European Journal of Marketing

A factor analytic study of the sources of meaning in hedonic consumption

Gillian C. Hopkinson Davashish Pujari
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Gillian C. Hopkinson Davashish Pujari , (1999),"A factor analytic study of the sources of meaning in hedonic
consumption", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 33 Iss 3/4 pp. 273 - 294
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 A factor analytic study of the A factor analytic
study in hedonic
sources of meaning in hedonic consumption

consumption
Gillian C. Hopkinson 273
Manchester School of Management, UMIST, Manchester, UK and
Davashish Pujari
University of Bradford Management Centre, Bradford, UK
Keywords Consumer behaviour, Consumer marketing, Factor analysis, Marketing research,
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Marketing theory, Sport

Abstract Reports a study that analyses the sources of meaning for kayak sport amongst its
consumers. Key aspects of hedonic consumption are discussed, along with its relevance for other
areas of consumption. Extant research in adventure sports, from which the survey instrument is
derived, is discussed and the issues that it raises are highlighted. Factor analysis is used to
identify the underlying dimensions of meaning of consumption. Explanation of these factors
endorses and extends the extant theory developed through qualitative research.

1. Introduction
``Experience'' is gaining popularity in marketing research. Interest in the
experience of consumption is growing and more frequent reference is made to
the consumption of experience. Despite this, there is still a paucity of published
work that explores how people consume experience or why they choose to do
so. One form of experience that merits further attention is participation in
sports.
In this paper we report the findings of a quantitative study of the sources of
meaning underlying participation amongst kayakers in the UK. The study
builds upon published ethnographic research in the consumption of adventure
sports (Arnould and Price, 1993; Celsi et al., 1993). In choosing to research the
meanings that underlie the consumption of kayak sport our objectives are to
empirically test the meanings identified in extant research, and to determine
whether meaning is consistent amongst consumers of a sport or whether this
differs systematically according to demographic factors.
Firstly, we look briefly at the idea of hedonic consumption, relating this to
the substantive area of our research. In doing so, we highlight the relevance of
this research within a broader marketing context. We then outline research
undertaken by Celsi et al. (1993) and Arnould and Price (1993), and identify
some questions arising from that research. Our research and findings are then
presented. Conclusions are drawn and marketing implications highlighted.

2. Hedonic consumption
Hedonism is defined as ``the doctrine that pleasure is the highest good; the European Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 33 No. 3/4, 1999, pp. 273-290.
pursuit of pleasure; a life-style devoted to pleasure-seeking'' (The Chambers # MCB University Press, 0309-0566
 European Dictionary, 1993). Whilst few people are able to devote themselves entirely to
Journal of pleasure, the quest for hedonic experience is widespread. Hedonic experience is
Marketing associated with pleasure, arousal (Campbell, 1987), fantasies, feelings, and fun
(Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982). Campbell (1987) stresses the important role of
33,3/4
the individual in their own hedonic experience. Emotion is spontaneous and
intense yet self determined, the unrestricted imagination is controlled
274 ultimately by the participant, hedonism creates the opportunity for the
individual dream. Through hedonism we create enchantment or endow the
world with magic (Campbell, 1987).
Arnould et al. (1997) explore magical aspects of the river rafting experience.
Some aspects of experience that they describe as magical have been identified
also as aspects of the sacred (Belk et al., 1989). Both have associations with
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special times and special places. They involve ritual and mystery. Descriptions
of both the sacred and the magical highlight the intense involvement and
commitment of the individual. Through participation in the sacred,
``communitas'' is created.
communitas is a sense of community that transcends typical social norms and convention ... a
sense of camaraderie that occurs when individuals from various walks of life share a common
bond of experience, such as skydiving and flow, that all participants consider special or
sacred (Celsi et al., 1993, p. 12).

That is, the individual enters a transcending community of camaraderie. The

individual also experiences ecstasy and ``flow''. Flow involves the centring of
attention or absorption in an activity; through flow the person achieves
transcendence and gains a sense of control over environment and self.
Descriptions of sacred and magical experience then highlight the simultaneous
loss of self and the gaining of individual control that is associated also with
hedonic experience. These qualities explain the special significance that
hedonic consumption has within the creation of identity (Scheibe, 1986) so that
such forms of consumption are extremely potent in the realisation of ``the
extended self'' (Belk, 1988).
Participation in sport is one form of hedonic consumption. The consumption
of sport through participation takes place in special places (the ``hallowed turf''
of the cricket pitch) it involves ritual (the rugby songs) and takes place at
special times (the midnight deep sea dive or ``the Saturday match'').
Participation is removed from the everyday world, and through participation
flow and communitas are achieved. Other areas of hedonic consumption that
possibly share these characteristics include the arts (either as a spectator or
participant), leisure (e.g. travel or bingo), entertainments, spectator sports and
many areas of education. The distinction between these categories is blurred;
consumption often spans several categories.
Sports participation then is an area that, though currently under researched,
merits research attention as an area of hedonic consumption. We see hedonic
consumption as an important area of consumer behaviour in its own right and
 also believe that insights generated in this area will contribute in more A factor analytic
mainstream areas of marketing research and activity. It will do so in several study in hedonic
ways. consumption
Firstly, participation in sports does involve the consumption of products
such as teaching services or sporting goods. Kayakers themselves, in our focus
groups, vied with each other to argue the greater value of their boats than their
cars. Hedonic consumption might not be ``about'' economic exchange, but the 275
extent to which it provides escape from ``the panopticon of the market'' (Firat
and Venkatesh, 1995) is questionable. Knowledge about the consumption of
sport has implications for the marketing of sports related goods and services
and for the use of sporting images to promote other goods.
Secondly, consumers have been identified who value experience above
possessions. These include ``non-materialists'' who are hedonically oriented
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(Richins, 1994b), and older groups of consumers (Schiffman and Sherman,

1991). Research related to hedonic consumption can provide insight into such
groups that eschew possessions.
Sports deserve fuller attention as one area of public policy and public
marketing. There is general societal approval of this as well as other acts of
sacred consumption (Belk et al., 1989). Sports are associated with healthy and
wholesome living. Their importance for society is confirmed by the sight, on
UK national news, of Tony Blair uncomfortably ``scoring a goal'' to launch a
homework project.
In addition to these practical applications, we believe that hedonic
consumption relates very directly, and can therefore contribute, to ideas
highlighted in the emerging post-modern marketing perspective. Postmodern
theory questions the relationships between consumption and production. The
separation of the two is broken down (Firat et al., 1995). The consumer is
involved in production and in the creation of product meaning. The consumer
is also ``produced'' through consumption as consumption is an act of
identification. This perspective is particularly pertinent to sports, its relevance
arises from the sacred qualities of sport's consumption. It is as likely that
someone would be described as ``being consumed by'' a sport as be described as
``consuming'' a sport. The former phrase indicates the high level of involvement
in sports participation, and the loss of ``the everyday self''. In being consumed,
the everyday is lost and transcendence is gained. The participant enters a
different, a sacred or magical world of communitas and flow. In that world the
individual determines emotional experience and creates their own dreams and
meanings. Participation becomes an important part of how the individual
identifies themselves, so the participant is produced through consumption.
Production and consumption, the produced and the consumed are confused or
fused. Sports participation involves the simultaneous ``production and
consumption of the spectacle'' (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995). The spectacular is
emphasised by the rituals of sport, by the cheerline or by spectators wearing
team colours to participate (as consumers?) in the production of the spectacle.
 European Since the consumption of sport so clearly illustrates postmodern marketing
Journal of thought, insights generated in this area can inform postmodern approaches in
Marketing other consumption areas.
Participation in adventure sports has received some research attention
33,3/4 within academic marketing journals. Published research, which is
predominantly ethnographic in style, has produced rich insights into the
276 consumption experience (Arnould and Price, 1993; Celsi et al., 1993). The
current research builds upon that cited and provides a quantitative analysis of
their findings within a related environment. We now review these two pieces of
research and their findings.

3. Background to the current research

The current research takes the insights provided by Celsi et al. (1993) and
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Arnould and Price (1993) about the meaning of consumption in sports and uses
these as the basis of a quantitative study. The two studies were both conducted
over an extended period of time and based upon observation and interview.
They explore the meaning of consumption for skydivers and for white water
rafting trip participants. Both reports provide evidence of high levels of
involvement by participants, both talk of the experience of flow and describe
ritualistic aspects of, and communitas created by, participation. Both studies
also show an evolution in the relationship between the consumer and the
experience. The act of consumption has an important effect in terms of
bringing about change in the values and the outlook of the consumer. White
water rafters are acculturated during a trip, a process facilitated and assisted
by the service provider (Arnould and Price, 1993; Price et al., 1995). Celsi et al.
(1993) document the evolution of motivation as skydivers gain experience.
These two pieces of work illustrate the hedonic consumption aspects of
adventure sport.
Arnould and Price (1993) talk of three ``dimensions of satisfaction'' amongst
white water rafters. These they label ``harmony with nature'', ``communitas''
and ``personal growth and renewal''. The quantitative research they report
supports their categorisations. Celsi et al. (1993) identify three ``motivating
factors'' for skydivers which they label as ``normative'', ``hedonic'' and
``efficacy''. Each motivation changes through time. We regard these
``dimensions of satisfaction'' or ``motivating factors'' as the sources of meaning
associated with consumption of the two sports. The three sources of meaning
identified in the two studies we work with are not identical but there are strong
similarities.
The normative motivation is associated amongst novice skydivers to
compliance with expectations of others. This is internalised as the participant
accepts the group identity and finally adopts the norms operating within the
community of skydivers. We see normative motivation as being linked to the
communitas dimension of satisfaction identified amongst white water rafters
(Arnould and Price, 1993).
 Efficacy motives amongst skydivers progress from survival to achievement A factor analytic
and to personal identity. The personal growth and renewal dimension of the study in hedonic
Price and Arnould (1993) study, which includes all items relating to skills consumption
acquisition, is reflected in the efficacy motive.
Hedonic motives commence with thrill seeking and are replaced by pleasure
and transcendental flow as the skydiver becomes more experienced. The
hedonic aspect of skydiving arises from the evolving attitude towards the 277
dangers of the sport. This third dimension differs from the third dimension
identified amongst river rafters. Pleasure, in the study of river rafters, is linked
to the opportunity that participation offers to enjoy a river environment, and
the experience of harmony with nature.
The sources of meaning identified in these two studies of sport's
consumption can be compared to the meanings that have been found to attach
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to possessions. Richins (1994a) identifies four sources of meaning for

possessions. These are ``utilitarian value'', ``representation of interpersonal
ties'', ``enjoyment'' and ``self expression''. We would not expect utilitarian value
to figure in sports participation. The remaining three categories of meaning are
however comparable to the categories established by Arnould and Price (1993)
and Celsi et al. (1993).
We summarise the sources of meaning identified in the three cited studies in
Table I. The comparison indicates similarities in the meaning created in the
consumption of experience and of goods and thus supports the claim that
further research in this area has a broader application.

4. Context of the current research

We selected the context of the current study, white water kayaking, because of
its similarities to rafting and skydiving. The environment of the activity is the
same as that of white water rafting. Kayak and rafting however differ in that a
rafting trip is usually a one off or occasional act of consumption whereas
kayakers tend to be repeat or regular participants in the sport. The emphasis in
kayak sport is upon the expertise and experience of the individual; in
comparison rafting is a group activity led by a qualified rafter and the expertise
of individual consumers is less critical. That kayak sport involves repeat
consumption and the acquisition of skills over a prolonged period makes this
sport comparable to skydiving. Kayak sport also occupies a central position in

Authors Sources of meaning

Richins (1994a) Enjoyment Interpersonal ties Self-expression

Arnould and Price Harmony with nature Communitas Personal growth and
(1993) i.e. exposure to nature renewal i.e. challenge,
escapism skills acquisition, risk
Celsi et al. (1993) Hedonic motives Normative motives Efficacy motives Table I.
i.e. thrill/pleasure/flow i.e. external/group Survival/achievement/ Sources of meaning in
identity/communitas personal ID. consumption
 European relation to rafting and skydiving in terms of danger level (figures reported in
Journal of Celsi et al., 1993). We therefore see kayak sport as combining aspects of the
Marketing contexts of the research that informs this study. For this reason we see kayak
33,3/4 as an ideal context in which to explore the insights provided by the cited
research. The identified similarities allow us to address three issues that arise
from the juxtaposition of the published research in rafting and skydiving, these
278 three issues are now outlined.
Firstly, the roles of thrill and risk are perceived differently in the two studies
and therefore become a focus of interest in this study. Arnould and Price (1993)
find that items reflecting risk (``I felt a sense of adventure'' and ``I felt an
adrenalin rush'') load alongside items reflecting skill acquisition. Celsi et al.
(1993) argue that thrill and skill acquisition are distinct. Thrill occurs at an
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early stage as a hedonic motive, whereas skill development relates to efficacy,

that is to knowledge and sense of self. Amongst advanced skydivers
perceptions of risk are relatively low and three explanations for this are offered.
Possibly, it is argued, advanced skydivers are able to calculate risk and thereby
avoid high levels of risk. Possibly, as participants extend their experience there
is an illusion of control, or possibly participants simply become acculturated to
risk. All these theories offer explanations for why river rafters (participating in
an occasional or one off sport) and novice skydivers allude to riskiness more
than advanced sports participants. Nevertheless, it seems that ``thrill'' remains
an elusive, and inadequately explained concept, and one that the current
research can illuminate. In particular we are interested to see how the idea of
``thrill'', skill acquisition and levels of experience relate in our study.
Secondly, an aspect of repeat consumption highlighted by Celsi et al. (1993)
is that of addictive or compulsive consumption. We intend to explore this issue
further in the current research. Addiction and adrenalin are often mentioned by
skydivers. Illustrative statements seen as indicating ``addiction'' in that study
include: ``it's like an addiction, I suffer withdrawal when I haven't jumped in a
while'' and ``I love it, man, I just can't get enough'' (p. 15). These statements
illustrate the importance of the activity to the participant but provide no
rationalised account of that importance. The failure to rationalise a feeling of
addiction emerged also in our preliminary focus groups conducted amongst
kayakers. Kayakers showed no doubt at all in assessing their level of addiction
to the sport but were unable to analyse its origin. They resolutely asserted a
particular level of addiction even when that was challenged by spouses or
friends. Celsi et al. (1993) attribute the addictive aspect of skydiving to thrill
and to the ``incredible high'' that this produces. The need to progress to more
skilled forms of skydiving derives from the need to constantly intensify
sensation in order to reproduce the high. However, they note that an addiction
model of consumption does not adequately explain the complexity of behaviour
of consumers. In view of the one off character of river rafting, addiction is not
identified by Arnould and Price (1993). The role of addiction in hedonic
 consumption is not fully explained by extant research. The context we chose A factor analytic
and the discussions in focus groups indicate that this can be illuminated in the study in hedonic
current study. consumption
Finally, this research provides a statistical examination of diversity of
motivation amongst participants, an issue that previous research has not
addressed. Demographic factors affect the subjective enjoyment across several
activities (Unger and Kernan, 1983), but the extent to which these differences 279
operate amongst participants of any one activity is not clear. In this research
we are able to assess differences across demographic groups, and amongst
groups of different experience levels, in their motivation to kayak.
Additionally, there are five main kayak disciplines (white water recreational,
slalom, racing, rodeo, and polo), we will be able to assess whether motivation
differs between discipline groups.
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5. Design and distribution of the survey instrument

Statements reported in the studies of skydivers and white water rafters were
selected, included amongst these were the survey items used by Arnould and
Price (1993). The appropriateness of statements for this research context was
tested in three informal focus groups composed of white water kayak paddlers.
Each focus group was tape recorded. The groups represented a wide age range,
and kayak paddlers of all the disciplines. In each focus group, participants
started by discussing the reasons why they enjoyed paddling. The selected
statements were then read out, and focus group participants responded to
them.
The recordings were later reviewed and final selection for the survey
instrument was made. Statements were selected on the basis of focus group's
responses to them. We included all statements that appeared to have a meaning
to our participants. Other statements were excluded because they did not
reflect the kayak context. Discussions were then reviewed and statements
added to the instrument where aspects of participation had been raised by
focus groups that were not adequately covered in the instrument. In particular,
questions concerning friendship were added because of the importance of
discussions about this aspect of participation. It appeared that the views
reported in the cited research did not fully explain the interpersonal aspects of
kayak sport.
Statements in the survey instrument were preceded by the phrase ``I enjoy
canoeing because...''. Respondents ranked statements on a five point scale
ranging from 1 strongly agreed to 5 strongly disagree. The statements are
shown in Table II.
Survey questionnaires were distributed through ten kayak equipment
retailers and whitewater venues throughout the UK. The survey was endorsed
by the national sporting body, the British Canoe Union (BCU). Further
questions included in the survey were specific to the aims of the BCU, and lie
outside the scope of this paper.
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280
33,3/4

Table II.
European
Journal of
Marketing

Factors describing
meaning in kayak sport
Factor name Mean Variable Cronbach's
Code (% of variance) Variables loading on factor Item sourcea responseb loadings alpha

V ``Enjoyment'' (31.9) It makes me feel I am in a different world A&P enjoyment 2.771 0.82721 0.8741
X I rediscover what really matters A&P communitas 3.051 0.81387
U I escape into a different world A&P enjoyment 0.76950
Q I get a new perspective on nature A&P enjoyment 0.66311
W I feel closer to my friends A&P communitas 2.746 0.62393
Y I feel needed by the group Focus group 3.195 0.57234
I To experience it is the only way to understand it CRL communitas 2.153 0.52409
E "Self expression" (9.1) It is fun CRL enjoyment 1.246 0.73489 0.8127
G It is a great thing to do with my friends Focus group 1.695 0.63357
F It is something I pursue with my friends Focus group 1.619 0.61733
N There is so much more I can do and learn CRL self-expression 2.059 0.60556
P I feel personally challenged A&P self-expression 2.017 0.60154
R Manageable risks that make a run difficult attract me CRL from Klausner c 2.220 0.52952
D I look forward to many challenges I haven't met yet 2.161 0.46878
B ``Communitas'' (8.2) There is strong camaraderie amongst paddlers CRL communitas 2.136 0.80011 0.8362
H There is great closeness amongst paddlers CRL communitas 2.237 0.79982
L ``Addiction'' (6.4) It is a release, it relaxes me CRL general 2.220 0.78459 0.6872
A It is my way of letting tension out CRL general 2.398 0.71637
O It's like an addiction CRL enjoyment 2.314 0.47471
Y My skills are appreciated by others. A&P communitas 0.47462
Z ``Danger'' (5.0) The uncontrollable dangers attract me CRL from Klausner c 3.381 0.75738 0.6289
M It scares the hell out of me CRL enjoyment 3.136 0.71262
K It's such an incredible adrenaline rush A&P self-expression 2.263 0.56114
CRL enjoyment
C ``Competition'' (4.4) It allows me to be very competitive Focus groups 2.875 0.81463 0.6205
T I like the people I meet paddling Focus groups 2.119 0.55059
J I make new friends through paddling A&P communitas 1.797 0.43099
Notes: a A&P = Arnould and Price (1993), CRL = Celsi, Rose & Leigh (1993), thematically attributed as demonstrated in Table I
b
Scale: 5 = strongly disagree; 4 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 2 = agree; 1 = strongly agree
c
CRL quotes taken from Klausner (1968) illustrating attitudes towards risk control
 Approximately 200 surveys were dispatched but it is inappropriate to calculate A factor analytic
response rates since questionnaires were not dispatched to individuals. The study in hedonic
distribution method was selected as the most effective to reach a random consumption
sample of consumers actively involved in kayak sports. A total of 118 usable
questionnaires were returned (two questionnaires were rejected as unusable).
The characteristics of respondents are shown in Table III. There is an obvious
bias in the sample towards male respondents aged 22 or over. That this reflects 281
the characteristics of the kayak population is supported by BCU membership
data.

6. Analysis of the data

Factor analysis, a popular technique for ``analysis of interdependence''
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(Churchill, 1991) was used to ascertain the principle factors from which
kayakers derive enjoyment in the consumption experience. Factor analysis
identifies a relatively small number of factors that represent relationships
among sets of many interrelated variables (Norusis, 1994). The objective is to
reduce and summarise data with a minimum loss of information (Kim and
Mueller, 1978).
The coefficient alpha was measured to calculate the internal consistency of
the data and assess the quality of the instrument. The Appendix (Table AI)
shows item-total correlation and Cronbach's alpha for the variables analysing
kayak motivation. The number of variables to be used in this analysis is 26 for
a sample of 118 cases. One variable, ``It allows me to be very competitive'' (C),
has item-to-total correlation of less than 0.3. However, this variable is retained
for further analysis as its deletion does not substantially increase the alpha
value.

Frequency Percent

Participation in disciplines
Polo 41 34.7
Race 10 8.5
Rodeo 17 14.4
Slalom 30 25.4
Recreational 94 79.7
Gender
Male 95 80.5
Female 23 19.5
Years in kayak experience
High (over six years) 68 57.6
Low ( six years or less) 50 42.4
Age (years) Table III.
Less than 18 15 12.7 Demographic
18-21 8 6.8 characteristics of
22-30 42 35.6 respondents, and kayak
31 and over 53 44.9 disciplines (N = 118)
 European Since one of our goals in using factor analysis is to obtain factors that explain
Journal of the correlation among the 26 variables, the variables must relate to each other
Marketing for the factor model to be appropriate. Where correlation between variables is
33,3/4 small, it is unlikely that they share common factors (Norusis, 1994). Through
computation of a correlation matrix, tests of the variables confirm whether
factor analysis is appropriate for the data. The correlation matrix indicates that
282 a large number of correlations exceeded the recommended minimum level of 0.3
(Hair et al., 1995; Nunnally, 1978). The Bartlett's test result for sphericity is
large at 1,595.4886 and the associated significance level small at 0.00000. The
result of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy for this
data is 0.82599 which is meritorious (Norusis, 1994). Both tests indicate the
appropriateness of factor analytic techniques in this study.
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In this study, we consider all factors that achieved eigenvalues greater than
one as significant; conversely, we do not include factors with eigenvalues of
less than one. Table IV shows the final six factor solution wherein all factors
have more than one eigenvalue. In all, these six factors account for 65 per cent
of variance in the data.
Principal component analysis (PCA), using orthogonal rotation (VARIMAX)
was chosen for factor analysis. Orthogonal extraction, using varimax rotation
suits our research goals and the need to reduce a large number of variables to a
small set of uncorrelated variables (Hair et al., 1995). Varimax rotation attempts
to minimise the number of variables that have high loadings on a factor,
enhancing the interpretability of the factors (Norusis, 1994).
Factor loadings indicate the correlation between the variables and the
factors so that variables that have large loadings on the same factors are
grouped. A factor loading value of 0.50 and above is considered good and very
significant; 0.45 as fair as 0.32 and below as poor (Comrey, 1973). Hair et al.
(1995) take a factor loading of + or 0.30 to be significant, and a factor loading
of + or 0.50 as very significant. The larger the absolute size of the factor
loading, the more significant the loading is in interpreting the factor matrix
(Hair et al., 1995).
Table II shows the loading values and it confirms that the significance
criteria for the factor loadings of all the variables have been met. Further, factor
reliability was measured by calculating Cronbach's alpha for all the six factors.

Factor Eigenvalue Percent of variance Cumulative percent

1 8.29669 31.9 31.9

2 2.36981 9.1 41.0
3 2.12645 8.2 49.2
Table IV. 4 1.66580 6.4 55.6
Number of factors and 5 1.29485 5.0 60.6
eigenvalues 6 1.15203 4.4 65.0
 Table II shows that alpha values for the final six factors range from 0.7671 to A factor analytic
0.9027. These alpha values are at an acceptable level, making the factors very study in hedonic
reliable. consumption
7. Interpretation of the findings
We have placed great emphasis upon the interpretability of factors. The
ultimate importance of factors is determined by their interpretability. The six 283
factor solution (Table II) is not only statistically robust, but also addresses the
issues raised within the two studies on which this research is based. The six
factors that we have extracted are now discussed against this background. The
factor analysis provides interesting insight into the two issues identified as
arising from the studies on which we based the research. Firstly, the
relationship between skill acquisition, risk and relationship with nature in the
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context of our study, and secondly, the addictive aspects of the sport.
All the items which Arnould and Price (1993) relate to ``harmony with
nature'' load onto factor one. The inclusion of two ``social'' items (``I feel closer
to my friends'', ``I feel needed by the group'') suggests the need to define this
factor more broadly in the current study. The two social items refer to the
relationship between the individual and others or to social belonging. We
regard this factor as relating to the individual's relationship to their
environment, both natural and social, and that the two are indivisible within
the individual's experience. ``To experience it is the only way to understand it''
also loads on this factor, suggesting that this factor accounts for the
indescribable, or the intensely subjective. In line with Richins (1994b) we label
this source of value as enjoyment, and regard it as summarising the holistic
relationship with the environment.
Factor two includes those statements which Celsi et al. (1993) relate to
efficacy, and one of the personal growth and renewal items from Arnould and
Price (1993). Additionally, as with the first factor, this factor includes two social
items derived from the focus groups (``its a great thing to do with my friends'',
``it's something I pursue with my friends''). The two social items refer explicitly
to activity and thus link to other items in this factor that indicate challenge and
development through activity. Both Arnould and Price (1993) and Celsi et al.
(1993) associate challenge and achievement with personal identity, in line with
their analysis we regard this factor as relating to the self expression source of
value (Richins, 1994b).
Factor three refers to the communitas identified in both of the studies on
which this research is based. However, we have noted that not all social items
load onto this factor. This highlights a distinction between communitas and
more general sociability. Communitas refers to a transcendent sense of
community and a sense of camaraderie arising from a common bond of
experience. Viewed in this light it is appropriate that our respondents
differentiated items that imply a very tight form of bonding from items that
reflect looser social ties. It appears that not all social aspects of hedonic
consumption relate to communitas. It is appropriate to talk of communitas but
 European it must also be recognised that sociability as a looser concept is important in
Journal of several aspects of enjoyment. We term factor three communitas, and relate it to
Marketing the interpersonal ties source of value (Richins, 1994b), whilst noting that
interpersonal ties might nevertheless be reflected in other dimensions.
33,3/4 Factor four relates to the negative consequences of non consumption and
includes the item ``It's like an addiction''. We regard this factor as representing
284 addiction. The negative consequences of non participation are seen as states of
tension, and the perceived low recognition of the individual's value by others.
Hirschman (1992) reviews theories of addiction and defines two alternative
forms of compulsive consumption. The ``sociopathic compulsive consumer''
has above average sensation seeking tendencies and experiences strong
impulse drives. They have low feelings of remorse or guilt. The explanation of
addiction provided by Celsi et al. (1993) who stress the need to replicate the
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thrill or sensation, echoes Hirschman's presentation of a compulsive search for

stimulating activities. The second group of consumptive consumers are
``distressed compulsive consumers''. Plagued by feelings of self doubt and
personal inadequacy their compulsive consumption alleviates their anxieties
and allows them to feel more ``in control''. In our research we link addiction
with distressed compulsive consumption. Thus our interpretation of addiction
amongst kayakers is in line with previous findings relating to compulsive
buying (O'Guinn and Faber, 1989) but contradicts previous interpretation of
addiction in adventure sport (Celsi et al., 1993). In support of our surprising
finding we re-iterate the attitudes expressed by participants in our focus
groups. Participants were very clear about their personal levels of addiction but
were totally unable to provide any analysis of their addiction. Possibly it is
hard to admit, or even recognise, the link to negative consequences of non-
consumption that is nevertheless highlighted through statistical analysis.
Factor five includes items relating to danger, fear and adrenalin. It includes
the thrill items (excepting addiction) derived from the Celsi et al. (1993) study.
These items are clearly distinguished from items referring to challenge and
manageable risk which load onto factor two (self expression). The higher mean
scores (denoting disagreement with the question) of danger items reflect the
lower importance of danger than of manageable risk and challenge for our
respondents. The separation of items that reflect danger rather than risk and
the high scores given to the danger items are in line with Celsi et al.'s (1993)
discussion of attitudes to risk. That is, participants do not perceive themselves
as being motivated by danger. This could be because of avoidance of ``danger''
through risk calculation, an illusion of control or through acculturisation to
danger. Factor five includes one item which Arnould and Price (1993) link to
personal growth and renewal (``It's such an incredible adrenalin rush''). The
absence of differentiation between danger and risk amongst river rafters is
possibly attributable to the novice character of participants; that explanation is
in line with the observations of Celsi et al. (1993).
We are unable to explain the three items loading onto factor six, and exclude
them from the analysis.
 8. Differences in sources of meaning amongst kayak participants A factor analytic
Analysis was performed in order to discover whether kayak paddlers are study in hedonic
motivated in the same way, or whether there are systematic differences consumption
according to gender, age, level of experience, or paddling discipline. The data
was classified into two groups for each independent variable. As a surrogate
measure for level of experience the sample was divided into those with six
years or less experience, and those with more than six years of experience. This 285
crude classification of experience was judged nevertheless to be the most
appropriate.
The ``T'' statistic was used to determine if there were inequalities among the
means of groups. Few significant differences in motivation by demographic
factor, experience or discipline were found. Those that do exist (at the 5 per cent
level) are shown in Appendix Tables AII and AIII. With regard to the factors
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identified in this study, danger is a less important source of enjoyment for

females, but otherwise there are no differences in importance of any factor that
relate systematically to demographic groupings. We conclude that differences
in sources of meaning amongst consumers of kayak sport are not associated
with demographic features. This is not to say that consumption is equally
attractive to all demographic groups (note the bias in our sample), but rather
that those who do consume are similarly motivated.
There are also few differences relating to experience level. This is contrary
to the evolution of motivation suggested by Celsi et al. (1993). This finding may
arise from our classification of experience, or may arise from the difference in
methods between this and the Celsi et al. (1993) study. Possibly, respondents
presented with rather objective statements show little variance according to
experience level, whilst observational research is better able to locate subtle
changes as participant's own vocabularies and descriptions evolve over time.
The most significant difference in meaning across factors that we found
relates to choice of kayak discipline. Those white water kayakers who also
participate in canoe polo are significantly less motivated by factor one
(relationship to environment). Since polo is the one discipline that is practised
in swimming pools the finding that polo players place less emphasis upon
relationship to the natural environment is not surprising. Rather more
surprising is that those who participate in polo, the one team discipline, also
place less emphasis upon the social environment (I feel needed by the group, I
feel closer to my friends). This apparent anomaly could perhaps be explained
through further research in attitudes towards the social environment in other
team sports, such as cricket and football. Perhaps participants derive
enjoyment from their own effort despite the presence of the team. Systematic
differences with regard to factors were not found for the other disciplines
(recreational, slalom, racing, and rodeo).

9. Conclusions and implications

In the context of kayak sport our findings relating to the sources of meaning for
kayak consumers are broadly supportive of published research in areas of
 European sport consumption. We propose five dimensions to hedonic consumption.
Journal of These are, relationship to environment (social and natural), challenge or
Marketing personal growth, communitas, addiction and danger. There are few differences
in the importance of the five dimensions according to demographic, discipline
33,3/4 or experience level groupings. Our findings contribute to or extend previous
theories of adventure sport consumption in several ways. We review these,
286 commenting upon their implications.
Firstly, our findings indicate that danger and risk are clearly distinguished
by kayakers. Generally our respondents value manageable risk and challenge
much more highly than danger. Secondly, our research endorses the idea that
communitas exists amongst sport participants. However, the research
highlights the unique character of communitas and the need to distinguish this
from looser aspects of sociability. The distinctions this research draws both
Downloaded by La Trobe University At 21:15 28 February 2016 (PT)

between risk and danger and between communitas and sociability are
important for marketing research and practice. Concerning research, whilst
interpretive methods are able to produce a richer understanding of the
consumption of experience, this quantitative study highlights the need for
caution in exploring these aspects of experience.
The distinctions that we find are important also in terms of the marketing of
sports, of related goods and in the use of sporting images in communications. For
example, the British Sports Council (phone conversation) reports that ``club sports''
(e.g. cycle racing) are declining, whilst ``freedom sports'' (e.g. mountain biking) are
increasing in participation. The rejection of club based sports might be explained
by the perception that these are formal, tightly bonded groups and therefore
differentiated from other forms of sociability. This would have implications for
marketeers working with other experiential or hedonistic products.
Our third key finding relates to addiction. The feeling of addiction in kayak
sport relates to the avoidance of negative consequences of non-consumption. In
this way we see addiction as being associated with ``distressed compulsive''
rather than ``sociopathic compulsive'' kayak consumers. Sociopathic
consumers have above average sensation seeking tendencies (Hirschman, 1992)
and whilst that might apply to kayakers, they themselves do not associate
sensation seeking with the feeling of addiction. This finding suggests an
important similarity between addiction to hedonic experience and forms of
addiction that tend to be associated with more destructive consequences such
as compulsive buying. The finding also emphasises the role that sport
participation plays in the creation of identity, since the addiction relates to the
avoidance of negative self images. The study of addiction in sport or to other
experiences deserves further study.
We believe that the dimensions discovered in this research have a relevance
beyond the consumption of sports. We have noted the high involvement of
consumers in sport participation. This is an area in which production and
consumption are blurred, and in which consumption becomes a means of
identification. Possibly the dimensions we found apply more generally to the
consumption of experience and high involvement goods. That this could be so
 is indicated by similarities between this and Richin's (1994a) study of A factor analytic
possessions. On the basis of comparison with that study we propose that study in hedonic
meaning in consumption arises from personal growth or self expression, from consumption
communitas, or tight association with others, and from a feeling of well being
within the environment, either social or natural. We see addiction and
attraction of danger as being additional sources of meaning that apply to
different extents in different consumption contexts. 287
Our research is narrow in scope, addressing specific issues raised by other
research in related contexts. Hedonic consumption, and the consumption of
sport certainly merits further attention using a variety of methods. In this case,
we feel that very valuable insights were produced with the painstaking
methods used by the researchers whose work we have used. Our much briefer
and more limited study in a related context does not contradict their
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interpretations so much as draw attention to some areas that merit further

consideration or research. In this respect we believe that the use of statistical
methods to explore research based upon other methods has been useful.

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Appendix

Variables Corrected item-total correlation Alpha if item deleted

A 0.3833 0.9048
B 0.4653 0.9028
C 0.2233 0.9084
D 0.6587 0.8990
E 0.4366 0.9036
F 0.3071 0.9052
G 0.4708 0.9028
H 0.4183 0.9037
I 0.5776 0.9004
J 0.5846 0.9009
K 0.6121 0.8997
L 0.5221 0.9017
M 0.3422 0.9062
N 0.5710 0.9006
O 0.6356 0.8991
P 0.6389 0.8995
Q 0.5545 0.9010
R 0.5273 0.9015
S 0.3573 0.9048
T 0.4323 0.9035
U 0.6788 0.8984
V 0.6120 0.8996
W 0.6053 0.9001
Table AI. X 0.5899 0.9002
Item-total correlation Y 0.5101 0.9019
analysis Z 0.3173 0.9069
 Polo Age A factor analytic
Dependent Mean Mean study in hedonic
variables (N = 77) (N = 41) t (df) p N = 15 N = 53 t (df) P
consumption
V 2.53 3.21 3.01(116) 0.003 2.26 2.60 0.96(66) N.S.
X 2.85 3.41 2.52(116) 0.013 2.66 3.00 0.94(66) N.S.
U 2.38 3.00 2.89(116) 0.005 2.06 2.60 1.63(66) N.S.
Q 2.51 2.92 2.02(116) 0.046 2.26 2.50 0.79(66) N.S.
289
W 2.61 3.00 1.93(116) 0.056 2.20 2.58 1.27(66) N.S.
Y 3.00 3.56 2.95(116) 0.004 2.73 3.13 1.25(66) N.S.
I 2.09 2.26 0.76(116) N.S. 1.40 1.08 2.11(66) 0.039
E 1.22 1.29 0.55(116) N.S. 1.13 1.16 0.26(66) N.S.
G 1.61 1.85 1.52(116) N.S. 1.53 1.58 0.24(66) N.S.
F 1.50 1.82 2.23(116) 0.028 1.60 1.52 0.34(66) N.S.
N 1.90 2.34 2.02(116) 0.045 1.66 1.94 0.89(66) N.S.
Downloaded by La Trobe University At 21:15 28 February 2016 (PT)

P 1.97 2.09 0.63(116) N.S. 1.73 1.88 0.53(66) N.S.

R 2.15 2.34 0.88(116) N.S. 1.93 2.39 1.46(66) N.S.
D 2.06 2.34 1.34(116) N.S. 1.40 2.16 2.78(66) 0.007
B 2.09 2.21 0.70(116) N.S. 1.73 2.00 1.00(66) N.S.
H 2.20 2.29 0.41(116) N.S. 1.73 2.11 1.36(66) N.S.
L 2.19 2.26 0.36(116) N.S. 2.53 1.94 2.07(66) 0.042
A 2.29 2.58 1.19(116) N.S. 2.73 2.20 1.54(66) N.S.
O 2.20 2.51 1.30(116) N.S. 1.80 2.30 1.38(66) N.S.
Y 3.00 3.56 2.95(116) 0.004 2.73 3.13 1.25(66) N.S.
Z 3.36 3.41 0.19(116) N.S. 2.20 3.94 5.02(66) 0.000
M 3.06 3.26 0.77(116) N.S. 3.20 3.07 0.28(66) N.S.
K 2.18 2.41 1.05(116) N.S. 2.00 2.32 0.88(66) N.S.
C 3.10 2.73 1.54(116) N.S. 1.93 3.22 3.49(66) 0.001
T 2.10 2.14 0.28(116) N.S. 1.73 2.13 1.69(66) 0.096
J 1.70 1.97 1.60(116) N.S. 1.06 1.94 3.96(66) 0.000
Table AII.
Notes: Scale: 5 = strongly disagree; 4 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 2 = agree; T-test results for polo
1 = strongly agree participants and age
 European Gender Experience
Journal of Dependent Mean Mean
variables N = 95 N = 23 t (df) p N = 68 N = 50 t (df) p
Marketing
33,3/4 V 2.81 2.60 0.71(116) N.S. 2.94 2.54 1.78(116) 0.078
X 3.12 2.73 1.43(116) N.S. 3.07 3.02 0.24(116) N.S.
U 2.66 2.34 1.21(116) N.S. 2.63 2.56 0.34(116) N.S.
290 Q 2.62 2.82 0.83(116) N.S. 2.79 2.48 1.61(116) N.S.
W 2.75 2.69 0.25(116) N.S. 2.70 2.80 0.48(116) N.S.
Y 3.18 3.21 0.12(116) N.S. 3.17 3.22 0.23(116) N.S.
I 2.05 2.56 1.85(116) 0.06 2.27 1.98 1.34(116) N.S.
E 1.16 1.56 2.58(116) 0.011 1.25 1.24 0.08(116) N.S.
G 1.65 1.86 1.12(116) N.S. 1.67 1.72 0.28(116) N.S.
F 1.61 1.65 0.23(116) N.S. 1.66 1.56 0.72(116) N.S.
N 2.04 2.13 0.34(116) N.S. 2.29 1.74 2.73(116) N.S.
Downloaded by La Trobe University At 21:15 28 February 2016 (PT)

P 1.94 2.30 1.53(116) N.S. 2.14 1.84 1.64(116) N.S.

R 2.07 2.82 3.08(116) 0.003 2.30 2.10 1.03(116) N.S.
D 2.08 2.47 1.60(116) N.S. 2.35 1.90 2.31(116) 0.022
B 2.12 2.17 0.21(116) N.S. 2.08 2.20 0.63(116) N.S.
H 2.23 2.26 0.12(116) N.S. 2.14 2.36 1.08(116) N.S.
L 2.17 2.39 0.87(116) N.S. 2.20 2.24 0.17(116) N.S.
A 2.40 2.39 0.03(116) N.S. 2.38 2.42 0.16(116) N.S.
O 2.23 2.65 1.50(116) N.S. 2.51 2.04 2.14(116) 0.035
Y 3.18 3.21 0.12(1160 N.S. 3.17 3.22 0.23(116) N.S.
Z 3.30 3.69 1.22(116) N.S. 3.42 3.32 0.41(116) N.S.
M 3.08 3.34 0.83(116) N.S. 3.38 2.80 2.35(116) N.S.
K 2.13 2.78 2.47(116) 0.015 2.38 2.10 1.32(116) N.S.
C 2.96 3.00 0.11(116) N.S. 3.02 2.90 0.55(116) N.S.
T 2.15 1.95 1.10(116) N.S. 2.05 2.20 0.96(116) N.S.
J 1.78 1.82 0.18(116) N.S. 1.86 1.70 1.01(116) N.S.
Table AIII.
T-test for gender and Notes: Scale: 5 = strongly disagree; 4 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 2 = agree;
experience level 1 = strongly agree
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