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Abstract
Wetlands in urban areas are often restored in an attempt to reduce the loss of such habitats. Unfortunately, the success, or
otherwise, of programmes of restoration has rarely been systematically gauged. Through not knowing whether programmes of
restoration are successful or not, valuable resources potentially continue to be wasted, wetland habitats remain degraded and
the methods of restoration are not assessed for future programmes of restoration.
Several factors have contributed to poor assessment of restoration of urban wetlands. First, often the goals of restoration
have been unrealistic because they failed to consider that wetlands in urban areas are subjected to ongoing and often large-
scale anthropogenic disturbances. Second, goals of restoration often have not been clearly dened and, consequently,
predictive hypotheses were not formulated to test for the success of restoration. Third, even when success of restoration has
been assessed, this has not always been adequate because of inappropriate sampling design.
Such problems can be overcome by treating restoration of habitat as experiments and using the knowledge gained from each
project to improve future programmes of restoration. This will ensure that the remaining semi-natural habitats along coasts in
urban areas can be more effectively managed. # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
tion of estuarine habitat that is already fragmented has Disturbances may be sustained (a press disturbance)
continued because of development on shorelines and or short-term (a pulse disturbance) and may elicit
watersheds (Simenstad and Thom, 1992; State of the press or pulse responses (Bender et al., 1984; Under-
Environment Advisory Council, 1996). wood, 1989, 1993; Glasby and Underwood, 1996). An
Urban wetlands, although subjected to many dis- example of a pulse disturbance is an oil-spill con-
turbances, still provide many functions which make tamination is acute but short-term. In contrast, a press
their restoration important. These include provision of disturbance is a long-term disturbance, such as urban
habitat for commercially important sh and wildlife run-off from roads and footpaths.
species (Zedler and Weller, 1990; Simenstad and Ecological responses to a pulse disturbance, such as
Thom, 1992, 1996) and recreational, educational a chemical spill, may be short-term many individuals
and aesthetic values (West, 1995) which are particu- may be killed, but, once the chemical is cleaned up or
larly important given that little natural habitat is diluted, populations may recover. Alternatively,
available in cities. Particular problems for restoration responses may be long-term many individuals are
of urban wetlands include ongoing disturbances, killed, allowing new species to colonise the newly
choosing between creation of new wetlands and available space. The new species prevent the recovery
restoring the existing ones, often severely damaged of the original population, causing a permanent reduc-
wetlands and determining how to decide whether tion in numbers, even though the disturbance has gone
restoration has been successful. (e.g. the assemblage may change permanently; Glasby
In this paper, the concept of restoration is examined and Underwood, 1996). Press disturbances, such as
in terms of its applicability to urban wetlands, espe- urban run-off, may also elicit either a press or a pulse
cially with respect to current denitions of restoration response. For example, many individuals may be
as applied to urban situations (Chapman and Under- killed and the continuous press disturbance prevents
wood, 1997). Three related concepts are examined. recruitment, so the population can never re-establish
The rst is the need to dene carefully what are the (a press response). Alternatively, organisms may adapt
goals of restoration. Second (and consequent on the to continuous contamination, in which case popula-
rst) is the need to gauge the success, or otherwise, of tions show a short-term pulse response to the press
a programme of restoration. The third concept is that disturbance.
the previous two necessitate consideration of neces- Despite the difculties associated with time-courses
sary requirements of experimental and sampling and duration of disturbances, different action will be
design to ensure valid and efcient assessments of necessary depending on whether disturbances and
restoration projects (Chapman and Underwood, their responses are pulse or press. If a press response
1997). Some practical problems in the evaluation of was caused by a press disturbance, removing the
the success of restoration are also considered. disturbance may restore the habitat. If, on the other
hand, a press response was originally caused by a
pulse disturbance which no longer exists, it cannot be
2. Problems with ongoing disturbances removed. Restoration will be relatively easier where
degradation of the wetland was caused by a pulse
Wetlands in urban areas are continually subjected disturbance that has ended and its direct inuences are
to anthropogenic disturbances, such as, pollution gone.
(Zedler, 1992), fragmentation of habitat (Zedler,
1996a) and recreational use (Anderson, 1995).
Although not necessarily directly related to degrada- 3. Structure and function
tion, such interacting disturbances make it difcult to
determine the precise causes of degradation. It is Wetlands in urban areas are often restored or cre-
important to understand the types of perturbations ated to full a specic function (e.g. to provide habitat
affecting a wetland before appropriate action can for wildlife; Zedler and Weller, 1990). Despite these
be taken to restore it (Glasby and Underwood, aims, measures of structure, instead of function, are
1996). often used to evaluate the success of such projects.
J.E. Grayson et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 43 (1999) 227236 229
This is done because structure is much easier to information to predict the functions of a wetland.
measure than is ecological function. It is assumed Some food webs measure function because they show
that if the pattern of structure looks right, the system how each species (or trophic level) affects other
will also function correctly (Simenstad and Thom, species (or trophic levels); for example, a particular
1996). Structure and function are, however, not the species may prey on another species, thereby creating
same. Restoration of one does not necessarily mean space for yet another species. Most food webs are,
restoration of the other. The structure, or pattern of an however, measures of structure. They are simply a list
ecosystem describes the various physical and biolo- of species and their potential connections. They pro-
gical parts of that ecosystem, such as biomass and vide little information about the biological and phy-
composition of species at any point in time (Jackson sical processes that cause this structure (Dayton,
et al., 1995; Zedler, 1996b). Function, on the other 1984). If the processes that maintain structure are
hand, includes the interactions of organisms with one not known, it may be impossible to recreate them.
another and with the physical environment (Jackson To ensure that wetlands are structured and function
et al., 1995). This requires examination of processes correctly, species that have important functional roles
that occur through time, such as persistence of species, must be identied and an effort made to reinstate these
productivity, capacity to assimilate pollutants and species as a major aim of restoration.
recycling of nutrients (Brinson and Rheinhardt, The time-courses for restoration of structure or
1996; Zedler, 1996b). function are usually different. Structure such as the
The structure and/or function of restored wetlands composition and density of macrofaunal assemblages,
may be different from `natural' wetlands. For exam- may resemble controls in as little as three years
ple, the wetland may be made to function as a pond to (Simenstad and Thom, 1996). The development of
control pollution because this is considered to be the an adequately functioning ecosystem can often take
most appropriate use of the land. Under these circum- many years (Mitsch and Wilson, 1996). Jackson et al.
stances, it may not be necessary for the restored (1995) stated that successful restoration, that is, ade-
wetland to have the same structure as a natural wet- quate functioning of a wetland, should occur within
land. Restored wetlands may have different plants 1050 years, with preliminary evidence visible in 1
from those in natural wetlands, because the ones 10 years. Different functions within the system do,
chosen during restoration are easier to cultivate. Alter- however, develop at different rates. For example,
natively, the restored wetland may be expected to hydrological functions can be restored fairly quickly,
function as a bird sanctuary and recreational area whereas accumulation of nutrients takes longer to
because environmental and social factors have been achieve. In contrast, it may take several years for a
chosen to be important. In this case, it should probably wetland to be able to support interacting and function-
look `natural' (have appropriate structure) in addition ing diverse populations of wildlife (Thompson, 1992).
to functioning properly. The structure of the restor- When monitoring the success or failure of restora-
ed wetland may be different from that of a natural tion of a wetland, the length of time for which
wetland. monitoring is done is critical. In many programmes
Function is often difcult to measure because it of restoration, monitoring has been stopped as soon as
requires examination of interactions through time. the structure looks right (Simenstad and Thom, 1996).
Structure is easier to measure because it only requires Without further assessment of variables that relate to
description of what is present at one time. Never- various relevant functions of the restored habitat, it
theless, there are complex hierarchical spatial patterns cannot be determined whether the wetland ever func-
in abundances of many organisms in wetlands (Chap- tions in the desired or predicted manner.
man and Underwood, 1997; Chapman, 1998), and
sampling designs to measure accurately these spatial
patterns are necessarily complex. There is a need for 4. End-points of restoration
research to ascertain where and under what circum-
stances structure and function are linked if measure- Many denitions of restoration identify an end-
ments of structure are to be used to provide point, that is they dene what the wetland is supposed
230 J.E. Grayson et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 43 (1999) 227236
to be like once restoration work is completed (e.g. used in other types of management are wasted. Never-
Saunders et al., 1993; Baldwin et al., 1994; Kane, theless, many restoration projects exist for which
1994; Cairns, 1995; West, 1995). It may not be success or failure is unknown because it has not been
possible to dene any end-point in a very disturbed assessed (Erwin, 1990; Bowen et al., 1995; Race and
system. In urban areas, there is a great deal of com- Fonseca, 1996). In such cases, valuable resources such
petition for use of land, with social, economic and as money and time may have been wasted, wetlands
environmental issues to consider when deciding on the may not have been prevented from degradation and,
appropriate use. In urban situations, therefore, wet- more importantly, future programmes of restoration
lands are more likely to be restored or created to will continue to use the same, untested and potentially
provide a specic function (or group of functions) inadequate methods. In such projects, the opportunity
such as treatment of water or protection of wildlife, to determine appropriate methods for restoration and
rather than to be restored to some apparently natural to gather information about the best ways to achieve
state. specic ecological aims is lost.
Nevertheless, where restoration is supposed to be to In some regions, destruction of wetlands is allowed
a natural state, a prior or historical condition has often as part of development provided that other wetlands
been dened as the end-point. Thus, actions are taken are created or restored (e.g. in New South Wales,
in an attempt to develop the same structure and Australia, under State Environmental Planning Policy
function as it had before it was degraded. Denitions 14 (Coastal Wetlands), NSW; New South Wales Gov-
which include a prior state as an end-point for restora- ernment, 1985). Obviously, where the success of the
tion rely on the concept of a `balance of nature', in latter is not measured, there is potentially increasing
which ecological structure is supposedly predictable. destruction of wetland without any compensatory
This theory implies that nature is in equilibrium or mitigation. This is a serious problem because there
static (Botkin, 1990; Jackson et al., 1995; Wyant et al., are few remaining wetlands (Bowen et al., 1995).
1995). If this theory were correct, the situation pre- Assessing the success of ecological restoration must
vailing in the wetland at any time before it was have a scientic basis. Underwood (1990) described
disturbed would represent an appropriate prior state the components of experiments in ecology and the
for restoration. Nevertheless, this theory fails to recog- relationship between these and managerial procedures
nise the nature of biological systems which are not (which are, themselves, experiments). These relation-
static and unchanging (Turner, 1994) and which have ships have been expanded in Underwood (1995). The
many different prior states, even in undisturbed sys- scientic components of management include obser-
tems (Chapman and Underwood, 1997). vations (e.g. that benthic fauna in the wetland is
Second, denitions of restoration that include an depauperate compared to natural wetlands). One
unspoiled condition as the end-point for restoration model to explain these observations is that benthic
(Kane, 1994) have additional difculties. They sug- fauna in the wetland is depauperate because the wet-
gest that, had the ecosystem not been damaged, it land has poor tidal ushing. An appropriate hypothesis
would have remained in the same `unspoiled' state from this model is that, if tidal ushing were improved
until the present. These days, there is probably no such in the wetland by digging drainage channels, the
thing as an unspoiled condition in any urban habitat. diversity and abundance of benthic fauna would
This is an impossible outcome because, once an area increase to be greater than in control locations where
has been disturbed, it is unreasonable to anticipate it no change is made to drainage. Further, it is hypothe-
can ever again be truly `undisturbed'. sised that diversity and abundance will change so that
they match those in natural wetlands. The null hypoth-
esis is that diversity and abundance will not change or
5. Problems of determining success of restoration will indeed deteriorate after the managerial actions.
of wetlands in urban environments The null hypothesis is tested by evaluating the out-
come of restoration. Note that explicit goals and
It is important that restoration of habitat is success- hypotheses are necessary to ensure that subsequent
ful, otherwise resources that could be more usefully evaluation (or monitoring) is actually sampling the
J.E. Grayson et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 43 (1999) 227236 231
some measure in the restored site becomes similar to Many projects are driven by the conditions under
that measure in reference sites and different from that which permits are issued. Permits state what the
in control sites. Imprecise sampling gives large con- proponent must do to mitigate the effects of develop-
dence intervals around mean values. When sampling ment and success is determined solely in terms of
is imprecise, a real and continuing difference between compliance with these conditions (Erwin, 1990). The
a restored site and reference sites would not be time-frame of monitoring set by the life of the permit
detected as signicant when using statistical tests is often not adequate to collect sufcient data to
(McDonald and Erickson, 1994; Underwood, 1996). evaluate the success or failure of a project (Erwin,
This may result in restoration being declared success- 1990). Furthermore, once the mitigator is freed of
ful, with no further work or monitoring of recovery, liability (e.g. at the end of the life of the permit), there
even though the system has not actually been restored. may be no mechanism for detecting or correcting
A more appropriate goal is that the restoration site problems (Zedler, 1996a). Many programmes of
must recover to some pre-determined value chosen to restoration have been deemed successful simply
represent the minimal acceptable level for restoration. because conditions of permits have been met.
An example might be a project with the aim of Surveys of mitigation projects (e.g. Quammen,
increasing the richness of species (e.g. the number 1986; Race, 1985) have shown that many projects
of plants) in a degraded salt marsh. It might be were unsuccessful, usually because the requirements
appropriate to dene an acceptable level of restoration of permits were not met or were, anyway, inadequate
to be, say, 85% of the average richness in several to result in restoration (Race and Fonseca, 1996).
reference areas. To determine that the restored site has One example of the use of inappropriate scientic
a number of species equal to or larger than the method is the Lake Pillans Wetland Rehabilitation
specied minimum requires precise sampling. Impre- Project (Lithgow, NSW, Australia). One of the objec-
cise samples with large condence intervals would tives dened for this project was to `enhance' the site
lead to the conclusion that the site was not yet restored, as habitat for native fauna (Kuginis and Hindmarsh,
even though the mean number of plants exceeded the 1996). Enhancement was done in order to incorporate
85% target. Decisions would then be made to continue as much variety of habitat as possible into the design.
restoration (or to re-evaluate how to do it), resulting in An increase in the diversity of habitats was expected to
more effort and, probably, more precise subsequent increase the diversity of wildlife. Sampling of macro-
sampling and, eventually, a correct decision that invertebrates was used to determine the effectiveness
restoration has been achieved. Thus, McDonald and of creation of habitat. Success was claimed because
Erickson's (1994) procedure encourages managerial there was an apparent increase in the diversity of
decisions that conform to the precautionary principle macroinvertebrates from before to after construction
(Chapman and Underwood, 1997). of new habitat (Kuginis and Hindmarsh, 1996). This is
not realistic because it does not state by how much the
diversity of macroinvertebrates should have increased
6. Examples of practical problems to be considered rehabilitated. Any (even slight)
increase in diversity from before to after construction
Although many restoration projects are deemed would, therefore, be identied as success of the pro-
successful, few have actually used scientic experi- ject. Furthermore, no appropriate scientic method
mental design to ensure that appropriate data were was used to assess whether the stated objective had
collected to assess restoration (Erwin, 1990; Zedler been achieved. Instead, the number of families of
and Weller, 1990). In many cases, success was not macroinvertebrates and avifauna in the site were
assessed at all (Erwin, 1990; Race and Fonseca, 1996; recorded once before and twice (which were added
Zedler, 1996a). In other projects, short-term monitor- together effectively giving one time of sampling)
ing was done to evaluate compliance with conditions after construction in as many as possible types of
of permits, but no predictive hypotheses were tested to habitat in the area. Comparisons of these two numbers
evaluate the success of the project (e.g. Race and means nothing without knowledge of natural temporal
Fonseca, 1996). variability.
234 J.E. Grayson et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 43 (1999) 227236
Even if substantial increases in diversity were 7.2. Determine the success or otherwise of
recorded, these would need to be evaluated against restoration
what was happening in reference areas in order to
determine success or failure of the restoration process If the goals of restoration are clearly dened
because any apparent increase in diversity could, in and predictive hypotheses have been formulated, it
fact, be due to some natural phenomenon in the area is possible to gauge the success or otherwise of
and not to the creation of new habitat. Finally, as restoration work. Many previous projects have not
discussed in detail earlier, several reference and con- adequately gauged the success or otherwise of restora-
trol sites are necessary (Fig. 3) to evaluate the success tion work. This must not continue to be the normal
of creation of habitat. There were no control or process, because, otherwise, resources will be wasted
reference areas in this project. and other similar projects may inherit the same poten-
It cannot be determined, therefore, whether or not tially useless methods. This will result in continued
this project was successful and whether or not the degradation, in place of restoration.
methods used to create habitat worked. It is not
possible to know whether new habitat was, in fact,
Acknowledgements
created nor whether there was any increase in the
diversity of fauna. The wetland may still be degraded
We thank D. O'Connor for her contribution to this
and depauperate. If the same methods are used in other
paper and M. Lincoln-Smith for his useful comments.
projects, they may lead to other wetlands remaining
The preparation of this paper was supported by
degraded. Conversely, a poor method of detecting the
the Australian Research Council, Special Research
success of restoration could easily have produced a
Centres grant.
negative outcome (i.e. diversity decreased and the
project was deemed unsuccessful), when, in fact,
diversity actually increased and therefore the techni-
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