Impact of Landslide

A GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING APPROACH

Veeresh Lubrun
CIVIL ENGINNERING | FOE
1 Impact of Landslides

Landslides occur as a ubiquitous natural phenomenon around the world. Nevertheless, it is often taken for
granted that such calamities as being rare events and are only prone to occur at certain places. Impact of
such hazards been well highlighted through the works of Petley, 2008 (cited in Paolo Canuti, 2008). A clear
assessment of the implications of landslide on a global scale is difficult to obtain since the landslide hazards
are often analysed together with other calamities such as earthquakes, floods, cyclones or typhoons. A
World Bank report (Dilley et al. 2005 cited in Paolo Canuti, 2008) claims that about 3.7 million km2 of land
are under the risk of landslide exposing about 300 million of people, which account for nearly 5% of the
world population.

Social impacts of landslides

The consequences of landslide near residential areas has often been pictured by the massive loss of lives
with destruction of properties. Aftermaths of a landslide usually leaves the affected community without
shelter and often in dire need of medical care. Landslide incidents in underdeveloped countries such as
results in more precarious situation since the provision of proper food and water supplies become scarce.
There is the problem of overcrowding in refugee centers and relief camps which makes the population more
vulnerable to transmissible diseases.

Landslide has been the cause of large scale damages and disruption of structures in many places. The loss
of land and the instability of the area around landslides often results in a relocation of inhabitants. However,
the standard of living and adaptation of the inhabitants may not be the same especially for farmers and
planters whose livelihood come mainly from their ancestral lands.

Loss of cultural heritage sites

Cultural heritage marks the legacy of the human being. There many instances when the historic buildings
such temples, castles or monasteries have been erected on slopes which have weaken over time. Case studies
of such structures of cultural value include Lishan, Xian in China, Machu Picchu in Peru and among others.
The international Geological Correlation Programme, IGCP, project has been set since 1998 to assess and
mitigate the effects of such natural calamities (Wang, 2007).

Environmental impact of landslides

Landslides have been viewed as destructive agents disfiguring the natural landscape of the earth. Landslides
of high intensity can wipe large hectares of forest in mountains destroying wildlife habitat.
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Impact of landslide on forests

Landslide incidences in forestry regions results in a huge loss of resources such as endemic plants and
animals, medicinal plants and natural habitat of wild animals. With respect to water resources, a landslide
mass can also block rivers channels resulting in floods and increase in downstream sedimentation. Diverted
rivers result in a potential loss of fish and other marine animals.

There is a potential loss of natural springs due to falling rocks causing in decrease in the fresh water
availability points. The quality of surface water is deteriorated through increased turbidity.

Loss of fertile lands

Landslides in farming areas wreck much harm to the agricultural land by removing the top soil hence
causing a loss of fertile soils.

In major landslides, all of the soil down to bedrock is carried downslope, taking all of the trees and other
vegetations with it. Because no soil is left for new plants to grow on, the bare tracks of landslides can remain
visible for many years.

Economic impact of landslides

Direct cost

Direct costs involve the costing of repairing, maintenance and replacing of the structures affected due to a
landslide (Schuster, 1996 cited in USGS, 2001).

Indirect cost

Indirect cost include:

1. Reduced real estate values in areas threatened by landslides.

2. Loss of tax revenues on properties devalued as a result of landslides.
3. Loss of industrial, agricultural, and forest productivity, and of tourist revenues, as a result of
damage to land or facilities or interruption of transportation systems.
4. Loss of human or domestic animal productivity because of death, injury, or psychological trauma.
5. Costs of measures to mitigate potential landslide incident.

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Remedial Measures

Landslide incidences are deemed to keep on increasing due to climate change and burgeoning development
in upland areas. The problem can be resolved through identification of slopes at risk, management of
vegetation and type of land use on such slopes and stabilization of slopes through engineering practices.
Mitigation measures for landslides can be classified as control works and restraint works. Control works
involve changing landslide contributing parameters such as ground water topography and geology of the
natural landscape while restraint works consists of engineering structures to curb landslides.

Identification and management of landslide hazard

The regions susceptible to landslide, in isolated and remote areas, are usually occupied by the working class
of the population. Uncontrolled industrial and agricultural practices increases the level of vulnerability in
such regions (Forbes et al. 2011). Hence, an appropriate monitoring and prevention programme should be
implemented. Among the preliminary stages, the following parameters need to be observed:

An updated landslide monitoring plan for regions at risk with respect to changes in natural
processes.
Geomorphological mapping
Risk assessment of landslide for the particular region
Mitigation plans and effective measures to be implemented.
The use of remote sensing for monitoring landslide prone areas are becoming very popular. GIS based
system provide better analysis of landslide susceptibility and risks. Such system have also been reckoned
to be more economical in countries with limited financial resources.

Forestation and forest farming

Depending upon the socio-economic condition of the affected region, the forest replanting and protection
of forest areas can help in curbing land slide hazards. The roots of trees and shrubs have ability to grow to
great depths in the soil, allowing them to penetrate the slip surfaces and thus providing an anchorage to the
soil. The efficiency of the forest in stabilizing the slopes depend upon the relative rooting depth of the trees.
In Asian countries, tropical species such as Tectona grandis and Coffea Arabica have roots going to depths
up to 4m. The soil resistance to sliding can be boosted by forest vegetation at depths of more than one
meter.

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While trees and forests cannot completely avoid landslides, they surely provide a protective barrier against
slides of rock debris and soils which could consequently result in a landslide incidence. This buffering
effect of trees depends on the relative diameter of trees and spacing.

Restraint works

Toe buttresses and buttress fill

Toe buttresses have been used to reduce the impact of large landslides in creek channels. This kind of
repairs is usually effected together with sub drainage systems, withdrawal wells or trench sub drains
(Terzaghi, 1931 cited in Slosson et al. 1992). Compacted buttress fill is one of the most used landslide
repair methods in the United States. Similar to the construction of embankments, these make use of a shear
key excavated beneath the slip surfaces.
Landslides from both sides of a channel can be remedied by a valley fill. This eventually need concrete box
culverts and subdrainage systems.

Figure 1: (a) Toe buttresses (b) buttress fill (c) Valley fill
(Source: Adapted from Landslide Mitigation Techniques, Rogers, D., 2014)

Soil Reinforcement

The use of geotextiles with reinforcement grid can be used to increase the shear strength of soils in places
with limited space.

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Subdrainage

Subsurface drainage removes the groundwater in the landslide mass and prevent the infiltration of water
from the surrounding soil into the landslide mass. The use of subdrainage alone have the tendency to
become clogged over time. Hence, they are usually designed as combination of walls and compacted
buttress. The different features subsurface drainage are listed below.
Intercept under drain and interceptor trench drains are used as a combination to remove ground
water found at depths of 3m from the ground surface.
Horizontal gravity drained and inclined drains are used to intercept seepage back beneath
undisturbed ground or used to convey discharge from other drainage measures.
Drainage wells, usually of diameter 3.5m and 25m deep, are excavated in areas of concentrated
ground water. These drainage wells get filled by a series of radially positioned horizontal drains
and are then remove through drainage tunnels.

Figure 2: Horizontal drainage

(Source: Adapted from Landslide Mitigation Techniques, Rogers, D., 2014)

2.5.3.4 Retaining structures

Gravity retaining walls

Gravity retaining walls are efficient retaining structures to contain about 2 to 9 m soil provided adequate
drainage structures such weep holes have been placed.

Crib walls

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Crib walls consists of placing round timber or reinforced concrete columns with a diameter of 0.25 to 0.3
m at 0.4 to 0.5m interval parallel to the slope. Two rows are set up one running at the face and the other
inside the ends of the binder. Binders are other row of columns set at right angles to the slope spaced at 1.2-
1.5m. The enclose space is then filled up with a compacted soil from the site or stone. The wall provide the
same retaining effects as a retaining block wall transferring the resultant forces due to its own weight and
earth pressures to the foundation joints. The mitigating measure has the benefit of being permeable and
allows settling of the subsoil without decreasing its stability (Veder, 2012).

Figure 3: Crib walls

(Source: Adapted from Landslide Mitigation Techniques, Rogers, D., 2014)

Gabionades

Gabion retaining wall provide an efficient way to stabiles the base of a slope. Gabions consists of stone
filled steel mesh cage. The retaining wall provide a draining medium and is flexible enough to allow small
slip movements (Robinson, 2004).

Anchoring structures

Anchor anti-slide retaining wall

Anchor anti slide retaining wall provide resistance to landslide thrust using reinforced concrete rib of slab
and anchors. It is based on the mechanism that the landslide thrust behind the wall acts primarily on the
concrete or masonry wall then onto the anchors before reaching the stable layers of soil under the slipping
surface (Zuyu Chen at al., 2008). The anchor anti-sliding retaining wall has proved to be more effective in
reducing the volume of masonry and excavation required as compared to gravity anti-slide retaining wall.

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Pre-stressed anchor

Pre-stressed anchor is flexible rod which is subjected to tensile force. Steel wires are fixed into deep stable
strata by boring and injection methods. The sliding mass exerts a pre-stressed force on the steel wires. This
results in an interlocking of the landslide mass and the stable stratum. The anchor is made up of the
anchorage section, unrestrained section and anchorage head. The outside anchor structure can be in form
of reinforced concrete strip beam or reinforced concrete frame.

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International Case Study

The 2005 La Conchita, California, landslide

The community of La Conchita in Ventura County, California, was struck by a landslide on 10 January
2005 destroying 13 residences and damaging an additional 23 houses resulting in a death toll of 10 people.
La Conchita is located on the southern California coastline midway between Ventura and Santa Barbara.
The area is sparsely developed and is known to be subjected to a mild climate.

Figure 4: Location map showing La Conchita

(The 2005 La Conchita, California, landslide, Jibson 2005)

Site history and geology

La Conchita lies on a narrow coastal strip about 250m wide between the shoreline and a 180m high bluff
having a slope of about 3 in 5. The bluff above La Conchita has caused many landslides over an extended
period of time. A coastal bluff is defined as a steep cliff (face of rock) which has been formed by geological
processes such as erosion, faulting or folding of a land mass with a vertical relief higher than 10 feet (Stroh

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R. C. et al. 2001). Historical records dating back to 1865 have shown that the occurrence of landslides in
the region nearby La Conchita as being a regular event (Hemphill 2001 cited in Jibson 2005).

The 2005 slope failure had initiated in an old landslide deposit near the crest of a 180 m high, southwest
facing cliff.

Figure 5: Geologic map of the 2005 La Conchita landslide and its vicinity.

The landslide

The landslide had displaced an older 1995 landslide deposit consisting of mainly tertiary sedimentary rocks.
The landslide area was approximately 350m long and 80100m wide mobilizing more than 30000 m3 of
wet debris. The landslide entered the La Conchita neighbourhood, destroying 13 houses and severely
damaging 23 others.

Figure 6: View of the La Conchita Landslide taken 14 January 2005

(The 2005 La Conchita, California, landslide, Jibson 2005)

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Available media evidences have showed that the landslide material had mobilized almost instantaneously
into a highly fluid, rapid moving debris flow.

Cause of landslide

The landslide was triggered by a 2 week high intensity rainfall causing a failure in the back scarp of a large
deposition caused by an earlier 1995 landslide incidence. At Ventura (located 20 km in the southeast of La
Conchita) seasonal rainfall from 1 October 2004 through 10 January 2005 amounted to 493 mm in
comparison with the mean value of 122 mm. From 27 December 2004 through 10 January 2005, Ventura
received 378 mm of rainfall, which was less than its mean annual total of 390 mm (Wofford 2005 &
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1994, 1995 cited in Jibson 2005). Although the rainfall
intensities were not severe, moderate to high-intensity rainfall continued for a duration of more than 2
weeks, and the landslide occurred at the end of this 15-day high-rainfall period.

Figure 7: Conceptual diagram showing surface-and groundwater flow paths

(The 2005 La Conchita, California, landslide, Jibson 2005)

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Damage caused

The 2005 landslide displaced several houses off their foundations and collided into each other at the toe of
the landslide. A wall erected after the 1995 landslide to keep minor-landslide debris off the road was
distorted and bent forward; overtopped in places by debris from the 2005 landslide. This shows that the
landslide mass, though it flowed rapidly, was quite viscous and carried structures in front of it rather than
either flowing around them or filling them with mud, as sometimes occurs with fully saturated debris and
mud flows. This apparently resulted from a highly hazardous situation involving a two-phased landslide
mechanism:

1. A saturated, highly fluid layer at depth on which the landslide mobilized

2. The landslide mobilized carried a thick layer of drier, much more viscous material that effectively
acted as a battering ram.

Figure 8: The viscous rapid debris flow pushed houses in its path and overtopped Steel-and-timber wall

(The 2005 La Conchita, California, landslide, Jibson 2005)

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Remedial measures

After the 2005 landslide, the local authority did not invest much into the rehabilitation of the site since a
large proportion of the residents had moved to new place. The area was declared as a high landslide risk
zone and access was prohibited due to the land instability.
The main mitigation measures consisted of firstly, a relocation of the inhabitants, particularly those residing
in high risk zones. This is because the ravens formed in the mountains contains many faults which would
result in an imminent landslide for any bad weather prevailing.

Any development of the land in the vicinity is strictly prohibited and building permits are no longer issued.

Drainage channels were constructed to carry away surface runoffs and prevent any rise in the groundwater
level.

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