Running head: NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 1

The Effects of Native-Language Support on

English-Language Learners

Katherine Dove

James Madison University

NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 2

Abstract

This paper examines the effects of native language support on ELLs (English-language

learners). This researcher combines information from six peer-reviewed articles, an in-person

interview with an ELL teacher, and an observation of an adult English classroom at James

Madison University's Career Development Center in order to determine whether or not this

support enhances the language-learning process.

NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 3

Introduction

As more states in the United States begin to favor English-only language-learning for

ELLs (English-language learners), a contentious debate has spread all across America. Should

these students be fully immersed in an English-only classroom from day one in order to speed up

the language learning process? Many areas have passed legislation banning the use of native

languages in ELL instruction. For example, in California, Proposition 227 previously disallowed

the use of non-English languages in public school ELL programs. However, numerous studies

have shown the positive effects of native-language support for ELLs.

As this information has become more accepted nationwide, attitudes are changing.

Proposition 58 was passed in California on November 8, 2016. This Proposition repealed

English-only immersion requirements in public schools, effectively allowing the use of L1

(native languages) in ELL classrooms. As more and more classrooms begin implementing the

use of first language support, it's necessary to examine the research to see how effective the use

of L1 in the classroom actually is.

The following research, observations, and data have been collected to examine the

effectiveness of L1 support in the ELL classroom.

Research

The following six studies examine the effects of first-language support on different

groups of ELL students. The students being studied vary in terms of age, country of origin, and
NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 4

first language, but researchers in every study find support for native-language use in the English

classroom.

In an article by Macaro et. al. (2014) titled "Exploring the Value of Bilingual Language

Assistants with Japanese English as a Foreign Language Learners," researchers conducted a

study of Japanese students' experiences in English classrooms with and without L1 support. The

students were divided into three groups: groups A and B were instructed to speak strictly in

English and were not allowed to rely on their native Japanese in the classroom environment.

Group C, however, was encouraged to utilize Japanese as a tool in the classroom to understand

difficult concepts and fill in gaps in vocabulary. All three groups had a professor who did not

speak Japanese, while group C received a bilingual assistant fluent in both Japanese in English.

These students were allowed to ask the assistant questions when they did not have the ability to

do so in English.

The students were tested on their fluency and speaking before and after their three-week

English course. While the bilingual group made the biggest gains in both categories, the results

were not statistically significant, possibly due to the small sample size of the study. However, a

survey of the students found that the reactions to the bilingual assistant were favorable.

In "The Use of First Language in the Second-Language Classroom: A Support for Second

Language Acquisition" by Madrian (2014), the sample of English students being observed is

very different. In Madrian's research, the English learners were Colombian kindergarteners

who were observed during two reading lessons. The lesson plans were created to determine if

native language use in lessons increases comprehension or enhances lesson learning. Two

separate stories were read to the group, one being read only in English while the other
NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 5

incorporated some native language support into the lesson. The students' comprehension and

focus were measured during both lessons.

Overall, there were no overwhelming differences in the students' comprehension of the

stories. However, there was a drastic difference in their level of attention. While listening to the

story with L1 support, there were far less interruptions and more participation from the students.

Even though the students seemed to fare well in both the English-only and L1-inclusive

environments, their teachers noted that the students who had a better grasp of their native

language were able to transfer this knowledge to English, making the language-learning process

much simpler.

In an article by Slocum in 2013 titled "First Language Status and Second Language

Writing", researchers conducted a comparative study of undergraduate students at Alverno

College. These students all came from non-English speaking backgrounds, but each was

required to submit written work in English to the college. Their writing samples were analyzed

based on correctness and coherence to determine their overall English ability. Subsequently, a

survey was also administered to determine the students' "age, birth country, age of arrival in the

US...parents' countries of origins, etc." (Slocum, 2013). These factors all were recorded to see if

they had an influence on their English abilities, especially the types of L1 support students

received during their early education.

The overall score of the essay was used to quantify each student's English ability. This

data was then compared with students' survey results to determine if their previous type of

education may have had an impact on their current English abilities. The final results found that

"the participants who received bilingual education (and, therefore, the most formal L1 education)
NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 6

average the highest writing scores" (Slocum, 2013). This supports the theory that students who

receive more L1 support in school will have better control of the English language later in life.

In "Emergent Literacy Skills in Bilingual Children: Evidence for the Role of L1 Syntactic

Comprehension," research conducted by Gabriele, et al. from 2009 investigates "the role that the

L1 can play when students have limited competencies in the L2." It focuses on children who are

bilingual, but dominant in their native language of Spanish. Kindergarteners from two New

York public schools were given a test that measured their reading readiness in English, as well as

two tests (in both Spanish and English) measuring their syntactic abilities in each language. The

first test focused mainly on listening comprehension, which has been shown to "predict later

performance in reading comprehension in both the first and second language" (Gough and

Tunmer, as cited by Gabriele et al., 2009).

The results of these tests found that "there is a significant, positive relationship between

performance on the syntax measure...and the performance on the test of listening comprehension

in English" (Gabriel, et al., 2009). The results suggest that a better understanding of syntax in

either the L1 or L2 is directly related to better performance on listening comprehension in the

L2. In fact, the strongest correlation was between scores on the Spanish syntax measures and the

English listening comprehension (Gabriele, et al., 2009). These results support the utilization of

an ELL's native language in the English-language classroom. The following article provides

some methods of incorporating the L1 into lessons.

In "Switching Codes in the Plurilingual Classroom" by Lpez and Gonzlez-Davies

(2015), the authors note that "plurilingual practices such as code switching and translation have

been consistently discouraged in formal learning contexts" (Lpez and Gonzlez-Davies, 2015).
NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 7

This is due to the belief that bilingual learners perform better when the native and target

languages are kept separate, preventing confusion and negative interference between the

languages. However, the authors suggest two methods of embracing more L1 use in the

classroom.

The two plurilingual strategies employed by Lpez and Gonzlez-Davis were

"Pedagogically Based Code-Switching, or PBCS, and Translation for Other Learning Contexts,

or TOLC" (Lpez and Gonzlez-Davies, 2015). Both of these methods encourage students to

utilize both of their languages while being able to compare and contrast their structures as their

work.

Through multiple studies, the researchers discovered that PBCS led to "an improvement

of socio-affective aspects (i.e. motivation and classroom atmosphere) as well as to the

development of metalinguistic thought(i.e. Language awareness)" (Lpez and

Gonzlez-Davies, 2015). However, there was no significant gain in vocabulary acquisition of

production when using PBCS. The use of TOLC in the classroom, on the other hand, showed

that "translation can improve accuracy, certainty, speed of acquisition, and resourcing skills. It

contributes optimally to the practice, not only of reading and writing, but also of listening and

speaking, grammar and vocabulary..." (Lpez and Gonzlez-Davies, 2015). Overall, there is a

lot to gain by adding formal translation and code-switching activities into the language

curriculum.

In a case study conducted by Jim Cummins from "Rethinking Monolingual Instructional

Strategies in Multilingual Classrooms" in 2005, the author examines a 7th grade writing project

that was modified to allow students to embrace both their L1 and L2. Three students who spoke
NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 8

the same native language collaborated on a book about their personal immigration experiences.

Two of the students had high levels of English literacy, while the third was a recent immigrant

who struggled in English but excelled in her native Urdu. With support from the other students,

she was able to express her thoughts and feelings effectively in both the L1 and the L2. If she

had been asked to perform the same task in an English-only environment, her work would have

likely fallen short.

Cummins claims that translation between languages can increase metalinguistic

awareness and language skills for students. The use of L1 in the classroom should not be

discouraged, because when students' "L1 is invoked as a cognitive and linguistic resource

through bilingual instructional strategies, it can function as a stepping stone to scaffold more

accomplished performance in the L2" (Cummins, 2007).

Observations

This author had the opportunity to observe a beginner-level English classroom at James

Madison University taught by Professor Yoder-Kauffman. Throughout the course of four

observations, there were a few examples of students utilizing their L1 in class.

Observation of adult ELL (English-language learner) classrooms reveals a surprising amount of

native language use amongst the students in a variety of different ways, even in classrooms that

don't purposefully integrate large amounts of L1 support. However, when you have a room full

of learners who share a common first language, it's not realistic to attempt to restrict all use of

L1.
NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS 9

Professor Yoder-Kauffman had lots of activities that involved pair or group

work--sometimes she would place the students into groups herself, while other times the students

grouped themselves. It became clear that when given the opportunity to choose their own

groups, students had a tendency to group themselves by native language. They were then able to

ask each other questions about the assignment in their native language if they did not understand

the content or directions.

Another example of students utilizing their L1 in class was the use of technology for

translation. Throughout every observation, students could be seen occasionally using their

phones to translate a word or phrase. This was not suggested by Professor Yoder-Kauffman, but

also not actively discouraged. These students were able to determine the meaning of a word

without interrupting the flow of class.

During one class in particular, this author observed a student playing a card game with

other students who did not share his L1 (first language) of Spanish. Throughout the course of the

game, the Spanish-speaker consistently used code-switching to communicate with the rest of the

group. While the others did not fully understand what he was saying, he seemed relaxed and

relieved to be able to express himself. When he limited himself to only English, this beginner

student struggled to form complete sentences and thoughts, and clearly felt limited by his

vocabulary. When he code-switched, or shifted from English to Spanish as he spoke, he could

fully express himself and this seemed to be a huge relief. He still utilized English to

communicate with the other students at the table, but was able to fully express his exasperation

when he lost the card game by saying "dios!"

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The final use of L1 observed in Professor Yoder-Kauffman's class was actually a type of

pedagogical translation. Every week, students were asked to write down five new vocabulary

words they had learned during each class in order to help them study and see how many new

words they learned. After choosing each word, the students could then write an example

sentence, and finally they could include either a drawing to represent the word or a translation of

the word into their native language.

Interestingly, the majority of the students did choose to draw a picture rather than rely on

a translation. Those students who expressed a higher grasp of English almost always selected the

picture option over translation. However, a few students in the class who seemed less advanced

did utilize their L1 and include a translation. The ability to utilize the first language, especially

for students who might feel overwhelmed in the (mostly) English-only classroom, may help them

feel more comfortable. While it's a small way of incorporating the students' own cultures and

languages, this shows the students that their languages can be utilized as a resource in their

education.

Interview

In an interview this researcher conducted with Professor Yoder-Kauffman of James

Madison University's Career Development Academy, insight was provided into the choices she

makes as an English teacher in a multilingual classroom. As to why the professor allowed

students to converse in their native languages throughout class, she stated that she knew some

students used the classroom as a social outlet and to find camaraderie, and she did not want to

take that opportunity away from them. Additionally, by not banning the first language from the
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class, she hoped to change the "affective climate" of the class to make students feel more

comfortable, as long as the students are not being disruptive or taking away from educational

opportunities.

Another question posed to the professor was why she used some translation activities in

the classroom, and why she didn't embrace more pedagogical L1 activities. She explained that

she was unable to incorporate more native-language activities into the curriculum due to the

number of languages present in her classroom. However, she did like to incorporate a small

amount of L1 in the vocabulary sheets to demonstrate that the students' languages are valued.

Professor Yoder-Kauffman clearly understands the importance of a student's native

language in the ELL classroom. In the following section, this researcher explores the variety of

ways that embracing the L1 can lead to beneficial effects for the students.

Analysis

As observed in Professor Yoder-Kauffman's class, socialization amongst ELL students in

the L1 can lead to a decreased affective filter. The affective filter is "a metaphorical barrier that

prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is available"

(Lightbrown and Spada, 2006). If a student feels anxious in the classroom, this will inhibit the

learning process. By allowing them the opportunity to communicate with one another socially in

the L1, this may make them feel more comfortable and therefore better able to learn.

The research conducted by Macaro et. al. (2014) takes the use of L1 in the classroom a

step farther. The students in this classroom were able to utilize their L1 (Japanese) to ask

questions in the classroom. One Japanese student remarked: When we were struggling with the
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instructions given or tasks/activities, the teaching assistant came over to offer help in Japanese

(Macaro, et. al., 2014). This L1 support provides scaffolding for the students, allowing them to

learn within their Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky coined this term to describe the

area wherein learning occurs, when we are working on something just out of our reach and

receive help to reach a new level of understanding (Freeman and Freeman, 1994). Utilizing the

L1 to ask content questions may help students grasp information faster through scaffolding.

Being able to ask questions in the native language may have a secondary effect. Another

student from the same study claimed that having a Japanese assistant helped me to remove

anxiety, which was caused mainly by my poor listening skills (Macaro, et. al., 2014). Chomsky

is cited by Freeman and Freeman as having made a very important distinction about

second-language speakers; he claimed that a speakers competence and performance were not

always equal (Freeman and Freeman, 1994). If a student is pressured, distracted, or anxious,

they will likely not perform to the best of their ability. This is another example of the affective

filter seen in Professor Yoder-Kauffman's classroom. For this student suffering from anxiety,

having L1 support allowed them to feel more comfortable in the classroom environment, thereby

facilitating the language-learning process by improving their performance in class.

The article by Lpez and Gonzlez-Davies (2015) also discusses the relationships

between the first and second language. The use of translation and code-switching between

languages in English-language classrooms is supported by another theory. Richard Schmidt

(1990), as cited by Lightbrown & Spada (2006), proposed the noticing hypothesis. This

hypothesis suggested that "nothing is learned unless it has been 'noticed'" (Lightbrown and

Spada, 2006). When students are asked to translate from one language to another (whether it be
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13

from L1 to L2 or vice versa), they are not simply using a dictionary to make easy substitutions.

Rather, they are undoubtedly having to consider the subtle, nuanced differences between the

languages. When they do notice these differences, by themselves or through peer/teacher

correction, they are then able to learn about the newly-discovered language feature.

However, students are only able to learn about a language when the input they are

hearing is just beyond their realm of comprehension (e.g., a sentence with only one word they do

not already know which can be understood based on context). However, in situations where the

input is too complex for them to understand, no learning can take place (Freeman and Freeman,

1994). Comprehensible input is "a term introduced by Krashen to refer to language that a learner

can understand" (Lightbrown and Spada, 2006). In the study by Macaro et. al., with teachers

speaking English exclusively to two of the three groups, many students may have felt

overwhelmed and unable to learn due to the lack of comprehensible input. To lighten this

burden for students, L1 support can make very complex, incomprehensible input easier to grasp.

For Japanese students in the third group in this program, use of their native language allowed

them to more easily grasp concepts in English that may have otherwise eluded them.

The study by Madrian (2014) focused on kindergarteners in a Columbian elementary

school, a very different cohort than the study conducted by Macaro et. al. These students were

not as actively engaged with the storytelling lesson when it was presented only in the L2. While

they could understand the message of the story being read exclusively in English, their attention

wandered much more than when they received L1 support during storytime.

For this experiment, there was no distinct difference in comprehension between the

English-only activity and the activity with L1 support. However, teachers did anecdotally report
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the importance of developing the first language in their English classes. This strategy is called

additive bilingualism, which is the maintenance of the home [native] language while the second

language is being learned (Lightbrown and Spada, 2006). Madrian (2014) cited Cummins

(2001) in saying it is important to refer to the first language regularly in order to make lasting

connections in the early stages of language development. These connections contribute to the

students' interlanguage, or their "developing second language knowledge," which can include

characteristics of both the first language and second language (Lightbrown and Spada, 2006).

Larry Selinker (1972) is cited by Lightbrown and Spada (2006) as discussing the concept

of interlanguage to learners developing second language knowledge. Selinker states that: "the

analysis of a learner's interlanguage shows that it has some characteristics influenced by

previously learned languages." The multiple languages of a single learner may intermix in their

brain, leading to both successes and failures as they use the structure of their L1 to help them

learn English (Lightbrown and Spada, 2006). Learners may use the grammar of their first

language to aid them in building knowledge of a second language. As is suggested in both

studies, grammatical competence and formal education in the student's first language will

provide a strong foundation for any future language learning.

Giving students the opportunity to improve both their first and second languages has

many benefits. Cummins (1981), as cited by Freeman & Freeman (1994) developed the concept

of the Interdependence Hypothesis, which states the following:

To the extent that instruction in Lx is effective in promoting proficiency in Lx, transfer of

this proficiency to Ly will occur provided there is adequate exposure to Ly (either in

school or environment) and adequate motivation to learn Ly.

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In other words, developing a student's proficiency in their first language (Lx) leads to a

transfer of proficiency into the second language (Ly). It can be concluded based on this theory

that use of the first language in instruction can lead students to draw conclusions and make

connections between the target language and their native language, leading to greater proficiency

in the L2. The case study performed by Cummins (2007) shows how students can grasp

concepts and perform at higher cognitive levels when the L1 is incorporated in a lesson. This

can lead to an increase in grammatical competence in both languages for the student.

In Freeman and Freeman (1994), grammatical competence is defined as "the knowledge

of a language that allows us to get and give information about the world," and is composed of

phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax. As was discovered in the study by Gabriele, et

al. (2009), a strong grasp of syntax in one language (English or a foreign language) leads to

better listening comprehension in English. An ELL student who has a higher grammatical

competence in his or her native language is more likely to transfer than knowledge to subsequent

languages. Use of L1 in the classroom, especially the implementation of a bilingual classroom,

builds grammatical competence in both languages simultaneously, making students' subsequent

English skills stronger. The positive effects of bilingual classrooms can be seen both short-term

and long-term.

The article by Slocum (2013) examined the English skills of bilingual college students

who had received varying levels of L1 support throughout their primary and secondary

education. The final results found that "the participants who received bilingual education (and,

therefore, the most formal L1 education) average the highest writing scores" (Slocum, 2013).

This supports the theory that students who receive more L1 support in school will have better
NATIVE-LANGUAGE SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS
16

control of the English language later in life. The first and second languages are not separate

entities that need to be segregated; instead, they can be fostered simultaneously to benefit the

student's education.

The following table summarizes the different ways students and teachers use L1 in the

ELL classroom, as well as the benefits of these activities, as described above.

Feature in ELL Education using L1 Effect on ELL students

Socialization amongst ELL students in L1 Decreased affective filter in the classroom

Ability to ask questions in L1 Scaffolding for L2

Ability to ask questions in L1 Decreased anxiety/affective filter

Explanations about course content in L1 Comprehensible input

Use of L1 in lessons Increased student focus/participation

Use of L1 throughout primary school Additive bilingualism (maintenance of first

language)

Use of L1 throughout primary school Lasting connections between L1 and L2

(interlanguage development)

Use of L1 throughout primary school Interdependence hypothesis (Transfer of

knowledge about L1 to L2)

Strong grasp of grammar in L1 Proportionally strong grammar skills in L2

Bilingual/maintenance education for bilingual Increased English skills in adulthood (as well
students as increased skill in L1)

Code-switching activities Noticing hypothesis (noticing differences

between languages leads to learning about L2)

Translation activities Noticing hypothesis

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Conclusion

The decision of the people of California to allow native language support in

English-language classrooms was a positive choice for the many ELL students throughout the

state. Clearly, incorporating native language into an ELL's English education can be of great

benefit. However, this researcher has discovered many different ways of incorporating the L1

with different outcomes. The L1 can be included in the entirety of a student's primary education,

through a dual-immersion or bilingual program, to great benefit of the student. However, by

contrast, some classrooms (such as Professor Yoder-Kauffman's) only incorporate very small

amounts of L1 support into the curriculum.

Future research will need to be explored in order to further quantify the effects of L1

support on ELL students. Much of the current research is anecdotal or conducted on very small

groups of students that may not be representative of ELL students everywhere. For example, the

results of Madrian's study of kindergarteners in Colombia may not necessarily be applicable to

Professor Yoder-Kauffman, whose classroom present different needs and challenges. In fact, the

majority of research focused on ELLs revolves around students in primary or secondary school.

This researcher found very few studies that included adult learners. For this reason, care needs

to be taken when utilizing these methods in classrooms that have diverse student populations.

Regardless of these limitations, there are some conclusions that can be drawn. This

researcher has determined that there are lasting benefits of including L1 support in whatever

amount is applicable for a given classroom. Whether that support is dual-immersion for

kindergarteners, a bilingual language assistant for students studying abroad, or simply

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occasionally allowing students to converse with one another in the L1, there are benefits to any

amount of L1 inclusion in the ELL classroom.

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Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. M. (2006). How languages are learned (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford
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