II.

Mathematical Backgrounds

2.1 Vector
2.2 Matrix and Linear Algebra
2.3 Function and Differentiation
2.4 Integration
2.5 Introduction to Finite Element Method
2.1 Vector
 Mechanical Quantities
Tensor of order 0
Quantities Physical Q. Mechanical Q. Mechanical Work, power, speed,
Distance, mass
Scalar Q.

Chemical Q. Electronic Q. Solid/Fluid Temperature, heat,

mechanics Enthalpy, entropy

Tensor of order 1
Coordinate, Force
Tensor of order 0 (Scalar Q.)
Displacement,
Heat Vector Q. Velocity, Acceleration,
-Scalar quantity has only magnitude of real number.
transfer Moment, Momentum,
-Real number calculation (+, -, x, /). Function. Stress vector(traction),

Thermal Heat flux

Tensor of order 1 (Vector Q.)
-Vector calculus is needed to learn vector mechanics. Tensor of order 2
-Addition, real number multiplication, inner product, cross product. Stress, Strain,
Strain rate
-Coordinate transformation Moment of inertia

Nothing
Tensor of order 2
-Matrix algebra is needed to understand stress, strain, etc.
-Addition, real number multiplication, matrix multiplication
-Coordinate transformation. Eigenvalue problem. What is CAE?
 Preliminary - Special functions
Trigonometric function a b c
c
sin sin sin
C b h
B
b2 c2 a 2
cos
A
a 2bc
B A B B x3 x2
sin , cos , tan , tan 1 sin x x .., cos x 1 ..
C C A A 3! 2!
sin 1 sin 0o 0, sin 30o 1/ 2, sin 45o 2 / 2
tan
cos cot sin 60o 3 / 2, sin 90 o 1
sin 2 cos 2 1 cos 0o 1, cos30o 3 / 2, cos 45o 2 / 2
sin cos , cos sin , tan sec 2 cos 60o 1/ 2, cos90o 0
sin( ) sin , cos( ) cos
y sin sin 1 y arcsin y

Logarithmic function and exponential function

2 1
y e , y e
x x x
e x 1 x ... y ln x, y
2! x
 Definition of vector
Vector quantity: Vector quantity is defined as the quantity which has direction as well as
magnitude. Vector is a mathematical description of vector quantity.

RB
z
(a) Sliding vector Statics
B
Description of vector a
P
AB
Vector: a, x, a, x, AB A
RA

Magnitude: a, a, a y
Unknowns : RA, RB
(b) Bound vector P
x F
<Definition of vector>
Elasticity
Factors of vector
Essential factors (Mathematical requirements)
Magnitude: Distance between points A and B
Direction: Direction of arrow directing from point A to B Unknowns: deformation
Rigid-body
translation
Selective factors (c) Free vector u
Point of action: Point B
u
Line of action: Line passing points A and B
Unknowns: rigid-body displacement
 Mathematical description of vector

Mathematical description: Component y, x2

a ax a y
2 2

a y , a2
On 2D plane ax
cos 1
a
Row vector: a ax , a y or ax a y a

ax T x, x1
Column vector: a
x y
a , a 0 ax , a1
a y (a) 2D

In 3D space
a ax a y az
2 2 2
z, x3
Row vector: a ax , a y , az az , a3 ai
i cos 1
ax a

Column vector: a a y a x , a y , a z
T

3
a
az 1 2 a y , a2
y, x2
ax , a1 0
Components can make us calculate x, x1 (b) 3D
direction as well as magnitude of a vector.
<Components in the rectangular
Basically, a vector in mechanics means row vector coordinate system>
 Definition of terminology
Zero vector: 0 0 = 0, 0, 0
T

Magnitude of vector a : a ax 2 a y 2 az 2 or a12 a2 2 a32

Direction of vector a : cos 1 ai (i 1, 2, 3)

i
a
Directional cosine : cos1 , cos 2 , cos3
T

z , x3
Unit vector: A vector with magnitude of unity

a
u 1 or u ( a 0) k , e3
a
y, x2
Unit basis vector : i , e1 j , e2
i i = 1, 0, 0 e1
T

x, x1
j j = 0, 1, 0 e2
T

<x-y-z coordinate system
k k = 0, 0, 1 e3
T
and unit basis vector>
 Algebra of vector vector addition
Addition of vectors 2a

a b [ a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3 ]T b a b a b

Multiplication of a scalar and a vector b

a a
a [ a1 , a2 , a3 ] T
Parallelogram
rule
b a b a (b )
Characteristics of vector addition and
scalar-vector multiplication z <Vector addition, scalar-vector
multiplication>
abba az az k
(a b ) c a (b c) a = ax , a y , az
T

( 0 = 0 0 0 )
T
0+a=a a
T
ay j b = bx , by , bz
a + ( - a) = 0 ax i ay
( a + b ) = a + b o j y a + b = (ax bx ) i
i
ax ( a y by ) j ( az bz ) k
( + ) a = a + a
x
( a ) = ( ) a ax i + a y j <Application of vector addition,
scalar-vector multiplication>
1a = a a b [ a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3 ]T [ b1 a1 , b2 a2 , b3 a3 ]T = b a
 Algebra of vector Inner product
Inner product, dot product, scalar product
b1

3
a b ai bi a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 a b = a1 , a2 , a3 b2
T

i 1 b
3 b
Geometric meaning of inner product a

a b a b cos
a b 0 means the two vectors are perpendicular.

Characteristics of inner product <Inner product>

Norm of vector a : a
ab ba
1
a (b c ) a b a c a ( a a ) 2

( a ) b ( a b ) Miscellaneous
a a
aa0
a b a b i j = j k = k i = 0
a a 0 implies a = 0
a+b a b
i i = j j = k k = 1
3 3
ab a b b a
i 1
i i
i 1
i i ba
 Algebra of vector Vector product
Vector product, cross product
i j k
c = a b a1 a2 a3 (a2 b3 a3 b2 )i (a3 b1 a1 b3 ) j (a1 b2 a2 b1 )k
b1 b2 b3
c=ab
Geometric meaning of vector product b b sin
Magnitude: c = a b sin (0 )
a
- Area of parallelogram constructed by the two vectors
a
Direction: Perpendicular to the plane constructed by the two
vectors, following the right-hand rule shown in the figure a
c
Characteristics a <Definition of vector product>

a b b a
a (b c) a b a c
Miscellaneous
(a b) c ( a c) b (a b) c
i j k, j k i, k i j
a ( b c) (a b) c a b c b i i = j j = k k = 0
a b 0 a // b <Right-hand rule>
 Euclidean space and linear combination
k-dimensional Euclidean space Rk a1
a
a a1 a2 ak 2
T
Dimension of vector

= Number of components
ak

Rk : k-dimensional Euclidean vector space,

R k a | a a1 , a2 , , ak ; a i 's are real
T

a b a1 b1 , a2 b2 , , ak bk
T
or k-dimensional real number vector space

a a1 , a2 , , an
T

Linear combination k
n a b al bl
c a
i 1
i i c1a1 c2a 2 cna n l 1
Linearly independent
1
a ( a a) C1 1, 0 C2 0, 1 0 C1 C2 0
T T
2

Linearly independent
The case that the linear combination vanishes only when all ci 's are zero.
1, 2, 3
T

Linearly dependent 1, 0, 1
T

3, 2, 5
T

The case that the linear combination vanishes when any ci is not zero.
Linearly dependent
1, 2, 3 2 1, 0, 1 3, 2, 5 0
T T T
 Coordinate system (C.S) and coordinates
Coordinates
z , x3
Position (components) of a point relative to R.C.S.
( , , )
A vector quantity i i i

Reference coordinate system(R.C.S.) and local C.S. i local coordinate

system
i
Orthogonal coordinate system i
y , x2
x , x1
Rectangular coordinate system reference coordinate system

Cylindrical coordinate system <Coordinate systems

and coordinates>
Spherical coordinate system
z z z
x r cos x r sin cos
y r sin y r sin sin
z zz
r
z r cos
y y y

x x r x

a) R.C.S. b) C.C.S. c) S.C.S.

<Typical orthogonal coordinate systems>
 Examples of vector calculus

Vectors a 2, 5, 3 and b 6, 2, 1 are given and find the followings:

T T

a) a 2b b) 2a b c) a b d) b a e) Angle between a and b

f ) ab g) b a h) b a = a b

a) a 2b 14, 1, 1 b) 2a b 2, 12, 7
T T

c) a b 2 6 (5) 2 3 (1) 1 d) b a 6 2 2 (5) (1) 3 1

e) a b a b cos 2 2 52 32 6 2 2 2 12 cos 1558 cos
From a b = 1, cos 1 ( 1/ 1588) 91.45 .
f ) a b (2i 5 j 3k ) (6i 2 j k ) 4k 2 j 30k 5i 18 j 6i i 20 j 34k
g) b a (6i 2 j k ) (2i 5 j 3k ) 30k 18 j 4k 6i 2 j 5i i 20 j 34k
h) From a) and b), b a = a b .
 Example of vector calculus
Area of triangle

C(1,2,0)

A(2,3,5) B(0,2,6)
C
AC i j 5k
AB 2i j k
1 A
ABC AC AB
2 B
i j k
AC AB 1 1 5 ( 1 5)i (10 1) j (1 2)k 6i 11j k
2 1 1
1
ABC 62 112 12 6.285
2
 Example of vector calculus
Calculate vector OB .
(n)

(n )
20i 40 j
n
t
2 2
n i+ j
B 2 2
A

O OB ?

(n )
OA OB
(n )
OB OA
(n )
2 2
OA OA n ( n)n (10 2 20 2) ( i j)
2 2
OA 10i 10 j
OB (20i 40 j) ( 10i 10 j) 30i 30 j
 Example of vector calculus
For two given vectors a and b, calculate the vector starting from the end
of vector b and perpendicularly ending onto the vector a.
a 12i 3 j 4k
b 2i 3 j 5k
x a
b

B
Calculate u a,the unit vector of a.
12i 3 j 4k 12 3 4
ua i j k
12 2 32 4 2 13 13 13 x
b A
x BX OX b
OX OX u a OXu a a
X
24 9 20 ua
OX u a b b cos 1 O
13 13 13
12 3 4 14 36 69
x 1 ( i j k ) (2i 3 j 5k ) i j k
13 13 13 13 13 13
 Example of vector calculus
Calculate T in the three-dimensional space.

t (n)
(n)
27i 18 j 36k

T 3 3 3
n i j k
3 3 3
T n

N N
O T ?
(n )
ON OT
(n )
T OT ON

(n )
3 3 3
ON ON n ( n)n (9 3 6 3 12 3) ( i j k ) 15i 15 j 15k
3 3 3
T (27i 18 j 36k ) (15i 15 j 15k ) 12i 33 j 21k
T 40.915
2.2 Matrix and Linear Algebra
 Definition of matrix and terminology
Matrix: Rectangular array of numbers, called elements
Upper triangular matrix
a11 a12 a1n

A [ aij ] 21
a a22 a2 n a11 a12 a1n
m n matrix :
U
0 a22 a2 n
am1 am 2 amn
0 0 ann
Terminologies :
Lower triangular matrix
Row vector : 1 n matix
a11 0 0

L 21
Column vector : m 1 matrix a a22 0

Square matrix : n n matrix an 2 an 2 ann

Off-diagonal term : aij (i j )

Diagonal term : aii (i 1,2, , n) for an n n square matrix

Zero matrix Diagonal matrix Unit (identity) matrix

0 0 0 a11 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 D
0 a22 0 I [ ij ] 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 ann 0 0 1
0 Kronecker delta
 Definition of terminologies continued

Submatrix: A matrix made by deleting some rows or columns from the original matrix

Principal submatrix: A submatrix made by deleting simultaneously some i-th row(s) and
the same i-th column(s) of a square matrix

Transpose of a matrix A , A T : A matrix of which (i,j) component is equal to the (j,i)

component of matrix A , aijT a ji
T
a11 a12 a1 n a11 a21 am 1
Symmetric matrix: A A , aij a ji
T a21 a22 a2 n a12 a22 am 2

am1 am 2 amn a1 n a2 n amn
Skew-symmetric matrix: A T A , aij a ji
1 1 3
Rank: Number of independent rows = number of independent columns A 2 0 2

3 1 5

Singular matrix: n square matrix of which rank is less than n Rank(A) = 2

Skew-symmetric Symmetric
Principal submatrix
a11 a12 a13 0 a12 a1n a11 a12 a1n
a21 a22 a23 a22 a23 a11 a13 a11 a12 a11 a22 a33 a12 0 a2 n a12 a22 a2 n
a a a a32 a33 a31 a33 a21 a22
31 32 33 a1n a2 n 0 a1n a2 n ann
 Matrix and Vector

Expression of mn matrix using m row vectors or n column vectos

a11 a12 a1n ai1 a1 j

a T

1

a a
A aij 21 22
a2 n a T b , b , bn
a
ai i 2 bj a2 j
2 1 2

a mT
am1 am 2 amn ain a
mj
 Addition of matrixes and multiplication of
real number and matrix
Definition of matrixes

C A B cij aij bij

Multiplication of real number and matrix

C A cij aij

Properties

A+BB+A aij bij bij aij A + B = B + A

A + ( B + C) ( A B ) + C
A+0=A A + ( A) 0
( A + B) A B
( ) A A A
( A) ( ) A 1A A

( A B)T A T B T ( A)T A T
 Product of matrixes
Definition of product of matrixes A and B
C = A B : Product of m p matrix A [aij ] and q n matrix B [bij ]
p q l is the essential requirement for cij to be defined. j
l
cij aik bkj ai b j aiT b j j
b1 j
k 1

b2j
Properties of matrix product
i cij i ai1 ai 2 ai 3 ail b3 j
( A )B ( A B ) A ( B )
A ( B C ) ( A B )C

( A B )C A C B C bl j
A(B C) AB AC
m n matrix m l matrix l n matrix
( A B )T B T A T
In general, AB BA and AB 0 does not always mean A 0 or B 0
I A A, AI A , I x x

Eaxmple: Show (AB)T =BTAT using the following two matrixes

1 8
1 2 4 5 2 AB 0 7 gives (AB)T 1 0 22 ,
22 3 8 7 3
A 2 5 3 , B 2 1
4 1 3 0 2 1 2 4
B T A T 5 2 0 2 5 1 1 0 22 . Therefore (AB)T BT AT .
2 1 2 4 3 3 8 7 3

 Role of matrix
Role of matrix : Ax = y Transformation
x y
Mathematical operator A
Transfer function or transformation Mapping
Transformation
matrix
Law of coordinate transformation of a vector :

x ' cos sin x T cos sin

F F
Fy ' sin cos Fy sin cos

Fx ' cos Fx Fy ' sin Fx cos sin Fx '

F
Fy ' cos Fy Fx ' sin F
y sin cos y'

t1 cos , sin t 2 sin ,cos

T T
Transformation T=[t1 , t 2 ]
matrix

t1 t 2 1 , t1 t 2 0 Orthonormal matrix
<Coordinate transformation>
1
T T T

Inverse matrix i cos sin i

-1
cos sin 1 cos sin cos sin TT j sin cos j

sin cos | T | sin cos sin cos
 Application of the role of matrix

Matrix in mechanics

Displacement-load relation
AE
L
L 1 1 Q u x

AE 1 2 2 1 P u y
AF=U
L Q, u x

AE 2 2 1 1 u x Q AE
P, u y
1 u y P
KU=F
2 2L 1

Displacement-load relation

xx yx zx
fx 0 Approximate approach to differential equation
x y z
+ Finite element approximation
xy

yy

zy
fy 0 KU = F, (K 2 M ) U = 0
x y z
Stiffness
xz yz zz
fz 0 matrix
Displacement
x y z vecor
Load vector
 Expression of the second order of tensor
Stress tensor z A point Strain tensor
in 3D mechanics
z face
xx xy xz zz
xx xy xz

ij yx yy yz zx zy ij yx yy yz
xz yz

zy zz zy zz
zx y face zx
xy yx yy
x xx y
x face
Undeformed
Coordinate transformation

y

b a

45
x
Deformed
xy 2 xy

0 1/ 2 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 1/ 2
0
1/ 2 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 1/ 2

x xy cos sin x xy cos sin x xy cos sin x xy cos sin

yx y sin

cos yx y sin cos yx y sin
cos yx y sin cos
 Determinant of a matrix
a11 a12 x1 b1 Ax = b
Determinant of a 22 matrix: a a x b
21 22 2 2
D det A aa11 aa12 a11a22 a12 a21 x1 1 a22 a12 b1
x
21 22 2 a11a22 a12 a21 a21 a11 b2
1 a22b1 a12b2

Determinant of a 33 matrix : det A a21b1 a11b2
a11 a12 a13 If det A = 0.0 ,
a a a a a a
D det A a21 a22 a23 a11 a22 a23 a12 a21 a23 a13 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 32 33 31 33 31 32 A is singular.

Determinant of an nn matrix :
a11 a12 a1n a22 a23 a2 n a21 a22 a2 n
a21 a22 a2 n a a33 a3n a31 a33 a3 n a11M11 a12 M12
D det A
a11 32

a12


an1 an 2 ann an 2 an 3 ann an1 an 3 ann
a11C11 a12 C12
n n
D a ji C ji aij Cij ( j 1, 2, , n), Cij (1)i j M ij (Cij : cofactor)
i 1 i 1

n n
D (1)i j a ji M ji (1)i j aij M ij
i 1 i 1

M ij: Minor, Determinant of the (n-1)(n-1) submatrix, i-row and j-column were removed.
 Characteristics of determinant of matrix
Characteristics

A AT
AB = BA = A B
If a row or a column of a matrix is multiplied by c,
determinant of the newly formed matrix is c-multiple of the original value.
When two rows (or columns) are changed, the resulting determinant becomes negative
of the original value.
When a row (or column) is added by any other row (or column) multiplied by a constant,
the resulting determinant does not change.
When row vectors (or column vectors) of a matrix are linearly dependent, its
determinant vanishes.
a11 a12 a13
a a a a a a
D det A a21 a22 a23 a11 22 23 a21 12 13 a31 12 13
a32 a33 a32 a33 a22 a23
Applications a31 a32 a33
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
D det A ca21 ca22 ca23 c det A D det A a31 a32 a33 det A
a31 a32 a33 a21 a22 a23
a11 a12 a13
D det A a21 a22 a23 0
2a11 a21 2a12 a22 2a13 a23
 Quadratic form and kind of matrices
1 T
Quadratic form: x Ax f U
1 T 1
u K u, K v T M v
2 2 2
Positive definiteness of A a11 a12 a13
a22 a23 a11 a13 a11 a12
a32 a33 a31 a33 a21 a22 a11 a22 a33
a21 a22 a23
When all eigenvalues are positive. a a a
31 32 33
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 a22 a23 a33
When determinants of all principal submatrices are all positive. a a a a32 a33
31 32 33

xT Ax 0 for any x and xT Ax 0 only when x 0.

Positive definite
Positive semi-definiteness of A
1 1 x1
( x1 x2 ) 2 x2 2 ( x1 , x2 )
When all eigenvalues are non-negative. 1 2 x2

When determinants of all principal submatrices are all non-negative.

xT Ax 0 for any x.
Positive definiteness of A = Negative definiteness of A

Positive semi-definite
1 1 0 x1 1 1 0
( x1 x2 ) ( x2 x3 ) ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) 1 2 1 x2
2 2
1 2 1 0 2 1
0 1 1 x 1
3 0 1 1 1 1
 Inverse matrix

Inverse matrix of nn matrix A: A-1 Inverse of matrix A multiplied by B

( A B ) 1 B 1 A 1
AA -1
I or A A I
-1
1 1 1 1 1
( A BCD ) D C B A
1 1
A -1 [Cij ]T [ Aij ]*
det A det A Linear equation
[ Aij ]* [Cij ]T : Adjoint of matrix A Ax b
C11 C21 Cn1 A 1 A x A 1 b , I x A 1 b , x A 1 b
C C Cn 2
[ Aij ]* 12 22
1 0 0
C C Kronecker delta
Cnn 0 1
1n 2 n 0
1 if i j I ij
ij
0 if i j
Orthonomal matrix and transformation matrix 0 0 1

If A A -1 D , i.e., diagonal matrix, the matrix A is orthogonal matrix.

If A A T I, ai a j ij , the matrix A is orthonomal matrix, i.e., A -1 A T.
Transformation matrix is othonomal, i.e., TT I . Therefore, T T .
-1 T T

-1
cos sin 1 cos sin cos sin TT 0.85 0.53 0.85 0.53 1 0
sin cos | T | sin cos sin cos 0.53 0.85 0.53 0.85 0 1

 Similarity transformation
What is similarity transformation? x xy cos sin x xy cos sin

yx y sin cos yx y sin cos
A RAR 1

Characteristics of the similarity transformation

20
Eigenvalues of A and A are identical.
1
Relationship of eigenvectors : x = R x 60

( x : eigenvector of matrix A , x : eigenvector of matrix A ) 80

Application of transformation matrix

1 7 .1

i ' j ' Ti ' pT j ' q pq 1 1 7 .1

i ' p ' Ti ' p pq T j ' q
Ti ' p pqT j ' q
2 31.7 o
1

T T T T
T -1

0.85 0.53 80 60 0.85 0.53 117.1 0

0.53 0.85 60 20 0.53 0.85 0 17.1

 Eigenvalue problem
x 2y 0 1 2 x 0
Homogeneous linear equation: Ax = 0
x cy 0 1 c y 0
x = 0 : Trivial solution, meaningless solution
1 2
IF A = 0 , there is x 0 but Ax 0. 0 c2 x: y
2 5 5
:
1 c 5 5

Eigenvalue problem : Ax = x or ( A I )x = 0
Rows or columns of the n n matrix ( A I ) should be linearly dependent.
: Eigenvalue or characteristic value
x : Eigenvector or characteristic vector

Characteristic equation: A I 0
Requirement that rank of A I is less than n , or that A I is singular.
Non-linear equation of order n .
If the matrix A is symmetric, the n real-value solutions exist, i.e., 1 , 2 , , n.

Orthogonality of eigenvectors : xi x j = 0 A i I xi 0
A xi i xi , A x j j x i xTj A xi i xTj xi , xTi A x j j xTi x j
xTj ( A A T )xi ( i j )xi x j
If A A T 0, ( i j ) x i x j 0 x i x j 0
 Eigenvalue problem buckling
Problem Solving
P v( x) C3 2 sin x C4 2 cos x
P

EI v (0) C1 C4 0
3 x v ( L) C1 C2 L C3 sin L C4 cos L 0
x v3 ( x ) C sin
v1 ( x ) C sin
L EI , L
L
v(0) C4 2 0
v( L) C3 2 sin L C4 2 cos L 0
2 x
v2 ( x ) C sin 1 0 0 1 C1 0
L
1 L sin L cos L C2 0

0 0 0 2
C3

0
GE and homegeneous solution
0 0 sin L cos L 4
2 2
C 0
P P
v (4) ( x) v( x) 0, 2
EI EI
v( x) C1 C2 x C3 sin x C4 cos x sin L 0 L n n / L(n 1, 2, , )

BCs v( x) C3 sin x
v (0) 0, v( L) 0
Pn EI n x
M b (0) 0 v(0) 0 L n Pn n 2 2 2 vn ( x) C sin
EI L L
M b ( L ) 0 v( L ) 0 Pcr EI
L Pcr 2 2 Buckling load
EI L
 Eigenvalue problem Principal stresses
(n )
t

S
t x( n ) xx xy xz nx ' T T 1
(n )
yz n y
t y yx yy
(n )
t

t z( n ) zx zz nz
Coordinate transformation rule
N
Nn
zy of tensor of order 2
-Similarity transformation-
Cauchys formula
ij
xx xy xz nx 0 xx xy xz nx nx

Problem: yx yy yz n y 0 yy yz n y n y
yx
zx zy zz nz 0 zx zy zz nz nz

Characteristic equation
xx xy xz
Solution: yx yy yz 3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0 1 , 2 , 3
zx zy zz
Principal value
xx xy xz nx nx Invariants (stress, strain, etc.)
yy

yz n y i n y nn (i )
yx First, second, third invariant

zx zy zz nz nz Principal direction
 Example of determining principal values of stress
20
1 7 .1

60 1 1 7 .1
2 31.7 o
80 1

Eigenvalue problem and its characteristic equation, eigenvalue (principal stress)

80 60 n1 n1 80 60 1 117.1
60 20 n n 0 0.53
2 2 60 20 2 17.1 31.7o
0.85

Eigenvector (Principal direction) 0.53

tan 1 31.7 o
0.85
i ) 1 117.1
80 -117.1 60 n1 0
60 n 0 37.1n1 60n2 0
20 117.1 2
1
n 0.85
n 1
1

ii ) 1 17.1 n2 0.53
80 17.1 60 n1 0 n
2
0.53
60 n 0 60n1 37.1n2 0 n
2
1
20 17.1 2 n2 0.85
 Application of Mohrs circle
1 7 .1
Given stress state Calculation of principal stresses
1 1 7 .1
20 y 1 c R 117.1 2 31.7 o
1
b
2 c R 17.1
60
80 x
40
a Principal stresses and
directions

Mohrs circle
y 20 a , b , ab ?

80 20
2
y
R
60 61.7
2
b
1 0 3 .9
2
R 67.1
4 0 .0 xy
2 P sin 1 63.43 P 31.7
b

2 c 1 a 40 R
2 P a c R cos(180 80 2 P )
80 xy 60 3.88
80 20
a 67.1cos 36.57 3.88
2
x 50 67.1cos36.57 103.9
b
x 80 ab sin 36.57 40.0
2.3 Function and
Differentiation
 Quantification of a function in 2D
Height of mountain Atmospheric pressure

h h ( x, y ) p p ( x, y )
 Mechanics and unknown functions
1-Dimensional 2-Dimensional 3-Dimensional
 Rate of change
Average rate of change y v( x)

y v( x)
v(b) v(a)
A.R.C. =
ba
x
ab
x
Instantaneous rate of change
a b
v(b) v (a )
v( a ) lim
Derivative ba ba
v( x x) v( x) dv v ( a x ) v ( a )
v( x) lim lim
x 0 x dx
x 0 x
tan
Mexicans in Mexico city do not recognize its height. Height itself does not
make things slip while the slope decides the slipping speed of them.
Dust wind in Africa does not affect on me. However, that in Gobi desert has much
influence on me, implying that rate of change is of great importance.
 Ordinary differentiation and slope
Beam deflection Differentiation
y v( x) ( ( x) v( x)) v( x x) v( x) dv
v( x) lim
x 0 x dx

v( x) in beam theory

EIv( x) M b ( x) M b ( x) V ( x)
V ( x) ( EIv( x))
y

1 d
lim
O'

B

ds s 0 s


d d dx
1 v( x )
v( x )
D
s
3

( x)
ds dx ds

A C 2
s 1 v 2

x
 Ordinary differentiation
y f ( x x) f ( x)
Average rate of change :
x x
Ordinary differentiation

Setting x 0 on the average rate of change

Only for functions with one dependent variable
Partial differentiation: For functions with more than 2 independent variables

dy
Ordinary differentiation of y f ( x) , y
dx
dy y f ( x x) f ( x) df
y lim lim f ( x )
dx x0 x x0 x dx
y y
It is defined when lim lim
x0
x x0 x
Geometric meaning: Slope at a point on curve
Mathematical meaning: Instant rate of change
Name: First derivative
d 2u [ L]1
Dimension of y [ y] : [ y ] / [ x] [a 2 ] 2
, m/s 2
dt [T ]
 Approximation of a function
First order of approximation When f ( a ) and f (a ) are known at x a

f1 ( x) f (a) f (a)( x a) f ( x) f1 ( x) O( 2 ) f (a) f (a)( x a) O( 2 )

Second order of approximation When f ( a ) , f (a ) and f ( a ) are known at x a

1
f 2 ( x) f (a) f (a)( x a) f (a)( x a) 2 f ( x) f 2 ( x) O( )
3

Third order of approximation When f ( a ) , f (a ), f ( a ) and f ( a ) are known at x a

1 1
f3 ( x) f (a) f (a)( x a) f (a)( x a) 2 f (a)( x a)3 f ( x) f3 ( x) O( )
4

2 6

n-th order of approximation ,

n 1 (i )
f ( x) f n ( x) O( n1 ) f (a) xi O( n1 ) lim
xa
O ( ( i 1)
) / ( x a ) i
0
i 0 i !
 Taylor series
First order of approximation of the function f ( x) at x a x

f (a x) f1 (a x) f (a) f (a)x x a x x x x
f ( x x) f1 ( x x) f ( x) f ( x)x f1 ( x) f (a) f (a)( x a)

n-th order of approximation of the function f ( x) at x a x

n 1 (i )
f (a x) f n (a x) f (a)xi
i 0 i ! ax
1 1
f ( x x) f n ( x x) f ( x) f ( x)x f ( x)x 2 f ( n ) ( x)x n
2! n!
f ( x x ) f n ( x x ) f ( x ) f f f
2 n

1 df 1 d2 f 1 dn f
f x , f 2
x , , f
2 n
x n
a0
2 n
1! dx 2! dx n! dx
x x
f n (a x), f n ( x x): n -th Taylor series expansion
1 (i )
f
df
x: First approximation f ( x) f (0) xi
dx i 0 i !
lim n1 f / x n 0 1 1 1 1
x 0 e xi 1 x x 2 x3 x 4
x
i 0 i ! 2 6 24
 Ordinary differential equation (ODE)
ODE: Equation having ordinary derivatives.

Order of ODE: The maximum order of differentiation of the derivatives in ODE

Linear and nonlinear ODEs: A linear ODE has all linear terms with respect to
functions and derivatives. Otherwise, the DE is a non-linear equation.
Example of linear DE: y p ( x) y q ( x) y f ( x)
Example of non-linear DE: y yy f ( x) , y y 2 f ( x)

Examples in solid mechanics

dM b ( x) dV ( x)
V ( x) 0 , q ( x) 0 Equation, solution = discrete real value
dx dx
1 1 x 0 x 1

1 1 y 2 y 1
( EIv( x)) Mb q( x)

Solution of linear ODE = Homogeneous solution ( yh ) + particular solution ( y p )

yh : yh p( x) yh q( x) yh 0
y p: Particular solution which satisfy balance between the right and left of the DE.
Homogeneous solution involves unknown constants which are determined by boundary
conditions and initial conditions.
 Boundary conditions, boundary value problem
Boundary Value Problem (BVP) = DE + Boundary conditions (BC)

Differential equation
Order of DEs in mechanics is even, denoted as 2 p.

Number of unknown constants is equal to order of the DE, which are determined
by boundary or initial conditions.

Classification of boundary conditions

Essential BC: Boundary conditions involving the derivatives of order 0 ~ ( p 1) .

Natural BC: Boundary conditions involving the derivatives of order p ~ (2 p 1).

Examples load intensity function

d 4v
DE: EI 4 q ( x )
dx

BC: (Essential BC) v (0) 0, v(0) 0

(Natural BC) M b ( L) EI v( L ) 0, V ( L) EI v( L) 0
 Ordinary differential equation
Beam deflection
M b ( x) V ( x) v( x)
M b ( x)
EI
dV ( x )
q( x)
dx
EIv( x) M b ( x)
( EIv( x)) V ( x)

( EIv( x)) q( x)
Boundary conditions:
Essential BC: v (0) 0, v( L) 0, v(0) 0, v( L) 0

Natural BC: V (0) P , M b (0) M , V ( L) P ,

M b ( x) EIv( x)
V ( x) M b ( x) ( EIv( x))
v(0) 0
M b (0) 0

v(0) 0 V ( L) 0
v( L) 0 v(0) 0 M b ( L) 0
v(0) 0
V ( L) W M b ( L) 0
v(0) 0
M b ( L) 0
 Multi-variable vector function
Multi-variable function
Function of two or more independent variables
For two or more dimensional problem

Classification of multi-variable function

Only one dependent variable: Scalar function
Two or more dependent variables: Vector function

Multi-variable function in mechanics 1

u x xy u y ( x 2 y 1)
2
Two independent variables:

Beam deflection curve v v ( x, t ) when exerted

load is a function of time, i.e., P P (t )
In plane strain problem, displacement or velocity
is described by ui ui ( x, y ) or vi vi ( x, y ) , i.e.,
a function of coordinates.
 Partial differentiation and gradient

Height of a mountain h h( x, y)

h h(30,10) h(20,10) 500 600

10 900
x x 20 x 10 800
y 10
700
(20,15) 600
h h(20,15) h(20,10) 700 600 Y
20 y
500
y y
x 20
y 10 5
O
x
H
(30,10)
(20,10)
h h( x x, y ) h( x, y ) h
lim lim
x x 0 x x 0 x
y fixed

Stress in 2D x x ( x, y ) x ( x x, y)
x ( x, y )
x ( x x, y ) x ( x, y ) x x
lim x lim
x x 0 x x 0 x
y fixed
( x, y) ( x x , y )
 Definition of partial differentiation
Average change of multi-variable function
Average change of multi-variable function in two directions are defined as follows:

( x x , y ) ( x , y )

x x
y fixed

( x , y y ) ( x , y ) Example:
A set of points of which x-coordinates
y y
x fixed
are x x. .

Partial differentiation:

( x x , y ) ( x , y ) x
lim lim y fixed
x x x
x 0 y fixed x 0 ( x, y )
( x , y y ) ( x , y )
lim lim
y y y
y 0 x fixed y 0

When ( x, y ) is a function of independent variables x and y ,

the following ordinary derivative can not be defined because there are
so many points which are apart from ( x, y ) by x in the x -direction.
d
lim
dx x0
x
 Gradient of function
Definition of gradient of ( x , y , z )
T
[ , , ] i j k
x y z x y z

Differential operator

i j k
x y z
( f g ) f g
( f g ) g f f g
1
( f / g ) 2 ( g f f g )
g

Geometric meaning of gradient

Example: ( x, y ) ( x 2) 2 ( y 3) 2 P
Gradient at P (5,-1): 10 (0.6 i 0.8 j )
Magnitude: 10, Direction: n 0.6 i 0.8 j
Normal to the contour toward the increasing direction of function
Steepest descent method: Minimization scheme of function in which a new point is
iteratively determined following the negative of gradient.
 Taylor series of multi-variable function
yy ( x , y y)
First order approximation of ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) yx ( x , y y)

xy ( x x , y )
( x1 x1 , x2 x2 , , xn xn ) ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) xx ( x , y )
y
y
x xx ( x x , y )
n v y ( x, y y)
xi O ( 2 ) xy ( x , y) A x R
i 1 xi vx ( x, y) vx ( x x, y) yx ( x , y) yy ( x , y)
y
x R R
x
vx ( x x, y)
y v y ( x, y) R xx ( x x , y )
x x
Second order approximation of ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) x x

n 1 n n
( x1 x1 , x2 x2 , , xn xn ) ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) xi H ij xi x j O ( 3 )
i 1 x 2 i 1 j 1
i

Total differential, d
Hessian matrix
n
( x1 x1 , x2 x2 , , xn xn ) ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) xi O ( 2 )
i 1 x
i

n
d dx1 dx2 dxn dxi d r
x1 x2 xn i 1 xi
d r [ dx1 , dx1 , , dx1 ]T
 Partial differential equations
Continuity equation of incompressible material v y ( x, y y)

v x v y vx ( x x, y)
0 vx ( x, y) Infinitesimal

x y
area
y
x
(v x ( x x , y ) v x ( x , y )) y (v y ( x , y y ) v y ( x , y )) x 0
x
(v x ( x x , y ) v x ( x , y )) / x (v y ( x , y y ) v y ( x , y )) / y 0
y v y ( x, y)
Equation of conduction under steady-state condition
q x q y
q y ( x, y y)
0 k k 0
x y x x x y
qx ( x x, y)
Infinitesimal
qx ( x, y) area
q x k , q y k y
x y x
x
Equation of equilibrium yx
yx y y q y ( x, y)
x yx xy y y
0, 0 Infinitesimal qx
x y x y area qx ( x x, y ) qx ( x, y) x
y x x
x x x q y
Miscellaneous x x q y ( x, y y) q y ( x, y)
y
y
ux ux
x lim
x 0 x
yx
y fixed x
 Boundary value problem Heat conduction
Partial differential problem
ST Sq

k k k
g q c V
x x y y z z t

k,i ,i qg c t
n Sm

Boundary conditions
Dirichlet condition: = on ST Essential BC

Neumann(flux) condition: ( n ) q on S q Natural BC
n

Robin or mixed condition: g on S m Natural/Essential BC
n

, , g , , q : Functions of their related boundaries or constants

n : Outwardly directed normal unit vector
Surface definition: S S Sq Sm , S Sq , S Sm , Sq Sm
 Boundary value problem Elasticity
Partial differential problem xx yx zx P
fx 0
x y z
ij , j fi 0 in V xy yy zy
fy 0
x y z
S VV
1 xz yz zz
ij (ui , j u j ,i ) x

y

z
fz 0
2 S

ij 2 ij kk ij (3 2 ) aT ij
Indicial notation 1
x v y z T

E
x

1 ui u j
Boundary conditions ij ( ) 1 v T
y E y z

2 x j xi
x

z z v x y T
1
ui u i on Sui u x u y u E
xx , yy , zz z
x y z 1 1 1
xy xy , yx yz , zx zx
ti ( n ) ti on Sti 1 u x u y
G G G
xy ( ), etc.
2 y x
ui ti ( n ) g on Smi

S Sui Sti Smi , Sui Sti , Sui Smi , Sti Smi ( i 1, 2, 3)

Discrete description of a complicated function
 Extremization of one variable scalar function

Extremization of y f ( x)
1 2 1 1
f ( x* ) f ( x* ) f ( x* ) f ( x* ) 3 f (3) ( x* ) 4 f (4) ( x* ) :
2! 3! 4!
Local minimization
1 2 1 1
f ( x ) f ( x ) f ( x ) f ( x* ) 3 f (3) ( x* ) 4 f (4) ( x* ) 0
* * *

2! 3! 4!
f ( x ) f ( x ) f ( x ) : Condition for extremum point at x x
* * *

f ( x* ) 0 and f ( x* ) 0
f ( x ) f ( x ) f
(2 n 1)
* *
( x* ) 0 and f (2 n ) ( x* ) 0
: real number of which absolute is sufficiently small.
f ( x* ) f ( x* ) : x x*
Local maximization
f ( x ) f ( x ) : Condition for extremum point at x x*
* *

f ( x* ) 0 and f ( x* ) 0
f ( x* ) f ( x* ) f (2 n1) ( x* ) 0 and f (2 n ) ( x* ) 0
Conditions
f ( x* ) 0 : Necessary condition for an extremum point,
Necessary and sufficient condition for a stationary point which may be
an extremum point or inflection point.
y x 4 , y ' 4 x 3 , y '' 12 x 2 , y ''' 24 x
 Unconstrained extr. of multi-variable function
Extremization of ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) (x) at x x*

( x1* , x2* , , xn* ) ( x1* 1 , x2* 2 , , xn* n )

[ 1 , 2 , , n ] : Arbitrary vector of which magnitude is sufficiently small.

T

Necessary condition: 0 , i 1, 2, , n
xi x x*

Sufficient condition for local maximization at x x* :

Hessian matrix H should be negative-definite
1 T
H ( x* ) O ( ) 0
3

2
n
( x 1 , x2 2 , , xn n ) ( x , x2 , , xn ) i
* * * * * *
i 1 x
1 1
i

1 n n
H ij i j O ( )
3

2 i 1 j 1

Sufficient condition for local minimization at x x :

*

Hessian matrix H should be positive-definite

 Lagranges multiplier method for extremization
An example of minimization problem
Minimize ( x1 , x2 )
subject to h ( x1 , x2 ) 0

Condition for solution c h, c

Directions of gradient should be identical.
( x1 , x2 ) h ( x1 , x2 ) 0
h ( x1 , x2 ) 0
: Lagranges multiplier <Constrained minimization>

Necessary condition of a new function, ( x1 , x2 , ) ( x1 , x2 ) h ( x1 , x2 )

x 0 (or ( x1 , x2 ) h ( x1 , x2 ) 0 )
h
0 (or h ( x1 , x2 ) 0 ) 0
x1 x1 x1
, x1 , x2 : Independent variables h
0
x2 x2 x2
x , : Gradients of variable x =(x, y ) and ,
respectively h( x1 , x2 ) 0

 Generalization of Lagranges multiplier method

Extremization problem with equality constraints

Extremize ( x1 , x2 , , xn )
subject to hi ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) 0 , i 1, 2, , m

Unconstrained extremization problem
Extremize ( x1 , x2 , , xn , 1 , 2 , , m )
m
( x1 , x2 , , xn ) i hi (x1 , x2 , , xn )
i 1

Necessary conditions

xi ( x1 , x2 , , xn , 1 , 2 , , m ) 0 , i 1, 2, , n
i ( x1 , x2 , , xn , 1 , 2 , , m ) 0 , i 1, 2, , m
 Lagranges multiplier method for extremization
An example of minimization problem

Minimize ( x, y ) ( x 2) 2 ( y 3) 2
subject to y x 3 0

y x3 0

P
Extremize ( x, y , ) ( x 2) 2 ( y 3) 2 ( y x 3)

2( x 2) 0
2( y 3) 0 x 1, y 4, 4
y x3 0
 Extremization using penalty method

Extremization problem with equality constraints

Extremize ( x1 , x2 , , xn )
subject to hi ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) 0 , i 1, 2, , m

Unconstrained extremization problem
m
Extremize P ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) Pi hi 2 (x1 , x2 , , xn )
i 1

Pi : Penalty constant
Necessary conditions: xi P ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) 0 , i 1, 2, , n
2.4 Integration
 Lebesque integral and Riemann integral
Integration:
Definite integration: Integral with its integration region specified
b

a
f ( x)dx , ( x, y )dA , ( x, y, z )dV
A V

Indefinite integration: Integral with its integration region unspecified

f ( x )dx , ( x, y )dA , ( x, y, z )dV
Riemann integral(RI) and Lebesque integral(LI)

n n
RI = lim
n
( xi1 xi ) f ( xi ) lim
n
( xi 1 xi ) f ( xi 1 )
i 1 i 1

When upper limit integral should be identical

to lower limit integral, RI exists.

n n
LI = lim
n
yi lik lim
n
yi 1 lik
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1

When the above requirement meets, LI exists.

< Definition of RI and LI >

LI is defined whenever RI is defined. However, RI can not be always defined when LI is defined.
Example: Mixed liquid of 1kg of water and 1kg of alcohol.
 Line integration and its standard form
Line integration
b c b
When f ( x) K
a
f ( x )dx
a
f ( x )dx c
f ( x ) dx
b b
a
f ( x ) dx f ( ) d
a
x, are dummy parameters

b b
uv dx uv a u v dx
b b
(uv ) dx uv a ( u v u v ) dx
b b
a a
a a

When f ( x) dg / dx , the integral can be calculated using

x 2t , dx 2dt
function values at the integration boundaries as follow:
x 4 t 2, x 2 t 1,
b b dg ( x)
f ( x) dx dx g ( x ) a g (b) g (a )
b
4 2
a a dx 2
4 x 2 dx 4(2t ) 2 2dt
1
1 1 1
4( 3) 2 d 4( 3) 2 4( 3) 2
1 dx 1

1 d
3 3
Standard form f ( x ( )) 1 1
d x 4 2 3, dx d
2 2

1 1
x x( ) N1 ( ) a N 2 ( )b N1 ( ) , N 2 ( )
2 2
b dx 1, 1
f ( x) dx f ( x( )) d
b 1

a d 1 1 a
f ( x) dx 1
f ( x( )) Jd
x x( ) a b
2 2 b- a
x x ( ) J Jacobian
2
 Path integral
Path integral: Integration following the path C

W C
F dr = (Fx dx Fx dy Fz dz )
C

dr dx i dy j dz k

C
: It is used instead of C
when the path C is closed.

t2
W
t1
(Fx (t ) x(t ) Fy (t ) y(t ) Fz (t ) z (t )) dt
r r (t ) x (t ) i y (t ) j z (t ) k < Path integral >
dr dx i dy j dz k = x dt i + y dt j + z dt k

Path independent integral: Path integral which can be calculated only by function
values at both ends of the path

F
or Fx
, Fy , Fz
x y z
( x, y, z ) : Potential
Total differential: d dx dy dz
A
x y z

F
C
dr d
B

F = 0
Fz Fy Fx Fz Fy Fx
, ,
y z z x x y
When potential is defined such that F , = 0 .
 Area integration

( x, y)dA or ( x, y)dx dy ( x, y )
x x

A A
J
( , ) y y
Transformation of integration area


( x, y) dx dy =
A A
( x ( , ), y ( , )) J d d

x x ( , ), y y ( , ) :Transformation functions which meet one-to-one corresponding.

1 1
x x ( ) a b
Standard form for integration over a quadrilateral 2 2
1 1
1 1 N1 ( ) , N 2 ( )

A
( x, y ) dx dy
1 1
( x ( , ), y ( , )) J d d 2 2

4 4
(1 )(1 )
x N i ( , ) xi , y N i ( , ) yi N1 ( , )
i 1 i 1 4
(1 i )(1 i )
N i ( , )
4
1 2 2 3 1, 3 4 1 2 1

Four internal corner angles should be less than 180 .

( xi , yi ): Four corner points of a quadrilateral < Integration region transformation

from quadrilateral to square>
 Volume integration

( x, y, z)dx dy dz
V V
( x ( , , ), y ( , , ), z ( , , )) J d d d
x x x
x x ( , , )
y y ( , , ) ( x, y , z ) y y y
J
z z ( , , ) ( , , )
z z z

< Transformation from hexahedral to cube>

Standard form: (-1,-1,-1), (-1,-1,1), (-1,1,-1), (-1,1,1), (1,-1,-1), (1,-1, 1), (1, 1,-1), (1, 1, 1)
1 1 1
V
( x, y, z )dV
1 1 1 ( x( , , ), y ( , , ), z ( , , )) Jd d d
8 8 8
x N i ( , , ) xi , y N i ( , , ) yi z N i ( , , ) zi
i 1 i 1 i 1

N ( , , ) (1 i )(1 i )(1 i )
i
8
1 2 3 4 2 3 6 7 3 4 7 8 1 (1 )(1 )(1 )
N1 ( , , )
5 6 7 8 1 4 5 8 1 2 5 6 1 8
 Green theorem and Gauss theorem
b dg ( x )
dx g ( x ) a g (b) g (a )
b

Green theorem dx
a

Fy Fx
A x y dxdy C
(Fx dx Fy dy )

Example

A
A
dxdy C
xdy ydx
C

V 2

A
xdxdy x 2 dy
C

Gauss theorem(divergence Theorem) :

F dV
V V
div F d V F n dS or
S
< outwardly directed unit normal
Fx Fy Fz vector on the boundary >
V x y z d V S (Fx nx Fy ny Fz nz ) d S
n : outwardly directed unit normal vector on the boundary
2.5 Introduction to FEM
 Ritz method to differential equation
Boundary value problem
Problem definition
d 2
2 x2 , 0 x 1
Prob. 1 dx
0 0, 1 0
1
( x ) x 2 ( x ) x C1 x C 2
4

12

k 1
Exact : * ( x)
12

1 4
x x

0 0 , 1 0
Variational principle
* x
d 2 x 1 x

1 2
1
Prob. 2 Extremize F ( 2 x ( x ) dx
2

2 0 dx
x x 1
12
x x
1 4

x 2 1 x
subject to (0) 0, (1) 0

F F * x
 Ritz method to differential equation
Extremization of a function and its related algebraic equation

y x( x 1)(2 x 1) 0 Extremize y x 2 ( x 1) 2

Extremization of a functional and its related differentiation equation

d 2T
2 x 2 , 0 x 1, T (0) 0, T (1) 0 ( Prob. A)
dx

dT
2

1
Extremize F (T ) 2 x T ( x ) dx
2
( Prob. B)
0 dx
T (0) 0, T (1) 0
n
Trial function: T ( x ) Ci f i ( x ), T (0) 0, T (1) 0
i 1
 Ritz method to differential equation
d 2

1
Approximation Trial function Extremize F (
1
2 x 2
( x ) dx
0
( x ) C1 x 1 x C2 x 1 x
2
2 dx

subject to (0) 0, (1) 0

Transformation: Function space Finite dimensional vector space

2
C 1 2 x C 2 x 3 x 2 2 2C x 3 1 x 2C x 4 1 x dx
1
1
F ( ) 1
0

1 2
2

2 x 3x 2 dx C22
1
1 1
1 2 x dx C
2 2
1
2

2 0 2 0

1 2 x 2 x 3x dx C C x 1 x
1 1 1
2
1 2
3
dx C1 x 4 1 x dx C2
0 0 0

1 2 1 2 1 1 1
F (C1 , C2 ) F ( ) C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
6 15 6 20 30
F F
Necessary condition forF (C1 , C2 ) to be extreme : 0, 0
C1 C2
1 10 5 C1 1 3 1 1
Linear equation: C1 , C2
30 5 4 C2 60 2 15 6

Approximate solution: ( x)
1
2 x 3x 2 - 5 x3
Exact * ( x ) 1 x 4 x
solution 12

30
 Weighted residual approach to differential equation
d 2 1 d 2 2
Prob. 1
dx 2
x 2
0, 0 x 1 Prob. 2 0 ( x) dx 2 x dx 0
0 0, 1 0 ( x) is arbitrary.
0 1 0 Set of functions

0 0 , 1 0
b b
u v uv a uv
b
a a
x 1 x
2

cos x 1 4
1 1
( x) ( x) 0 ( x) ( x) x ( x) dx 0
2 x x 1 x x
0 12
x 2 1 x
(0) (1) 0 tan x
e log x
x

Assume (0) (1) 0 x2 sin x

0 0 , 1 0
Weak form
* x
[ ( x ) ( x ) x 2 ( x )] dx 0 x 1 x
2
1

0 cos x 1 4
x x 1 x x
(0) 0, (1) 0
12
x 2 1 x
where
where ( x ) isis arbitrary
arbitrary except t hat
exceptthat
tan x
e log x
x

(0) 0 and (1) 0 x2 sin x
 Galerkin approach

( x ) C1 x 1 x C2 x 2 1 x ; C1 and C2 are unknown

Basic function
1 ( x) x(1 x)
Trial function ( x) x 2 (1 x)
( x) W1 x 1 x W2 x 2 1 x ; W1 and W2 are arbitrary 2
Approximate weighting function

0 C1 (1 2 x) C2 (2 x 3 x )W1 (1 2 x) W2 (2 x 3 x 2 ) dx W1 x 3 (1 x) W2 x 4 (1 x) dx 0
1 2

1 1 5 1 1 1
0 x dx , 0 x 4
dx , etc.
W1 0 (1 2 x)(1 2 x)dx C1 0 (1 2 x)(2 x 3 x 2 ) dx C2 0 x 3 (1 x)dx
1 1 1
6 5

W2 0 (2 x 3 x 2 )(1 2 x)dx C1 0 (2 x 3 x 2 )(2 x 3 x 2 ) dx C2 0 x 4 (1 x)dx 0
1 1 1

2
W11 W2 2 0 0 0 , 1 0

W1 are W2 are arbitrary

Linear equations
x 1 x
2

1 0 1 10 5 C1 1 3 1 1 x x 1 1 4
C1 , C2 x x
2 0 30
5 4

2 60
C
2
15 6 x 2 1 x 12

2 x 3x 2 5 x3
1 e log x
x

Approx. solution : ( x) Set of approximate

30 sin x
weighting functions
 Accuracy of the approximate solution
Comparison between approximate and exact solutions

*
xmax 0.029165, xmax 0.029799 Error 2.2%
1 1
0 , 0 , * 1 , 1
* 1 7
Error 20%
12 15 4 30
( x)
1
2 x 3x 2 5 x3

Requirements on basic function i x

30
* ( x)
12
x x
1 4

Linearly independent

i x H p
or i (x) C p 1 ()

Characteristics of solution convergence

Accuracy Accuracy Exact

n n 1 Approximate

( Ci i ( x)) ( Ci i ( x))
i 1 i 1

n xmax
x lim
n C ( x)
i 1
i i * ( x) <Comparison of approximate
and exact solutions>
 Basic idea of Finite Element Method (FEM)
1


1 2 C 1 x for 0 x
Trial function : x C1 1 2 x
1
2
2 2C1 x (1 x ) for x 1
2

7 7 1
Approximate solution : ( x ) x
192 96 2

Superconvergence
1 x
1
1 x 1 2 x
2

Eaxct

FE solution

<Basic function = Interpolation function> <Comparison of FE solution

with exact solution>
 FE solutions with different FEA models
FEM = Ritz or Galerkin method + FE discretization and interpolation (approximation)

FE discretization and interpolation function: N i ( x ) Technique of making basic functions

N i ( x) N i ( x) N i ( x)
N 2 ( x) N 3 ( x)
1 1 1

1 2 3 4
0 1 0
Node 1
Element
( x ) 2 N 2 ( x ) 3 N 3 ( x ) in Finite Element Method
Finite element solutions ( x ) C1 ( x ) C2 2 ( x ) in Ritz or Galerkin method

Exact

FE solutions
 Ritz method to a beam deflection
Definition of a beam deflection problem BVP based on beam theory:

EIv( x) M b ( x) , v(0) 0, v( L) 0 d 2
2
1 x 2
, 0 x 1
dx
v(0) 0, v(1) 0
V ( x)
2

EI 1, w0 2, L 1 V
x
Variational principle: 0 1
dv
2

1
Extremize F (v) 2( x 2 1)v( x) dx M b ( x)
0 dx
subject to v(1) 0 1 M b ( x) 1 x 2
x
0 1
Ritz method
It should satisfy essential boundary condition, v(1)=0

[Ex. 2.1] v ( x ) = C1(1-x ) Solution:

[Ex. 2.2] v ( x ) = C1(1-x 2 ) C2(1-x ) x4 x2 5
v ( x)
*

12 2 12
[Ex. 2-3] v ( x ) = C1 x 2 (1-x ) C2(1-x 2 )
 Ritz method to a beam deflection
[Ex. 2.3] : v ( x ) C1 x (1 x ) C2 (1 x )
2 2

1
F (v ) {C1 (2 x 3x 2 ) C2 (2 x)}2 2( x 2 1){C1 ( x 2 x3 ) C2 (1 x 2 )} dx
0
5 4 1 1 16
C12 C22 C1C2 C1 C2 F (C1 , C2 )
12 3 3 10 15

4 1 C 1
15
3 10
1

1 8 16
C
3 3 2 15

4 3 153 113
v x x x
27 270 270
4 2
x x 5
Exact: v* ( x)
12 2 12