lehnert,
Subsonic Aerodynamics Laboratory, Princeton; fig. 18.11: Royalty-Free/Corbis; fig. 18.13:
Image Design by Nature; fig. 18.14: Paul Edmondson/Corbis; fig. 18.17: Tom Kleindinst,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; p.574: Stefano Bianchetti/Corbis; fig. 18.20: AC
A-54 Photo Credits
Hydraulic; p.579: (Pip fig. 1) Anonia Reeve/Photo Researchers, Inc.; fig. 18.26: DW Stock
Picture Library/S. Drossinos; fig. 18.28: Stan White Photography; p.581: Archivo Iconografico,
S.A./Corbis; p.585: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 18.34: Columbia University Physics Department;
fig. 18.37: Principals of Physics, 1994; fig. 18.38: Peter Finger/Corbis; fig. 18.40: Roger
Ressmeyer/Corbis; fig. 18.41: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 18.48: Royalty-Free/Corbis; fig. 18.49:
Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis; fig. 18.50: AFP/Hyundai Heavy Industries.
Chapter Opener 19: Vince Streano/Corbis; p.604: AIP Emilio Segre Visual Archives; p.606:
Chemical Heritage Foundation Collection; p.608: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 19.7: Royalty-
Free/Corbis; fig. 19.8: Tom Pantages; fig. 19.9: Crown copyright 1999, Reproduced permis-
sion; fig. 19.10: Courtesy of Cole-Parmer Instrument Company; fig. 19.12: Liquid Crystal
Resources, Glenview, IL; table 19.1a: Julian Baum/Photo Researchers, Inc.; table 19.1b: Visuals
Unlimited; table 19.1c: Dr. Arthur Tucher/Photo Researchers, Inc.; fig. 19.17: Courtesy of
Worthington Cylinders; fig. 19.18: Dr. Kimberly Strong, University of Toronto; fig. 19.20:
National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Chapter Opener 20: Peter Arnold, Inc./Alamy; p.629: (bio) Burnstein Collection/Corbis; fig.
20.1: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 20.6: Norbert Wu; fig. 20.9: Visuals Unimited; fig. 20.10: AP
Images; table 20.4a: David Taylor/Corbis; table 20.4b: David Pollack/Corbis; table 20.4c:
D.Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.; fig. 20.19: Lowell Georgia/Corbis; fig. 20.20: Alfred
Pasieka/Photo Researchers, Inc.; fig. 20.22; Private Collection; fig. 20.24: Stanford University.
Chapter Opener 21: The Image Bank/Getty Images; fig. 21.5: Science & Society Picture
Library; fig. 21.6: Courtesy of BMW World; fig. 21.8: Jim Cummins/Corbis. p.667: Bridgeman
Art Library; fig. 21.17: Tom Pantages; fig. 21.19: Tom Pantages; p.678: Bettmann/Corbis;
p.681: Bettmann/Corbis; fig. 21.23: 2005 The M.C. Escher Company - Holland. All rights
reserved; fig. 21.27: Picture Arts/Corbis; fig. 21.32: Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited.
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Index
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations. Page numbers in boldface refer to figures. Page numbers followed by t refer to tables.
absolute acceleration, 132 Alvin, DSV, 565, 574, 574 atmospheric pressure, 577578
absolute temperature scale, 604 Amontons, Guillaume, 174 atomic clock, Cesium, 9
absolute thermodynamic temperature scale, 609 amplitude: atomic-force microscope, 475, 475
absolute zero, entropy at, 680 of motion, 470 atomic mass, 1112
acceleration, 3954 of wave, 511 atomic mass unit, 11
absolute, 132 Analytical Mechanics (LaGrange), 236 atomic standard of mass, 11
angular, see angular acceleration Angers, France, bridge collapse at, 491, 491 atomic standard of time, 9
average, 39, 39t, 40, 60 angle, elevation, 109, 111, 111 attractors, 492
average, in three dimensions, 101102 angular acceleration: Atwoods machine, 403
average, in two dimensions, 96 average, 370 automobile collision, 339, 355
of center of mass, 323 constant, equations for, 374 automobiles:
centripetal, 113114, 113, 114, 132, 184190, instantaneous, 370 crash tests of, 355
195, 371, 372 rotational motion with constant, 374376 efficiency of, 674
components of, 9598, 101 time-dependent, 376378 automobile stopping distances, 45, 46, 47, 47
as derivative of velocity, 41 torque and, 400 average acceleration, 39, 39t, 40, 60
formulas for, 39, 41 angular frequency, 470471, 471 formula for, 39
instantaneous, 4041, 41 of simple harmonic oscillator, 477 in three dimensions, 101102
instantaneous, components of, 97 of wave, 512, 513516 in two dimensions, 96
instantaneous, in two dimensions, 9697 angular momentum, 284, 407t average angular acceleration, 370
motion with constant, 4249, 43, 63, 102104, for circular orbit, 409 average angular velocity, 369
103, 104, 122 in elliptical orbit, 291292 average power, 253
motion with variable, 5456 torque and, 410416 average speed, 2931, 30t
negative, 39 angular momentum, conservation of: average velocity, 3235, 33, 101102
positive, 3940 in planetary motion, 284 in two dimensions, 95
standard g as unit of, 52 in rotational motion, 406410 Avogadros number, 11, 607
tangential, 371372 angular momentum vector, 411, 411
translational, 402 angular motion, 375 balance, 136137
vectors, 100101 angular position, for time-dependent angular beam, 136137, 137
acceleration of free fall, 4954, 64 velocity, 376377 Cavendish torsion, 277
universality of, 49, 49 angular velocity, 369t, 471 spring, 136, 136, 151
acceleration of gravity, 5253, 64, 274275 average, 369 watt, 11, 11
measurement of, 5253 instantaneous, 369 ballistic curve, 111
variation of, with altitude, 274275 for time-dependent angular acceleration, ballistic pendulum, 349350
accidents, automobile, 355 376377 banked curve, 186187, 187
acoustic micrograph, 539 antinodes and nodes, 520521, 521, 544545 barometer, mercury, 577
action and reaction, 144151, 144, 145, 146 aphelion, 282, 284, 409 base units, 13
action-at-a-distance, 274 of planets, 285 bathyscaphe, 589, 589
action-reaction pairs, 144151, 144, 145, 146, 149 apogee: beam balance, 136137, 137
Adams, J. C., 272 of artificial satellites, 286 beat frequency, 518
addition of vectors, 7276, 72, 73, 74, 89 of planet, 286 beats, of a wave, 518
commutative law of, 74 apparent weight, 187188, 187 Bernoulli, Daniel, 585
by components, 7879 Archimedes, 581 Bernoullis equation, 582585, 586, 587
addition rule for velocities, 115116, 117 Archimedes Principle, 580582 bimetallic strip thermometers, 610, 610, 636, 637
adiabatic equation, for gas, 649 area, 13 binary star system, 297
adiabatic expansion, 668 areas, law of, 283284 black holes, 299
adiabatic process, 647649 artificial satellites, 271272, 281, 286287 block and tackle, 443444
air conditioner, 672, 673 apogee of, 286 blood pressure, 579
airfoil, flow around, 570, 582583 perigee of, 286 blowhole, 546
air resistance, 49, 51, 61, 181, 181 astrology, 295 body-mass measurement device, 134, 134
in projectile motion, 111 atmosphere, 573 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 608
A-55
A-56 Index
Boltzmanns constant, 607 coefficient of cubical thermal expansion, 634635 constructive and destructive interference, 517
boom, sonic, 552553, 552 coefficient of kinetic friction, 175178, 175t contact force, 142143, 143
boundary conditions, 522 coefficient of linear thermal expansion, 633, 637 continuity equation, 570
bound orbit, 245 coefficient of static friction, 175t, 179180 convection, 641
Boyle, Robert, 606 coefficients of friction, 174181, 175t conversion factors, 1719
Boyles Law, 606 collisions, 338364 conversion of units, 1617, 18
Brahe, Tycho, 285 automobile, 339, 355 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), 9
brake, hydraulic, 575576 impulsive forces and, 339344 coordinate grid, 34, 115
brake, power, 456 collisions, elastic, 342347 coordinates, origin of, 3, 3, 4, 44, 45, 46, 47
bridge collapse: conservation of energy in, 344345, 351352, 353 Copernicus, Nicholas, 279
at Angers, France, 491, 491 conservation of momentum in, 344345, cosine, 19, 473474, 486
at Tacoma Narrows, 523524, 524 351352, 353 formula for derivatives of, 473
bridges, 433, 433 in one dimension, 34447 cross product, 8386, 84, 85
thermal expansion and, 637, 637 one-dimensional, speeds after, 345347 of unit vectors, 85
British system of units, 67, 12 in three dimensions, 351353 curve:
British thermal unit (Btu), 630 in two dimensions, 351353 ballistic, 111
Brown Mountain hydroelectric storage plant, collisions, inelastic, 348 banked, 186187, 187
242243, 242, 243, 249, 257258, 258 conservation of energy in, 351352, 353 of potential energy, 244247, 244
bulk modulus, 44748, 447t conservation of momentum in, 351352, 353 cyclic motion, 469
bullet, measuring speed of, 356 in three dimensions, 351353 Cygnus X-1, 298
bungee jumping, 246247, 246, 247 totally, 348
buoyant force, 580581 in two dimensions, 351353 da Costa, Ronaldo, 14
color-strip thermometer, 610, 610 damped harmonic motion, 489
calculus, derivatives in, 38 comets, 291 damped oscillations, 488491, 491
calorie, 630, 631 Hale-Bopp, 299, 299 damped oscillator:
Carnot, Sadi, 667 Halleys, 298, 298 driving force on, 490
Carnot cycle, 668669, 669, 671673, 675676 perihelion of, 291 resonance of sympathetic oscillation of,
Carnot engine, 667673 period of, 291 490491, 491
efficiency of, 671673 Shoemaker-Levy, 299 day:
Second Law of Thermodynamics and, 676 communication satellites, 271272, 281, 290291 mean solar, 9
Carnots theorem, 675676 commutative law of vector addition, 74 solar, 9
Cartesian diver, 589, 589 components, of vectors, 7786, 78, 9598, 97, 99, deceleration, 40
Cavendish, Henry, 277 101 decibel, 541
Cavendish torsion balance, 277 formulas for, 77 degree absolute, 604
cell, triple-point, 609, 609 compression, 446, 448449 density, 13, 316317, 566
Celsius temperature scale, 611, 612 compressor, centrifugal, 99 of fluid, 566567, 567
center of force, 240 Concorde SST, 553 depth finder, 557
center of mass, 313323, 320 sonic boom of, 553 derivatives, rules for, 38
acceleration of, 323 concrete, thermal expansion of, 637 derived unit, 1314
of continuous mass distribution, 316 conduction of heat, 638642 destructive and constructive interference, 517
gravitational force acting on, 430433 conductivity, thermal, 638641, 639t determinant, 86
motion of, 323327 Conrad, Joseph, 355 diatomic gas, energy of, 617618
velocity of, 323324, 348 conservation laws, 205 diatomic molecule, 244
centrifugal compressor, 99 conservation of angular momentum: diffraction, 553555
centrifugal force, 188189, 189 in planetary motion, 284 at a breakwater, 553
centrifuge, 114, 114 in rotational motion, 406410 of sound waves, 554
centripetal acceleration, 113114, 113, 114, 132, conservation of energy, 205, 207, 223, 235270, of water waves, 553
184190, 195, 371, 372 290 diffraction pattern, 554
Newtons Second Law and, 185 in analysis of motion, 223 dimensional analysis, 16
centripetal force for circular motion, 185 general law of, 248, 249, 252, 662 dimensionless quantities, 17
centroid, 316 in inelastic collision, 351352, 353 dimensions, 16
Cesium atomic clock, 9 in one-dimensional elastic collision, 345 Discovery II, 297
Cesium standard of time, 9 in rotational motion, 397 discus thrower, 109, 109
changes of state, 642643 in simple harmonic motion, 483 displacement vector, 69, 7072, 70, 71, 88, 96
chaos, 492493 in two-dimensional elastic collision, Doppler, Christian, 549
Charles Law, 606 351352, 353 Doppler shift, 547553
chromatic musical scale, 539, 539 in two-dimensional inelastic collision, dot product:
circular motion: 351352, 353 in definition of work, 208209
centripetal force for, 185 conservation of mass, 205, 252 of vector components, 8283, 82, 86
translational speed in, 374 conservation of mechanical energy, 238 of vectors, 8183, 81, 83, 86, 208209
circular orbits, 278282, 278 equation for, 239 double-well oscillator, 492
angular momentum for, 409 law of, 221223, 221, 222, 223, 238 doubling the angle on the bow, 89, 89
energy for, 29091 conservation of momentum, 307312, 310, 345, drag forces, 180181
clarinet, sound wave emitted by, 538 348 driving force, on damped oscillator, 490
Clausius, Rudolph, 678 in elastic collisions, 344345, 351352, 353 dynamics, 29, 130172
Clausius statement of Second Law of in inelastic collisions, 351352, 353 fluid, 582587
Thermodynamics, 676 law of, 309 of rigid body, 394428
Clausius theorem, 678 conservative force, 236243, 238
clock: gravity as, 288 Earth, 285t, 286, 286
Cesium atomic, 9 potential energy of, 236243 angular momentum of, 409
grandfather, 219, 219 constant angular acceleration, equations for, 374 escape velocity from, 292
pendulum, 487 constant force, 205, 208 moment of inertia of, 388, 389, 390391
synchronization of, 4, 5, 133n constant-volume gas thermometer, 609610, 609 perihelion of, 295
Index A-57
reference frame of, 132 energy level, 244 as derivative of potential energy, 241
rotational motion of, 120 energy-work theorem, 215, 236, 400 electromagnetic, 191
rotation of, 9, 132, 476 engine: external, 311
translational motion of, 120 efficiency of, 666667 fundamental, 191
efficiency: heat, 665 gravitational, see gravitational force
of automobiles, 674 steam, 671, 671 impulsive, 339344
of Carnot engine, 671673 entropy, 678 internal and external, 311
of engines, 666667 at absolute zero, 680 inverse-square, 240
eigenfrequencies, 523, 545, 546 change, in isothermal expansion of gas, 668 moment arm of, 400
Einstein, Albert, 251, 394 disorder and, 680 motion with constant, 151159
elastic body, 182, 445 irreversible process, 679680 net, 138140, 138, 139
elongation of, 445449 negative, 683 normal, 143, 143, 144, 147
elastic collision, 342347 equation of motion, 151153, 151, 174 power delivered by, 255
conservation of energy in, 344345, 351352, 353 integration of, 5456 restoring, 182184, 183
conservation of momentum in, 344345, of simple harmonic oscillator, 477 resultant, 138
351352, 353 of simple pendulum, 485 of a spring, 182184, 183, 184
in one dimension, 344347 see also Newtons Second Law strong, 191
speeds after one-dimensional, 345347 equilibrium: torque and, 395397
in three dimensions, 351353 of fluid, 575 units of, 135136, 141
in two dimensions, 351353 of mass, 155 weak, 191
elasticity of materials, 445449 static, see static equilibrium work done by constant, 205, 208
elastic moduli, 447t equilibrium point, 245, 245 work done by variable, 211213, 211, 212, 213,
elastic potential energy, 236237, 238 equilibrium position, 476477 214
electric resistance thermometer, 610, 610 equipartition theorem, 617618 forced oscillations, 488, 490491
electromagnetic force, 191 escape velocity, 292 Fountain Hills, Ariz., 572, 572
electron, mass of, 137, 137t from Earth, 292 Fouriers theorem, 519, 538
electron-volts (eV), 248 from Sun, 292 fractal striations, 492
elementary particles, collisions between, 342344 expansion, free, of a gas, 664, 668 frames of reference, 3, 4, 114, 115
elevation angle, 109, 111, 111 expansion, thermal: in calculation of work, 208
elevator with counter weight, 154155, 154, of concrete, 637 of Earth, 132
155, 157 linear, coefficient of, 634, 637 freely falling, 142, 142
ellipse, 283 of solids and liquids, 633637, 633 inertial, 132, 132, 133
major axis of, 282 of water, 635, 635 for rotational motion, 366
semimajor axis of, 282, 285, 291 Explorer I, 286, 298299 free-body diagram, 146, 146, 147, 148, 153,
elliptical orbits, 282286, 282 Explorer III, 286 157, 158, 159, 176, 180, 181, 184, 186,
angular momentum in, 291292 Explorer X, 298 187, 188
energy in, 291292 external forces, 311 free expansion of a gas, 664
vs. parabolic orbit for projectile, 287 entropy change in, 668
elongation, 445449, 445 Fahrenheit temperature scale, 611, 612 free fall, 4954, 51, 52, 53, 64, 141, 142, 142,
energy, 204223 First Law of Thermodynamics, 662664 49596
alternative units for, 248249 first overtone, 522 formulas for, 49, 50
for circular orbit, 290291 fission, 252 universality of, 49, 49
conservation of mechanical, 221223, 221, 222, flow: weightlessness in, 142, 142
223, 238, 239 around an airfoil, 570, 582583 French horn, 546
of diatomic gas, 617618 of heat, 638639, 638 freon, 672673
in elliptical orbit, 291292 incompressible, 569 frequency, 369370
gravitational potential, 218223, 219, 220, 238, laminar, 569 beat, 518
288293 methods for visualizing, 570 normal, 523
gravitational potential, of a body, 321 in a nozzle, 586 proper, 523
of ideal gas, 616619 from source to sink, 570 of simple harmonic motion, 470471
internal, 616 steady, 569 of wave, 510511
kinetic, see kinetic energy streamline, 569 friction, 171181
mass and, 251253 turbulent, 571 air, 49, 51, 61, 181, 181
mechanical, see mechanical energy velocity of, 566, 568 coefficient of kinetic, 175178, 175t
in orbital motion, 288293 around a wing, 571, 584 coefficients of, 174181, 175t
potential, see potential energy flowmeter, Venturi, 585586, 596, 596 of drag forces, 180181
rate of dissipation of, 264 fluid, 566 equation for kinetic, 175
of rotational motion of gas, 617618 density of, 566567, 567 equation for static, 179
in simple harmonic motion, 480483 equilibrium of, 575 heat produced by, 248
of system of particles, 327328 incompressible, 569 kinetic (sliding), 174178, 175, 176, 177,
thermal, 248, 616, 629 static, 575579, 575 190
threshold, 355 fluid dynamics, 582587 loss of mechanical energy by, 238239
energy, conservation of, 205, 207, 223, 235270, 290 fluid mechanics, 565599 microscopic and macroscopic area of contact
in analysis of motion, 223 flute, 546 and, 174175
general law of, 248, 249, 252, 662 foot, 67 as nonconservative force, 238239
in inelastic collision, 351352, 353 force, 133, 133, 135, 135t, 136 static, 178180, 179, 180, 190
in one-dimensional elastic collision, 345 buoyant, 580581 static, coefficient of, 175t, 179180
in rotational motion, 397 calculated from potential energy, 241 of viscous forces, 181
in simple harmonic motion, 483 center of, 240 fundamental forces, 191
in three-dimensional elastic collision, centrifugal, 188189, 189 strength of, 191
351352, 353 conservative, 236243, 238, 288 fundamental frequency, 523
in two-dimensional elastic collision, conservative vs. nonconservative, 238239 fundamental mode, 522
351352, 353 contact, 142143, 143 fusion, heat of, 642, 642t
A-58 Index
g, 40, 5253, 189 heat, 248, 628660 instantaneous velocity vector, 98, 98
measurement of, 5253, 277278 as energy transfer, 662663 integrals, for work, 21213
standard, 5253 of fusion, 642, 642t integration, of equations of motion, 5456
Gagarin, Yuri, 299 mechanical equivalent of, 631632 INTELSAT, 281, 281
Galilean velocity transformation, 116 specific, see specific heat intensity, of sound waves, 538, 540543, 542t, 543
Galileo Galilei, 51, 131 temperature changes and, 630631 interference, constructive and destructive, 517
experiments on universality of free fall by, 495 transfer, by convection, 641 internal energy, 616
isochronism of pendulum and, 501 transfer, by radiation, 641 internal forces, 208, 311
pendulum experiments by, 495 of transformation, 642 internal kinetic energy, 348
tide theory of, 120 of vaporization, 642, 642t International Space Station, 468
gas: heat capacity, specific, 630 international standard meter bar, 56, 5
adiabatic equation for, 649 heat conduction, 638642 International System of Units (SI), 5, 14
distribution of molecular speeds in, 615 equation of, 638639 inverse-square force, 240
energy of ideal, 616619 heat current, 638 Io, 64
entropy change in isothermal expansion of, heat engine, 665 irreversible process, 678
668 heat flow, 638639, 638 entropy change in, 679680
free expansion of, 664, 668 heat pump, 672 isochronism, 477, 501
ideal, see ideal gas heat reservoir, 665 of simple pendulum, limitations of, 486
Law of Boyle for, 606 height, maximum, of projectiles, 109111 isothermal expansion of gas, entropy change in,
Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac for, 606 heliocentric system, 279 668
root-mean-square speed of, 614615 Helmholtz, Hermann von, 248
specific heat of, 644647 hertz (Hz), 471 Joule, James Prescott, 207, 629
gas constant, universal, 604 Hookes law, 182184, 445446, 476 joule ( J), 206, 254
gas thermometer, constant-volume, 609610, 609 horizontal velocity, 103108, 103, 106, 107, 108 Joules experiment, 631632, 631
gauge, pressure, 578 horsepower (hp), 254, 254, 256 Jupiter, 285t, 286
gauge blocks, 6, 6 human body, lever-like motion of, 442, 451,
Gauss Law, 274 458459 K-10000 tower, 429
Gay-Lussacs Law, 606 Huygens, Christiaan, 221, 495 kelvin, 604
Gedankenexperiment, 287 Huygens tilted pendulum, 495 Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord, 458, 604
general law of conservation of energy, 248, Hyatt Regency hotel, collapse of skywalks at, Kelvin-Planck statement of Second Law of
249, 252 451, 451 Thermodynamics, 675676
General Relativity theory, 394 hydraulic brake, 575576 Kelvin temperature scale, 604, 609610
general wavefunction, 509 hydraulic press, 575, 575 Kepler, Johannes, 285
geostationary orbit, 27172, 281 hydrogen, molecule, oscillations of, 483 Keplers Laws, 282286
geostationary satellite, 280, 281, 290291 hydrometer, 594 of areas, 28284
geosynchronous orbit, 271272 hyperbola, 291 First, 282
gimbals, 414 hyperbolic orbit, 291 limitations of, 288
grandfather clock, 219, 219 for motion of moons and satellites, 286288
gravitation, 271303 ideal gas, 604 Second, 282284
law of universal, 131, 272276, 278 energy of, 616619 Third, 285286
gravitational constant, 273 kinetic theory and, 602627 kilocalorie, 248249, 250
measurement of, 277278 Ideal Gas Law, 603608 kilogram, 5, 11, 13, 14
gravitational force, 191, 272276 ideal-gas temperature scale, 609612 multiples and submultiples of, 13t, 134
acting on center of mass, 430433 ideal particle, 3 standard, 11, 134
gravitational potential energy, 218223, 219, 220, impulse, 339340 kilometers per hour (km/h), 30
238, 288293 impulsive force, 339344 kilowatt-hours, 248, 250
of a body, 321 inclined plane, 153, 157 kinematics, 29
gravity: incompressible flow, 569 kinetic energy, 214217, 216, 238
action and reaction and, 146, 146 incompressible fluid, 569 equation for, 215
as conservative force, 288 inelastic collision, 348 of ideal monatomic gas, 616618
of Earth, see weight conservation of energy in, 351352, 353 internal, 348
work done by, 207 conservation of momentum in, 351352, 353 relative examples of, 216t
gravity, acceleration of, 5253, 64, 274275 in three dimensions, 351353 of rotation, 378384
measurement of, 5253 totally, 348 in simple harmonic motion, 480483
variation of, with altitude, 274275 in two dimensions, 351353 of a system of particles, 327328
Gravity Probe B satellite, 394, 401, 401, 406, inertia, law of, 132, 132 kinetic friction, 174178, 175, 176, 177, 190
414 inertia, moment of, see moment of inertia coefficient of, 175178, 175t
Greenwich Time, 9 inertial reference frames, 132, 132, 133 equation for, 175
Griffiths-Joyner, Florence, 59 initial speed, 111 kinetic pressure, 613616
Guericke, Otto von, 161 instantaneous acceleration, 4041, 41 kinetic theory, ideal gas and, 602627
gyrocompass, 414 components of, 97 Krger 60, 297
gyroscope, 401, 406, 414, 414 in two dimensions, 9697
precession of, 415416 instantaneous angular acceleration, 370 Lagrange, Joseph Louis, Comte, 236
instantaneous angular velocity, 369 laminar flow, 569
Hale-Bopp comet, 299, 299 instantaneous power, 253 laser, stabilized, 6, 6
Halleys comet, 298, 298 instantaneous velocity, 3539, 36, 61 launch speed, 111
harmonic function, 470 components of, 96 law of areas, 283284
harmonic motion, damped, 489 as derivative, 38 Law of Boyle, 606
see also simple harmonic motion formulas for, 37, 38 Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac, 606
harmonic oscillator, 477, 492 graphical method for, 37 law of conservation of angular momentum, 407409
harmonic wave, 510513 numerical method for, 3739 Law of Conservation of Energy, 662
harmonic wavefunction, 513516 as slope, 3537 law of conservation of energy, general, 248,
hearing, threshold of, 538 in two dimensions, 96, 96 249, 252
Index A-59
law of conservation of mechanical energy, 221223, square, 13, 13 with variable acceleration, 5456
221, 222, 223, 238, 584 square, multiples and submultiples of, 14t wave, 508509
law of conservation of momentum, 309 meters per second (m/s), 30 muzzle velocity, 287, 331
law of inertia, 132, 132 meters per second squared (m/s2), 39
law of universal gravitation, 131, 272276, 278 metric system, 5 NASA Spacecraft Center, 114, 114
laws of planetary motion, 282286 microelectromechanical system (MEMS), 503, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
length, 58 503 609
precision of measurement of, 6 micrograph, acoustic, 539 navigation, vectors in, 71
standard of, 56, 5, 6 microscope, atomic-force, 475, 475 negative acceleration, 39
Lennard-Jones potential, 262 microscopic and macroscopic parameters, 603 negative vectors, 75, 75
Leonardo da Vinci, 174175, 174 middle C, 539, 539 negative velocity, 39
Leverrier, U. J. J., 272 mode, fundamental, 522 negentropy, 683
levers, 441445, 445, 458459 modulation, of wave, 518 Neptune, 285t, 286
human bones acting as, 442, 442, 451, 458459 mole, 11 discovery of, 272
mechanical advantage and, 441, 441, 444 molecular mass, 11 Nernst, Walther Hermann, 681
Lichtenstein, R., 294 molecular speeds, distribution of, in gas, 615 net force, 138140, 138, 139
lift, 584 molecule, diatomic, 244 neutral equilibrium, 432, 432
light, speed of, 6 molecules, water, 389 neutron, mass of, 137, 137t
liquids: moment arm, 400 Newton, Isaac, 131, 131, 287
bulk moduli for, 447448 moment of inertia: bucket experiment of, 588
thermal expansion of, 633637, 633 of continuous mass distribution, 379380 experiments on universality of free fall by, 496
longitudinal wave, 509 of Earth, 388, 389, 390391 pendulum experiments by, 496
looping the loop, 187188, 187 of nitric acid molecule, 388 newton (N), 135, 141
of oxygen molecule, 388 newton-meter, 396
Mach, Ernst, 552 of system of particles, 378384 Newtons law of universal gravitation, 131,
Mach cone, 552, 552 of water molecule, 389 272276, 278
macroscopic and microscopic parameters, 603 momentum: Newtons Laws:
Magdeburg hemispheres, 161, 161 angular, see angular momentum angular momentum and, 400
major axis of ellipse, 282 rate of change of total, 312 First, 131133, 131
mandolin, 546 of a system of particles, 306313, 324 of Motion, 130172
manometer, 578 momentum, conservation of, 307312, 310, 345, in rotational motion, 395
marker point, 29, 29 348 Third, 144151
Mars, 285t, 286, 286 in elastic collisions, 344345, 351352, 353 Newtons Second Law, 133137, 205, 214, 400,
Mars Climate Orbiter, 16, 16 in inelastic collisions, 351352, 353 413, 514, 604
mass, 1113 law of, 309 centripetal acceleration and, 185
atomic, 1112 monatomic gas, kinetic energy of ideal, 616618 empirical tests of, 135
atomic standard of, 11 moons of Saturn, 296, 297t see also equation of motion
center of, see center of mass most probable speed, 615, 615 Newtons theorem, 274
conservation of, 205, 252 motion: nitric acid molecule, moment of inertia of, 388
definition of, 134135 along a straight line, 2868, 32 nodes and antinodes, 520521, 521, 544545
of electron, 137, 137t amplitude of, 470 noise, white, 538
energy and, 251253 angular, 375 noise reduction, 557
equilibrium of, 155 of center of mass, 323327 normal force, 143, 143, 144, 147
molecular, 11 circular, translational speed in, 37 normal frequencies, 523
moment of inertia of continuous distribution of, with constant acceleration, 4249, 43, 63 nuclear fission, see fission
379380 with constant acceleration, in three dimensions, nuclear force, see strong force
of neutron, 137, 137t 102104, 103, 104, 122
of proton, 137, 137t with constant force, 151159 ocean waves, diffraction of, 553
relative examples of, 12t cyclic, 469 octave, 539
standard of, 134135 energy conservation in analysis of, 223 optical pyrometer, 610, 610
weight vs., 141 equation of, see equation of motion orbit:
maximum height, of projectiles, 109111 free-fall, 4954, 51, 52, 53, 64, 141, 142, 142 bound, 245
Maxwell distribution, 615, 615 harmonic, 489 circular, see circular orbits
Maxwells demon, 683 Newtons Laws of, 130172 of comets, 290291
Mayer, Robert von, 653 one-dimensional, 2868, 32 elliptical, 282286, 282, 287, 291292
mean solar day, 9 parabolic, 108109, 109 geostationary, 271272, 281
mechanical advantage, 441, 441, 443444 periodic, 469 geosynchronous, 271272
mechanical energy, 238 planetary, 282286 hyperbolic, 291
law of conservation of, 221223, 221, 222, 223, position vs. time in, 3233, 33, 34, 35, 35, parabolic, 287, 291
238 36, 60 period of, 279
loss of, by friction, 238239 of projectiles, 104112, 122, 124 planetary, 279
mechanical equivalent of heat, 631632 of projectiles, formulas for, 104 planetary, data on, 285286, 285t
mechanics, 29 as relative, 31, 115118 synchronous, 271272
fluid, 565599 of rigid bodies, 366367 unbound, 245
medium, 508 rotational, see rotational motion orbital angular momentum, 409
Mercury, 284, 285t, 286, 286 simple harmonic, see simple harmonic motion orbital motion, energy in, 288293
mercury barometer, 577 three-dimensional, 95 organ, 546, 546
mercury-bulb thermometers, 610, 610, 636, with time-dependent angular acceleration, origin of coordinates, 3, 3, 4, 44, 45, 46, 47
636 376378 oscillations, 468506
meteoroid incidents, 301 translational, 29, 95, 95, 120, 366, 404 forced, 488, 490491
meter, 56, 1314 two-dimensional, 94129 oscillator, 493
cubic, 13 uniform circular, 112115, 112, 113, 125, damped, see damped oscillator
cubic, multiples and submultiples of, 14t 184190 double-well, 492
A-60 Index
oscillator (continued) in double-well oscillator, 492 resonance, 523

harmonic, 492 elastic, 236237, 238 of damped oscillator, 490491, 491
simple harmonic, 476479 of force, equation for, 239 in musical instruments, 546
overpressure, 578 force calculated from, 241 restoring force, 182184, 183
overtones, 522 gravitational, 218223, 219, 220, 238, 288293 resultant, of vectors, 72, 74
oxygen molecule, moment of inertia of, 388 gravitational, of a body, 321 resultant force, 138
in simple harmonic motion, 480483 reversible process, 667
parabola, 291 of a spring, 236237, 237, 241 right-hand rule, 84, 84, 85
parabolic motion, 108109, 109 turning points and, 244245 right triangle, 19
parabolic orbit, 291 pound (lb), 12, 134 rigid body:
vs. elliptical orbit for projectile, 287 pound-force (lbf ), 136 dynamics of, 394428
parallel-axis theorem, 382383 pound-force per square inch, 574 kinetic energy of rotation of, 378384
particle: Powell, Asafa, 31 moment of inertia of, 378384
center of mass of system of, 313323 power, 253258 motion of, 366367
elementary, see elementary particles average, 253 parallel-axis theorem for, 382383
ideal, 3 delivered by force, 255 rotation of, 365393
kinetic energy of system of, 327328 delivered by torque, 397 some moments of inertia for, 382t
moment of inertia of system of, 378384 instantaneous, 253 statics of, 430433
momentum of system of, 306313, 324 transported by a wave, 516 translational motion of, 366
system of, see system of particles power brake, 456 roll, 366
pascal, 573 precession, 415 root-mean-square speed, of gas, 614615
Pascal, Blaise, 574, 588 of a gyroscope, 41516 rotation:
Pascals Principle, 575 pressure, 448, 566, 567, 573575, 574t, 590 of the Earth, 9, 132, 476
pendulum, 476, 495, 496, 500 atmospheric, 577578 frequency of, 369370
ballistic, 349350 blood, 579 kinetic energy of, 378384
Huygens tilted, 495 gauge, 578 period of, 369
simple, see simple pendulum kinetic, 613616 of rigid body, 365393
pendulum clocks, 487 standard temperature and, 604, 607608 rotational motion:
perigee: in a static fluid, 575579 conservation of angular momentum in, 406410
of artificial satellites, 286 Principia Mathametica (Newton), 131 conservation of energy in, 397
of comets, 291 principle of superposition, 138 with constant angular acceleration, 374376
of Earth, 295 for waves, 516520, 518 of Earth, 120
perihelion, 282 problem-solving, guidelines for, 50 equation of, 399406
of planets, 286 projectile: about a fixed axis, 367373
perihelion, 282, 284, 409 maximum height of, 109111 of gas, 617618
of comets, 291 parabolic vs. elliptical orbit for, 287 Newtons laws in, 395
of Earth, 295 range of, 109, 111, 111, 287 reference frame for, 366
of planets, 285 time of flight of, 109110 torque and, 405
period, 369 trajectory of, 105, 106, 107, 111, 111 work, energy, and power in, 395399
of comets, 291 projectile motion, 104112, 122, 124 Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count, 629, 629
of orbit, 279 with air resistance, 111 Rutherford backscattering, 357
of planets, 285t proper frequencies, 523 R value, 641, 655
of simple harmonic motion, 470471 proton, mass of, 137, 137t
of wave, 510, 510 pulleys, 443444, 458, 459 sailboat, 120
periodic motion, 469 mechanical advantage and, 443444 Sandia National Laboratory, 365
periodic waves, 509516 p-V diagram, 668669, 678 satellites:
perpetual motion machine: pyrometer, optical, 610, 610 artificial, 271272, 281, 286287
of the first kind, 662 communication, 271272, 281, 281, 290291
of the second kind, 662 quantities, dimensionless, 17 geostationary, 280, 281, 290291
phase, 471 Kepplers laws for motion of moons and,
phase constant, 471 radiation, 641 286288
pitch, 366 heat transfer by, 641 see also specific satellites
Pitot tube, 596, 596 radio station WWV, 9 Saturn, 285t, 286
Planck, Max, 675 railroad tracks, thermal expansion and, 637, 637 moons of, 296, 297t
planetary motion: range, of projectiles, 109, 111, 111, 287 scalar, 72
conservation of angular momentum in, 284 rate of change, of momentum, 312 scalar (dot) product, of vectors, 8183, 81, 83, 86,
Keplers laws of, 282286 reaction and action, 144151, 144, 145, 146, 149 208209
planetary orbit, 279 recoil, 309310 scale, chromatic musical, 539, 539
aphelion of, 285 rectangular coordinates, 3, 3 scientific notation, 1415
data on, 285286, 285t reference circle, 472 second, 5, 910, 13, 14
perihelion of, 285 reference frames, 3, 4, 114, 115 multiples and submultiples of, 10t
periodicity of, 492 in calculation of work, 208, 208 second harmonic, 523
period of, 285t of Earth, 132 Second Law of Thermodynamics, 675680
plane wave, 537 freely falling, 142, 142 second overtone, 522
Pluto, 285t, 286 inertial, 132, 132, 133 seiche, 558
mass of, 294 for rotational motion, 366 seismometer, 558
position, time vs., 3233, 33, 34, 35, 35, 36, 60 refrigerators, use of freon and, 672673 semimajor axis of ellipse, 282, 285
position vector, 7677 relative measurement, 4 related to energy, 291
positive acceleration, 3940 relativity: Svres, France, 5
positive velocity, 39 of motion, 31, 115118 shear, 445446, 447t, 449
potential energy, 218 of speed, 31, 31 shear modulus, 447448
of conservative force, 236243 relativity, general theory of, 394 Shoemaker-Levy comet, 299
curve of, 244247, 244 resistance, air, 49, 51, 61, 111, 181, 181 significant figures, 1415, 18
Index A-61
simple harmonic motion, 469476 spring balance, 136, 136, 151 comparison of, 611, 612
conservation of energy in, 483 spring constant, 183 Fahrenheit, 611, 612
frequency of, 470471 springs, 476479 ideal-gas, 609612
kinetic energy in, 480483 force of, 182184, 183, 184 Kelvin, 604, 609610
period of, 470471 potential energy of, 236237, 237, 241 tensile strength, of solids, 447t
phase of, 471 spring tides, 296 tension, 149150, 149, 151, 155
potential energy in, 480483 Sputnik I, 286, 299, 301 terminal speed, 53
simple harmonic oscillator, 476479 Sputnik II, 286 terminal velocity, 53
angular frequency of, 477 Sputnik III, 286 Tethys, 297
equation of motion of, 477 stabilized laser, 6, 6 thermal conductivity, 638641, 639t
as timekeeping element, 479 stable equilibrium, 432, 432 thermal energy, 248, 616, 629
simple pendulum, 484488 standard g, 5253 thermal engine, efficiency of, 666667
equation of motion for, 485 standard kilogram, 11, 134 thermal expansion, 637
isochronism of, 486, 501 standard meter bar, international, 56, 5 of concrete, 637
sine, 19, 473474, 486 standard of length, 56, 5, 6 linear, coefficient of, 634, 637
formula for derivatives of, 473 standard of mass, 11, 134135 of solids and liquids, 633637, 633
siphon, 595596, 596 standard of speed, 6 of water, 635, 635
SI units, 5, 14 standard of time, 9 thermal stress, 461
sky divers, 53 standard temperature and pressure (STP), 604, thermal units, 249
Skylab mission, 134, 134, 295 607608 thermocouples, 610, 610
body-mass measurement device on, 134, 134 standing wave, 520524 thermodynamics, 661691
sliding friction, 174178, 175, 176, 177, 190 in a tube, 545, 545 First Law of, 662664
slope, 17, 18, 3233 static equilibrium, 430441 Second Law of, 675680
instantaneous velocity as, 3537 condition for, 430 Third Law of, 680
slug, 136n examples of, 432441 thermodynamic temperature scale, absolute, 609
Small Mass Measurement Instrument, 504, 504 static fluid, 575579, 575 thermograph, 628
solar day, 9 static friction, 178180, 179, 180, 190 thermometer:
Solar System, 282 coefficient of, 175t, 179180 bimetallic strip, 610, 610, 636, 637
data on, 285287 equation for, 179 color-strip, 610, 610
solid: statics, 174 constant-volume gas, 609610, 609
compression of, 446, 448 of rigid body, 430433 electric resistance, 610, 610
elasticity of, 445449 steady flow, 569 mercury-bulb, 610, 610, 636, 636
elastic moduli for, 447t steam engines, 671, 671 thermocouple, 610, 610
elongation of, 445449, 445 stopping distances, automobile, 45, 46, 47, 47 third harmonic, 523
shear of, 445446, 448 STP (standard temperature and pressured), 604, Third Law of Thermodynamics, 680
thermal expansion of, 633637, 633 6078 threshold energy, 355
ultimate tensile strength of, 447t straight line, motion along, 2868, 32 threshold of hearing, 538
sonic boom, 552553, 552 streamline flow, 569 tidal flow, 99
sonography, 544 streamlines, 569571 tides, 120
sound: velocity along, 584 spring, 296
intensity level of, 542t stream tube, 569570 time:
speed of, 543545, 559 stress, thermal, 461 atomic standard of, 9
sound waves: stringed instruments, 546 Cesium standard of, 9
in air, 538539 strong force, 191 Coordinated Universal, 9
diffraction of, 554 sublimation, 642 position vs., 3233, 33, 34, 35, 35, 36, 60
intensity of, 538, 540543, 543 suction pump, 592 standard of, 9
Space Shuttle, 142, 280, 280, 290291 Sun, escape velocity from, 292 unit of, 910
specific heat: superposition, of waves, 516520, 518 velocity vs., 61
at constant pressure, 644 superposition principle, 138 time-dependent angular acceleration, 376378
at constant volume, 644 for waves, 516517 time of flight, of projectiles, 109110
of a gas, 644647 supersonic aircraft, sonic boom and, 552553, 552 time signals, 9
specific heat capacity, 630 surface tension, 566 top, 415
speed: synchronization of clocks, 4, 5, 133n tornado, pressure in, 590
average, 2931, 30t synchronous (geostationary) orbit, 271272 torque, 395399
of bullet, 356 Syncom communications satellite, 271272, angular acceleration and, 400
in circular motion, 371 290291 angular momentum and, 410416
initial, 111 system of particles, 305337 equation of, 400
launch, 111 center of mass in, 313323 power delivered by, 397
of light, 6 energy of, 327328 rotational motion and, 405
molecular, in gas, 615 kinetic energy of, 327328 static equilibrium and, 430441
most probable, 615, 615 moment of inertia of, 378384 torque vector, 410, 411
after one-dimensional elastic collision, 345347 momentum of, 306313, 324 torr, 578
as relative, 31, 31 system of units (SI), 5, 14 Torricelli, Evangelista, 578
of sound, 543545, 559 Torricellis theorem, 585
standard of, 6 Tacoma Narrows, 523524, 524 torsion balance, 277, 277
terminal, 53 Tampa Bay, Fla., 99 totally inelastic collision, 348
unit of, 30 tangent, 19 traction apparatus, 149, 149
velocity vs., 3334, 96 tangential acceleration, 371372 trajectory of projectiles, 105, 106, 107, 111, 111
of wave, 510 temperature, standard pressure and, 604, 607608 transfer of heat, 638641, 641
of waves, on a string, 513516 temperature scales: transformation, heat of, 642
sphygmomanometer, 579 absolute, 604 translational acceleration, 402
spin angular momentum, 409 absolute thermodynamic, 609 translational motion, 29, 95, 95, 366, 404
Spirit of America, 136, 136 Celsius, 611, 612 of Earth, 120
A-62 Index
transverse wave, 508 three-dimensional, 7981, 79, 80 modulation of, 518

triangle, right, 19 unit, 79, 79 ocean, 553
Trieste, 589, 589 velocity, 98100 periodic, 509516
triple-point cell, 609, 609 vector triangle, 73 period of, 510, 510
triple point of water, 609, 609 velocity: plane, 537
trombone, 546 acceleration as derivative of, 41 power transported by, 516
trumpet, 546 addition rule for, 115116, 117 sound, see sound waves
sound wave emitted by, 538 along streamlines, 584 speed of, on a string, 513516
turbulent flow, 571 angular, 369t, 376377, 471 standing, 520524
turning point, of motion, 470 angular, average and instantaneous, 369 standing, in a tube, 545, 545
turning points, 244245 average, 3235, 33 superposition of, 516520, 518
average, in three dimensions, 101102 transverse, 508
UFOs, 557 average, in two dimensions, 95 wave crests, 509510
ultimate tensile strength, 447t of center of mass, 323324, 348 wave equation, 513
ultrasound, 538, 539 components of, 9598, 197, 199 wave fronts, 537, 541542, 541
unbound orbit, 245 escape, 292 circular, 537
uniform circular motion, 112115, 112, 113, 125, of flow, 566, 568 plane, 537
184190 horizontal, 103108, 103, 106, 107, 108 spherical, 537
unit of length, 58 instantaneous, see instantaneous velocity wavefunction, 509
units: magnitude of, 96 harmonic, 513516
consistency of, 16, 18 muzzle, 287, 331 wavelength, 510513
conversions of, 1617, 18 negative, 39 wave motion, 508509
Units, International System of (SI), 5, 14 positive, 39 wave number, 511
units of force, 135136, 141 speed vs., 3334, 96 wave pulse, 508509
unit vector, 7980, 79 terminal, 53 wave speed, 510
cross product of, 85 time vs., 61 wave trough, 509510
universal gas constant, 604 vectors, 98100 weak force, 191
universal gravitation, law of, 131, 272276, 278 Venturi flowmeter, 585586, 596, 596 weight, 11, 141142, 141
universality of acceleration of free fall, 49, 49 Venus, 285t, 286, 286 apparent, 187188, 187
universality of free fall, 49, 49 Verne, Jules, 300 mass vs., 141
unstable equilibrium, 432, 432 violin, 546, 546 weightlessness, 142, 142
Uranus, 272, 285t, 286 sound wave emitted by, 538 simulated, 589
viscosity, 566 white noise, 538
Vanguard I, 286 viscous forces, 181 winches, 441, 441, 458459, 458
vaporization, 642, 642t volcanic bombs, 94, 100, 100, 105 wind instruments, 546
variable force, 211213, 211, 212, 213, 214 volume, 13 wing, flow around, 571, 584
vector addition, 7276, 72, 73, 74, 89 compression of, 446 work, 205218
commutative law of, 74 Von Mayer, Robert, 629 calculation of, 218
by components, 7879 vortex, 546, 546 definition of, 205
vector product, 8386, 84, 85 done by constant force, 205, 208
vectors, 6993 water: done by gravity, 207
acceleration, 100101 thermal expansion of, 635, 635 done by variable force, 211213, 211, 212,
addition of, see addition of vectors triple point of, 609, 609 213, 214
components of, 7786, 78, 9598, 97, 99, water molecule, moment of inertia for, 389 dot product in definition of, 208209
101 waterwheel, 215216, 216, 217 frame of reference in calculation of, 208,
cross product of, 8386, 84, 85 Watt, James, 254 208
definition of, 72 watt (W), 254, 540 integrals for, 212213
displacement, 69, 7072, 70, 71, 88, 96 watt balance, 11, 11 internal, in muscles, 208
dot (scalar) product of, 8183, 81, 83, 86, wave, 507564 in one dimension, 205208, 206
208209 amplitude of, 511 in rotational motion, 395399
instantaneous velocity, 98, 98 angular frequency of, 512, 513516 in three dimensions, 208210, 209, 210
multiplication of, 75, 8186 beats of, 518 zero, 238239
in navigation, 71 constructive and destructive interference for, work-energy theorem, 215, 236, 400
negative, 75, 75 517
notation of, 71 frequency of, 510511 yaw, 366
position, 7677 harmonic, 510513 Youngs modulus, 447448, 447t, 460, 479
resultant of, 72, 74 intensity of, 540
subtraction of, 75 longitudinal, 509 zero work, and conservative force, 238239

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At 1.1 times the speed of

CONCEPTS IN CONTEXT Concepts

15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 469

T he motion of a particle or of a system of particles is periodic, or cyclic, if it repeats again

15.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION Online

Simple harmonic motion is a special kind of one-dimensional periodic motion. In any

(a) (b) (c) When motor

FIGURE 15.1 (a) The motion of a particle

470 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

simple harmonic motion x A cos(t ) (15.4)

15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 471

(a) (b) (c)

p/w p/w t p/w

472 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

arises from a special geometrical relationship between simple harmonic motion

Circular motion is converted

FIGURE 15.5 Rotating wheel

15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 473

and differentiation of this velocity gives the acceleration

vmax A (15.14) maximum velocity

FIGURE 15.6 Sequence of snapshots at

474 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

When displacement has a

x (0.0120 m) cos c (314s) t d

0.0060 m (0.0120 m) cos c (314s) t d

15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 475

In an atomic-force microscope (AFM), a cantilever beam with

476 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

15.2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 477

Consequently, the frequency and the period are

v 1 k angular frequency, frequency, and

tor is called isochronism.

478 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

With m 8 kg and T 0.4 s, this becomes

Suppose that the astronaut in the chapter photo has a mass of

15.2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 479

With this value of ,

480 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

15.3 KINETIC ENERGY AND

K 12 mv2 12 m[v A sin(vt d)]2

Since m2 k [see Eq. (15.18)], we can also write this as

For simple harmonic motion, with x A cos(t ), this becomes

U 12 kA 2 cos 2(vt d) (15.30)

15.3 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 481

At this time, mass has both Total energy

FIGURE 15.12 Kinetic energy and potential energy of a simple

E 12 kA 2 (15.32) energy of simple harmonic oscillator

482 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

By means of Eq. (15.32), we can express the maximum displacement in terms of

xmax A 22E>k (15.33)

vmax 22E>m (15.35)

E 12 kA 2 12  2.1  103 N/m  (0.20 m)2 42 J

At t 0, the astronaut is at rest at x 0.20 m. The kinetic energy is zero and

15.3 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 483

E 12  1.3  10 19 J 6.5  10 20 J

484 CHAPTER 15 Oscillations

Online 15.4 THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

15.4 The Simple Pendulum 485

Hence the equation of rotational motion (15.38) becomes

ml 2 mgl sin u (15.40)

or, since the angular acceleration is  d 2dt 2,

u A cos (t d) (15.45)

E 12 kA 2 12 2.1 103 N/m (0.20 m)2 42 J

E 12 1.3 10 19 J 6.5 10 20 J

ml 2 mgl sin u (15.40)

or, since the angular acceleration is d 2dt 2,

12 2.1 103 N/m [(0.200 m)2 (0.185 m)2] 6.1 J

FIGURE 3 Plot of 900 900 initial