Functions versus Relations

There are different ways of looking at functions. We will consider a few. But
first, we need to discuss some terminology.

A "relation" is just a relationship between sets of information. Think of all the

people in one of your classes, and think of their heights. The pairing of
names and heights is a relation. In relations and functions, the pairs of
names and heights are "ordered", which means one comes first and the
other comes second. To put it another way, we could set up this pairing so
that either you give me a name, and then I give you that person's height, or
else you give me a height, and I give you the names of all the people who
are that tall. The set of all the starting points is called "the domain" and the
set of all the ending points is called "the range." The domain is what you
start with; the range is what you end up with. The domain is the x's; the
range is the y's.

A function is a "well-behaved" relation. Just as with members of your own

family, some members of the family of pairing relationships are better
behaved than other. This means that, while all functions are relations, since
they pair information, not all relations are functions. Functions are a sub-
classification of relations. When we say that a function is "a well-behaved
relation", we mean that, given a starting point, we know exactly where to go;
given an x, we get only and exactly one y.

Let's return to our relation of your classmates and their heights, and let's
suppose that the domain is the set of everybody's heights. Let's suppose
that there's a pizza-delivery guy waiting in the hallway. And all the delivery
guy knows is that the pizza is for the student in your classroom who is five-
foot-five. Now let the guy in. Who does he go to? What if nobody is five-foot-
five? What if there are six people in the room that are five-five? Do they all
have to pay? What if you are five-foot-five? And what if you're out of cash?
And allergic to anchovies? Are you still on the hook?

The relation "height indicates name" is not well-behaved. It is not a function.

Given the relationship (x,y) = (five-foot-five person, name), there might be
six different possibilities for y = "name". For a relation to be a function, there
must be only and exactly one y that corresponds to a given x. Here are some
pictures of this:
 This is a function. You can tell by tracing
from each x to each y. There is only
one y for each x; there is only one arrow
coming from each x.

Ha! Bet I fooled some of you on this one!

This is a function! There is only one arrow
coming from each x; there is only one y for
each x. It just so happens that it's always
the same y for each x, but it is only that
one y. So this is a function; it's just an
extremely boring function!

This one is not a function: there

are two arrows coming from the number 1;
the number 1 is associated with
two different range elements. So this is a
relation, but it is not a function.

Okay, this one's a trick question. Each

element of the domain that has a pair in
the range is nicely well-behaved. But what
about that 16? It is in the domain, but it
has no range element that corresponds to
it! This won't work! So then this is not a
function. Heck, it ain't even a relation!

1. The "Vertical Line Test"

Looking at this function stuff graphically, what if we had the relation that
consists of a set containing just two points: {(2, 3), (2, 2)}? We already
know that this is not a function, since x = 2 goes to each of y = 3 and y =
2. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 1999-2011 All Rights Reserved
 If we graph this relation, it
looks like:

Notice that you can draw a

vertical line through the two
points, like this:

This characteristic of non-functions was noticed by I-don't-know-who, and

was codified in "The Vertical Line Test": Given the graph of a relation, if you
can draw a vertical line that crosses the graph in more than one place, then
the relation is not a function. Here are a couple examples:

This graph shows a function,

because there is no vertical
line that will cross this graph
twice.

This graph does not show a

function, because any
number of vertical lines will
intersect this oval twice. For
instance, the y-axis
intersects (crosses) the line
twice.

2."Is it a function?" - Quick answer without the

graph
Think of all the graphing that you've done so far. The simplest method is to
solve for "y =", make a T-chart, pick some values for x, solve for the
corresponding values of y, plot your points, and connect the dots, yadda,
yadda, yadda. Not only is this useful for graphing, but this methodology
gives yet another way of identifying functions: If you can solve for "y =",
then it's a function. In other words, if you can enter it into your graphing
calculator, then it's a function. The calculator can only handle functions. For
example, 2y + 3x = 6 is a function, because you can solve for y:

2y + 3x = 6
2y = 3x + 6
y = (3/2)x + 3

On the other hand, y2 + 3x = 6 is not a function, because you can not solve
for a unique y:

I mean, yes, this is solved for "y =", but it's not unique. Do you take the
positive square root, or the negative? Besides, where's the "" key on your
graphing calculator? So, in this case, the relation is not a function. (You can
also check this by using our first definition from above. Think of "x = 1".
Then we get y2 3 = 6, so y2 = 9, and then y can be either 3 or +3. That is,
if we did an arrow chart, there would be two arrows coming from x = 1.

3. Functions: Domain and Range

Let's return to the subject of domains and ranges.

When functions are first introduced, you will probably have some simplistic
"functions" and relations to deal with, usually being just sets of points. These won't
be terribly useful or interesting functions and relations, but your text wants you to
get the idea of what the domain and range of a function are. Small sets of points are
generally the simplest sorts of relations, so your book starts with those.

For instance:

State the domain and range of the following relation. Is the relation a function?
{(2, 3), (4, 6), (3, 1), (6, 6), (2, 3)}
The above list of points, being a relationship between certain x's and certain y's, is a
relation. The domain is all the x-values, and the range is all the y-values. To give the
domain and the range, I just list the values without duplication:

domain: {2, 3, 4, 6}

range: {3, 1, 3, 6}
(It is customary to list these values in numerical order, but it is not required. Sets
are called "unordered lists", so you can list the numbers in any order you feel like.
Just don't duplicate: technically, repetitions are okay in sets, but most instructors
would count off for this.)

While the given set does indeed represent a relation (because x's and y's are being
related to each other), the set they gave me contains two points with the same x-
value: (2, 3) and (2, 3). Since x = 2 gives me two possible destinations (that is, two
possible y-values), then this relation is not a function.

Note that all I had to do to check whether the relation was a function was to look for
duplicate x-values. If you find any duplicate x-values, then the different y-values
mean that you do not have a function. Remember: For a relation to be a function,
each x-value has to go to one, and only one, y-value.

State the domain and range of the following relation. Is the relation a
function?
{(3, 5), (2, 5), (1, 5), (0, 5), (1, 5), (2, 5)}
I'll just list the x-values for the domain and the y-values for the range:

domain: {3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2}

range: {5}

This is another example of a "boring" function, just like the example on the previous
page: every last x-value goes to the exact same y-value. But each x-value is
different, so, while boring,

this relation is indeed a function.

In point of fact, these points lie on the horizontal line y = 5.

By the way, the name for a set with only one element in it, like the "range" set
above, is "singleton". So the range could also be stated as "the singleton of 5"

There is one other case for finding the domain and range of functions. They will give
you a function and ask you to find the domain (and maybe the range, too). I have
only ever seen (or can even think of) two things at this stage in your mathematical
career that you'll have to check in order to determine the domain of the function
they'll give you, and those two things are denominators and square roots.

Determine the domain and range of the given function:

\mathbf{\color{green}{\mathit{y} = \dfrac{\mathit{x}^2 + \mathit{x} - 2}
{\mathit{x}^2 - \mathit{x} - 2}}}y=x2x2x2+x2
The domain is all the values that x is allowed to take on. The only problem I have
with this function is that I need to be careful not to divide by zero. So the only
values that x can not take on are those which would cause division by zero. So I'll
set the denominator equal to zero and solve; my domain will be everything else.
x2 x 2 = 0

(x 2)(x + 1) = 0

x = 2 or x = 1

Then the domain is "all x not equal to 1 or 2".

The range is a bit trickier, which is why they may not ask for it. In general, though,
they'll want you to graph the function and find the range from the picture. In this
case:

As you can see from my picture, the graph "covers" all y-values; that is, the graph
will go as low as I like, and will also go as high as I like. For any point on the y-axis,
no matter how high up or low down, I can go from that point either to the right or to
the left and, eventually, I'll cross the graph. Since the graph will eventually cover all
possible values of y, then:

the range is "all real numbers".

Determine the domain and range of the given function:
\mathbf{\color{green}{\mathit{y} = -\sqrt{-2\mathit{x} + 3}}}y=2x+3
Advertisement

The domain is all values that x can take on. The only problem I have with this
function is that I cannot have a negative inside the square root. So I'll set the insides
greater-than-or-equal-to zero, and solve. The result will be my domain:

2x + 3 0

2x 3

2x 3

x 3/2 = 1.5

Then the domain is "all x 3/2".

The range requires a graph. I need to be careful when graphing radicals:

The graph starts at y = 0 and goes down (heading to the left) from there. While the
graph goes down very slowly, I know that, eventually, I can go as low as I like (by
picking an x that is sufficiently big). Also, from my experience with graphing, I know
that the graph will never start coming back up. Then:

the range is "all y 0".

Affiliate

Determine the domain and range of the given function:

4
y = x + 4
This is just a garden-variety polynomial. There are no denominators (so no division-
by-zero problems) and no radicals (so no square-root-of-a-negative problems). There
are no problems with a polynomial. There are no values that I can't plug in for x.
When I have a polynomial, the answer for the domain is always:

the domain is "all x".

The range will vary from polynomial to polynomial, and they probably won't even
ask, but when they do, I look at the picture:
The graph goes only as high as y = 4, but it will go as low as I like. Then:

The range is "all y 4".

Solving Quadratic Equations:

1. Solving Quadratic Equations by
Factoring:
This lesson covers many ways to solve quadratics, such as taking square
roots, completing the square, and using the Quadratic Formula. But we'll
start with solving by factoring.

You should already know how to factor quadratics. (If not, review Factoring
Quadratics.) The new thing here is that the quadratic is part of an equation,
and you're told to solve for the values of x that make the equation true.
Here's how it works:

Solve (x 3)(x 4) = 0.

Okay, this one is already factored for me. But how do I solve this?

Think: If I multiply two things together and the result is zero, what can I
say about those two things? I can say that at least one of them must
also be zero. That is, the only way to multiply and get zero is to
multiply by zero. (This is sometimes called "The Zero Factor Property"
or "Rule" or "Principle".)

Warning: You cannot make this statement about any other number! You can
only make the conclusion about the factors ("one of them must equal zero")
if the product itself equals zero. If the above product of factors had been
equal to, say, 4, then we would still have no idea what was the value of
either of the factors; we would not have been able (we would not have been
mathematically "justified") in making any claim about the values of the
factors. Because you can only make the conclusion ("one of the factors must
have equalled zero") if the product equals zero, you must always have the
equation in the form "(quadratic) equals (zero)" before you can attempt to
solve it.

The Zero Factor Principle tells me that at least one of the factors must
be equal to zero. Since at least one of the factors must be zero, I'll set
them eachequal to zero:

x 3 = 0 or x 4 = 0

This gives me simple linear equations, and they're easy to solve:

x = 3 or x = 4

And this is the solution they're looking for: x = 3, 4

Note that "x = 3, 4" means the same thing as "x = 3 or x = 4"; the only
difference is the formatting. The "x = 3, 4" format is more-typically used.

One important issue should be mentioned at this point: Just as with linear
equations, the solutions to quadratic equations may be verified by plugging
them back into the original equation, and making sure that they work, that
they result in a true statement. For the above example, we would do the
following:

Checking x = 3 in (x 3)(x 4) = 0:
 ([3] 3)([3] 4) ?=? 0
(3 3)(3 4) ?=? 0
(0)(1) ?=? 0
0 = 0

Checking x = 4 in (x 3)(x 4) = 0:

([4] 3)([4] 4) ?=? 0

(4 3)(4 4) ?=? 0
(1)(0) ?=? 0
0 = 0

So both solutions "check" and are thus verified as being correct

Examples:

Solve x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.

This equation is already in the form "(quadratic) equals (zero)" but,

unlike the previous example, this isn't yet factored. The quadratic must
first be factored, because it is only when you MULTIPLY and get zero
that you can say anything about the factors and solutions. You can't
conclude anything about the individual terms of the unfactored
quadratic (like the 5x or the 6), because you can add lots of stuff that
totals zero.

So the first thing I have to do is factor:

x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)

Set this equal to zero:

(x + 2)(x + 3) = 0

Solve each factor: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2002-2011 All Rights

Reserved

x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
x = 2 or x = 3

The solution to x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 is x = 3, 2

Checking x = 3 and x = 2 in x2 + 5x + 6 = 0:

[3]2 + 5[3] + 6 ?=? 0

9 15 + 6 ?=? 0
 9 + 6 15 ?=? 0
15 15 ?=? 0
0 = 0

[2]2 + 5[2] + 6 ?=? 0

4 10 + 6 ?=? 0
4 + 6 10 ?=? 0
10 10 ?=? 0
0 = 0

So both solutions "check".

Solve x2 3 = 2x.

This equation is not in "(quadratic) equals (zero)" form, so I can't try to

solve it yet. The first thing I need to do is get all the terms over on one
side, with zero on the other side. Only then can I factor and solve:

x2 3 = 2x
x2 2x 3 = 0
(x 3)(x + 1) = 0
x 3 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
x = 3 or x = 1

Then the solution to x2 3 = 2x is x = 1, 3

Solve (x + 2)(x + 3) = 12.

It is very common for students to see this type of problem, and say:

"Cool! It's already factored! So I'll set the factors equal to 12 and
solve to get x = 10 and x = 9. That was easy!"

Yeah, it was easy; it was also (warning!) wrong. Besides the fact
that (10 + 2)(9 + 3) does not equal 12, you should never forget that
you must have "(quadratic) equals (zero)" before you can solve.

So, tempting though it may be, I cannot set each of the factors above
equal to the other side of the equation and "solve". Instead, I first have
to multiply out and simplify the left-hand side, then subtract
the 12 over to the left-hand side, and re-factor. Only then can I solve.

(x + 2)(x + 3) = 12
x2 + 5x + 6 = 12
x2 + 5x 6 = 0
(x + 6)(x 1) = 0
 x + 6 = 0 or x 1 = 0
x = 6 or x = 1

Then the solution to (x + 2)(x + 3) = 12 is x = 6, 1

Solve x(x + 5) = 0.

A very common mistake that students make on this type of problem is

to "solve" the equation for "x + 5 = 0" by dividing off the x. But you
can't divide by zero; dividing off the x makes the implicit assumption
that x is not zero. There is no justification for making that assumption!
And (warning!) making that (implicit) assumption will cause you to lose
half of your solution to this problem.

Even though you are used to variable factors having variables and
numbers (like the other factor, x + 5), a factor can contain only a
variable, so "x" is a perfectly valid factor. So set the factors equal to
zero, and solve:

x(x + 5) = 0
x = 0 or x + 5 = 0
x = 0 or x = 5

Then the solution to x(x + 5) = 0 is x = 0, 5

Solve x2 5x = 0.

This two-term quadratic is easier to factor than were the

previous quadratics: I can factor an x out of both terms, taking
the x out front. (Warning: Do not "divide the x off", do not make it
magically "disappear", or you'll lose one of your solutions!)

x(x 5) = 0
x = 0 or x 5 = 0
x = 0 or x = 5

Then the solution to x2 5x = 0 is x = 0, 5

There is one other case of two-term quadratics that you can factor:

Solve x2 4 = 0.

This equation is in "(quadratic) equals (zero)" form, so it's ready to

solve. The quadratic itself is a difference of squares, so I'll apply the
difference-of-squares formula:
 x2 4 = 0
(x 2)(x + 2) = 0
x 2 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
x = 2 or x = 2

Then the solution is x = 2, 2

Note: This solution may also be formatted as "x = 2".

Solving by Taking Square Roots

Let's take another look at that last problem:

Solve x2 4 = 0.

Previously, I'd solved this by factoring the difference of squares, and

solving each factor; the solution was "x = 2". However

I can also try isolating the squared variable term, putting the number
over on the other side, like this:

x2 4 = 0
x2 = 4

I know that, when solving an equation, I can do whatever I like to that

equation as long as I do the same thing to both sides of the equation.
On the left-hand side of this particular equation, I have an x2,
and I need a plain x. To turn an x2 into an x, I can take the square root
of each side of the equation:

x=2

Then the solution is x = 2

Why did I need the "" ("plus-minus") sign on the 2 when I took the square
root of the 4? Because it might have been a positive 2 or a negative 2 that
was squared to get that 4 in the original equation.

Warning: Finding the solution, above, is a very different process from

"evaluating the square root of 4". When finding the square root of a number,
you know that you're dealing with a positive result, because that is how the
square root of a number is defined. Solving an equation, on the other hand
finding all of the possible values of the variable that will work in the
equation is different from just evaluating an expression that is already
defined to have only one value.

Remember: a square-rooted number has only one value, but a square-

rooted equation has two, because of the variable.

The answer I got above, with the "" sign, matches the solution I got when I
solved this equation using the difference-of-squares factoring formula. Thus,
this result confirms the need to use the "" sign when solving by square-
rooting. (In mathematics, you need to be able to get the same answer, no
matter which valid method you happen to have used in order to arrive at
that answer.)

A benefit of this square-rooting process is that it allows us to solve some

quadratics that we could not have solved before. For instance:

Solve x2 50 = 0.

This quadratic has a squared part and a number part. I'll start by
adding the numerical term to the other side of the equaion (so the
squared part is by itself), and then I'll square-root both sides. I'll need
to remember to simplify the square root:

x2 50 = 0
x2 = 50

Then the solution is

While we could have gotten the previous integer solution by factoring, we

could never have gotten this radical solution by factoring. Factoring is clearly
useful, but additional techniques can allow us to find solutions to additional
sorts of equations.

Solve (x 5)2 100 = 0.

This quadratic has a squared part and a number part. I'll start by
adding the number to the other side of the equation, so the squared
binomial is by itself. Then I'll square-root both sides, remembering to
simplify my results:
The quadratic in the previous section's last example, "(x 2)2 12", can be
multiplied out and simplified to be "x2 4x 8". But we would not have been
able to solve the equation with the quadratic formatted this way because it
doesn't factor and it isn't ready for square-rooting. The only reason we could
solve it before was because they'd already put all the x stuff inside a square,
so we could square-root both sides. So how do you go from a regular
quadratic like "x2 4x 8" to one that is ready to be square-rooted?

Exercise :

2. Solving Quadratics By Completing

The Square
I have a lesson on solving quadratics by completing the square, which
explains the steps and gives examples of this process. It also shows how the
Quadratic Formula is generated by this process. So I'll just do just one
example of the process in this lesson. If you need further instruction, read
the lesson at the above hyperlink.

Use completing the square to solve x2 4x 8 = 0.

 As noted above, this quadratic does not factor, so I can't solve the
equation by factoring. And they haven't given me the quadratic in a
form that is ready to square-root. But there is a way for me to
manipulate the quadratic to put it into that form, and then solve. It
works like this:

First, I put the loose number on the other side of the equation:

x2 4x 8 = 0
x2 4x = 8

Then I look at the coefficient of the x-term, which is 4 in this case. I

take half of this number (including the sign), giving me 2. Then I
square this value to get +4, and add this squared value to both sides
of the equation:

x2 4x + 4 = 8 + 4
x2 4x + 4 = 12

This process creates a quadratic that is a perfect square, and factoring

gives me:

(x 2)2 = 12

(I know it's a "minus two" inside the parentheses because half of 4 is

2. If you note the sign when you're finding one-half of the coefficient,
then you won't mess up the sign when you're converting to squared-
binomial form.)

Now I can square-root both sides of the equation, simplify, and solve:

(x 2)2 = 12

Then the solution is

Unless you're told that you have to use completing the square, you will
probably not use this method, in actual practice, when solving quadratic
equations. Either some other method (such as factoring) will be obvious and
quicker, or else the Quadratic Formula (coming up next) will be easier to use.
However, if your class covered completing the square, you should expect to
be required to show that you can complete the square to solve a quadratic
on the next test.

That said, you can probably safely forget this process for solving quadratics
after the test, because, instead of completing the square to find messy
solutions like the last one above, you'll use a formula..

(x 5)2 100 = 0
(x 5)2 = 100

x 5 = 10
x = 5 10
x = 5 10 or x = 5 + 10
x = 5 or x = 15

Since the equation, after square-rooting, did not contain any square
roots, I was able to simplify down to simple values. Copyright
Elizabeth Stapel 2002-2011 All Rights Reserved

The solution is x = 5, 15

This example points out the importance of remembering the "" when you
square-root both sides:

Warning: Many students develop the bad habit of not bothering to write the
"" sign until they check their answers in the back of the book and
"remember" that they "meant" to put the "" in there when they took the
square roots of either side of their equation. However, that generally only
works when the solution involves square roots (and only when you actually
have the solution, which isn't the case on tests). The above is an example of
a problem where the careless student will omit the "" and then have no
clue how the book got the answer "x = 5, 15". Don't be that student;
always remember to insert the "".

By the way, since the solution to the equation consisted of nice neat "whole"
numbers, this quadratic could also have been solved by multiplying out the
square and simplifying to get "x2 10x 75", which then could have been
factored as "(x 15)(x + 5)".

Solve (x 2)2 12 = 0
 This quadratic has a squared part and a number part. I'll add the
number to the other side (so the squared part is by itself), and then I'll
square-root both sides, remembering to simplify:

Exercise:

3. Solving with the Quadratic

Formula
Somebody was solving a lot of quadratic equations by completing the
square. At some point, he noticed that he was always doing the exact same
steps in the exact same order for every equation. Taking advantage of the
one of the great powers and benefits of algebra (namely, the ability to deal
with abstractions, rather than having to muck about with the numbers every
single time), he made a formula out of what he'd been doing:

The Quadratic Formula:

For ax2 + bx + c = 0, the value of x is given by:

The nice thing about the Quadratic Formula is that the Quadratic Formula
always works. There are some quadratics (most of them, actually) that you
can't solve by factoring. But the Quadratic Formula will always spit out an
answer, whether the quadratic was factorable or not.

I have a lesson on the Quadratic Formula, which gives examples and shows
the connection between the discriminant (the stuff inside the square root),
the number and type of solutions of the quadratic equation, and the graph of
the related parabola. So I'll just do one example here. If you need further
instruction, study the lesson at the above hyperlink.
Let's try that last problem from the previous section again, but this time we'll
use the Quadratic Formula:

Use the Quadratic Formula to solve x2 4x 8 = 0.

Looking at the coefficients, I see that a = 1, b = 4, and c = 8. I'll plug

them into the Formula, and simplify. I should get the same answer as
before:

Then the solution is

The nice thing about the Quadratic Formula (as compared to completing the
square) is that you're just plugging into a formula. There are no "steps" to
remember, and there are fewer opportunities for mistakes. Copyright
Elizabeth Stapel 2002-2011 All Rights Reserved

Memorize the Quadratic Formula. I don't care if your teacher says she's going
to give it to you on the next test! Memorize it anyway, because (warning!)
you'll need it later. It's not that long, and there's even a song to help you
remember it.

Advisory: When using the Formula, make sure you are careful not to omit the
"" sign, and be careful with the fraction line (don't draw it as being only
under the square root; it's under the initial "b" part, too). And, though many
of your quadratics will start with "x2" so a = 1, don't forget that the
denominator of the Formula is "2a", not just "2"; that is, when the leading
term is something like "5x2", you will need to remember to put the "a = 5"
value in the denominator. Take the time to be careful, because, as long as
you do your work neatly, the Quadratic Formula will give you the right
answer every time.
 (x 2)2 12 = 0
(x 2)2 = 12

Then the solution is

This quadratic equation, unlike the previous one, could not be solved by
factoring. But how would I have solved it, if they had not given me the
quadratic already put into "(squared part) minus (a number)" form? This
concern leads to the next topic: "completing the square".

Exercise:

Synthetic Division

Synthetic division is a shorthand, or shortcut, method of polynomial division in the

special case of dividing by a linear factor -- and it only works in this case. Synthetic
division is generally used, however, not for dividing out factors but for finding
zeroes (or roots) of polynomials. More about this later.

If you are given, say, the polynomial equation y = x2 + 5x + 6, you can factor the
polynomial as y = (x + 3)(x + 2). Then you can find the zeroes of y by setting each
factor equal to zero and solving. You will find that x = 2 and x = 3are the two
zeroes of y.

You can, however, also work backwards from the zeroes to find the originating
polynomial. For instance, if you are given that x = 2 and x = 3 are the zeroes of a
quadratic, then you know that x + 2 = 0, so x + 2 is a factor, and x + 3 = 0, so x +
3 is a factor. Therefore, you know that the quadratic must be of the form y = a(x +
3)(x + 2).
(The extra number "a" in that last sentence is in there because, when you
are working backwards from the zeroes, you don't know toward which quadratic
you're working. For any non-zero value of "a", your quadratic will still have the same
zeroes. But the issue of the value of "a" is just a technical consideration; as long as
you see the relationship between the zeroes and the factors, that's all you really
need to know for this lesson.)

Anyway, the above is a long-winded way of saying that, if x n is a factor,

then x = n is a zero, and if x = n is a zero, then x n is a factor. And this is the fact
you use when you do synthetic division.

Let's look again at the quadratic from above: y = x2 + 5x + 6. From the Rational
Roots Test, you know that 1, 2, 3, and 6 are possible zeroes of the quadratic.
(And, from the factoring above, you know that the zeroes are, in fact, 3 and 2.)
How would you use synthetic division to check the potential zeroes? Well, think
about how long polynomial divison works. If we guess that x = 1 is a zero, then this
means that x 1 is a factor of the quadratic. And if it's a factor, then it will divide
out evenly; that is, if we divide x2 + 5x + 6 by x 1, we would get a zero remainder.
Let's check:

As expected (since we know that x 1 is not a factor), we got a non-zero remainder.

What does this look like in synthetic division? Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2002-
2011 All Rights Reserved

First, write the coefficients ONLY

inside an upside-down division
symbol:

Make sure you leave room inside, underneath the

row of coefficients, to write another row of
numbers later.

Put the test zero, x = 1, at the left:

Take the first number inside,
representing the leading coefficient,
and carry it down, unchanged, to
below the division symbol:

Multiply this carry-down value by the

test zero, and carry the result up
into the next column:

Add down the column:

Multiply the previous carry-down

value by the test zero, and carry the
new result up into the last column:

Add down the column:

This last carry-down value is the

remainder.

Comparing, you can see that we got the same result from the synthetic division, the
same quotient (namely, 1x + 6) and the same remainder at the end (namely, 12),
as when we did the long division:
The results are formatted differently, but you should recognize that each format
provided us with the result, being a quotient of x + 6, and a remainder of 12.

You already know (from the factoring

above) that x + 3 is a factor of the
polynomial, and therefore that x = 3 is
a zero. Now compare the results of long
division and synthetic division when we
use the factor x + 3 (for the long
division) and the zero x = 3 (for the
synthetic division):

As you can see above, while the results are formatted differently, the results are
otherwise the same:

In the long division, I divided by the factor x + 3, and arrived at the result of x +
2 with a remainder of zero. This means that x + 3 is a factor, and that x + 2 is left
after factoring out the x + 3. Setting the factors equal to zero, I get that x =
3 and x = 2 are the zeroes of the quadratic.

In the synthetic division, I divided by x = 3, and arrived at the same result of x +

2 with a remainder of zero. Because the remainder is zero, this means that x + 3 is
a factor and x = 3 is a zero. Also, because of the zero remainder, x + 2 is the
remaining factor after division. Setting this equal to zero, I get that x = 2 is the
other zero of the quadratic.

I will return to this relationship between factors and zeroes throughout what follows;
the two topics are inextricably intertwined.

1. Synthetic Division Examples

Complete the indicated division.
For this first exercise, I will display the entire synthetic-division process
step-by-step.

First, carry down the "2" that

indicates the leading
coefficient:

Multiply by the number on the

left, and carry the result into
the next column:

Add down the column:

Multiply by the number on the

left, and carry the result into
the next column:

Add down the column:

 Multiply by the number on the
left, and carry the result into
the next column:

Add down the column:

Multiply by the number on the

left, and carry the result into
the next column:

Add down the column for the

remainder:

The completed division is:

This exercise never said anything about polynomials, factors, or zeroes, but
this division says that, if you divide 2x4 3x3 5x2 + 3x + 8 by x 2, then the
remainder will be 2, and therefore x 2 is not a factor of 2x4 3x3 5x2 +
3x + 8, and x = 2 is not a zero (that is, a root or x-intercept) of the initial
polynomial. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2002-2011 All Rights Reserved

Divide 3x3 2x2 + 3x 4 by x 3 using synthetic division.

Write the answer in the form " q(x) + r(x)/d(x) ".
This question is asking me, in effect, to convert an "improper"
polynomial "fraction" into a polynomial "mixed number". That is, I am
being asked to do something similar to converting the improper
fraction 17/5 to the mixed number 3 2/5, which is really the shorthand for
the addition expression "3 + 2/5".

To convert the polynomial division into the required "mixed number"

format, I have to do the division; I will show most of the steps.

First, write down all the

coefficients, and put the zero
from x 3 = 0 (so x = 3) at the
left.

Next, carry down the leading

coefficient:

Multiply by the potential zero,

carry up to the next column,
and add down:

Repeat this process:

Repeat this process again:

 As you can see, the remainder is 68. Since I started with a polynomial
of degree 3 and then divided by x 3 (that is, by a polynomial of
degree 1), I am left with a polynomial of degree 2. Then the bottom
line represents the polynomial 3x2 + 7x + 24 with a remainder of 68.
Putting this result into the required "mixed number" format, I get the
answer as being:

It is always true that, when you use synthetic division, your answer (in the
bottom row) will be of degree one less than what you'd started with, because
you have divided out a linear factor. That was how I knew that my answer,
denoted by the "3 7 24" in the bottom row, stood for a quadratic, since I
had started with a cubic.

2. Finding Zeroes
Once you know how to do synthetic division, you can use the technique as a
shortcut to finding factors and zeroes of polynomials. Here are some
examples:

Use synthetic division to determine whether x = 1 is a zero of x3 1.

Set up the synthetic division, and check to see if the remainder is zero.
If the remainder is zero, then x = 1 is a zero of x3 1.

To do the initial set-up, note that I needed to leave "gaps" for the
powers of x that are not included in the polynomial. That is, I followed
the practice used with long division, and wrote the polynomial as x3 +
0x2 + 0x 1 for the purposes of doing the division. If you forget to
leave "gaps", your division will not work properly!
 Since the remainder is zero, then x = 1 is a zero of x3 1.

Since x = 1 is a zero of x3 1, then x 1 is a factor, so the polynomial x3

1 factors as
(x 1)(x2 + x + 1). Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2002-2011 All Rights
Reserved

Use synthetic division to find all the zeroes of x4 + x3 11x2 5x + 30.

Comparing the results of the Rational Roots Test to a quick graph, I

decide to test x = 2 as a possible zero. Set up the divison:

...and here is the result:

Since the remainder is zero, then x = 2 is indeed a zero of the original

polynomial. To continue on and find the rest of the zeroes, should I
start over again with x4 + x3 11x2 5x + 30? Well, think about when
you factor something like 72. After you divide a 2 out and get a 36, do
you go back to the 72 to try the next factor, or do you see what will go
into the 36? Of course, you try factors into the 36. Follow the same
procedure here. I won't return to the original polynomial, but will
instead see what divides into my result.

(Recall that synthetic-dividing out x = 2 is the same as long-

dividing out x 2, so the result has a degree that is one lower than
what I started with. That is, to continue, I will be dealing not with the
original fourth-degree polynomial x4 + x3 11x2 5x + 30, but with the
third-degree result from the synthetic division: x3 + 3x2 5x 15.)
 Continuing, and again comparing the Rational Roots Test with a quick
graph, I will try x = 3. Set up the division:

...and here is the result:

Since the remainder is zero, then x = 3 is a zero of the original

polynomial. At this point, the final result is a quadratic, (x2 5), and I
can apply the Quadratic Formula or other methods to get the
remaining zeroes:

Then all the zeroes are:

The above example shows how synthetic division is most-commonly used:

You are given some polynomial, and told to find all of its zeroes. You create a
list of possibilities, using the Rational Roots Test; you plug various of these
possible zeroes into the synthetic division until one of them "works" (divides
out evenly, with a zero remainder); you then try additional zeroes on the
resulting (and lower-degree) polynomial until something else "works"; and
you keep going like this until you get down to a quadratic, at which point you
use the Quadratic Formula or other methods to get the last two of the
original polynomial's zeroes.

3. Synthetic Division & Factoring

Use synthetic division to determine whether x 4 is a factor of:
 2x5 + 6x4 + 10x3 6x2 9x + 4

For x 4 to be a factor, you must have x = 4 as a zero. Using this

information, I'll do the synthetic division with x = 4 as the test zero on
the left:

Since the remainder is zero, then x = 4 is indeed a zero of 2x5 + 6x4 +

10x3 6x2 9x + 4, so:

Yes, x 4 is a factor of 2x5 + 6x4 + 10x3 6x2 9x + 4

Find all the factors of 15x4 + x3 52x2 + 20x + 16 by using synthetic

division.

Remember that, if x = a is a zero, then x a is a factor. So use

the Rational Roots Test (and maybe a quick graph) to find a good value
to test for a zero (x-intercept). I'll try x = 1:

This division gives a zero remainder, so x = 1 must be a zero, which

means that x 1 is a factor. Since I divided a linear factor (namely, x
1) out of the original polynomial, then my result has to be a
cubic: 15x3 + 16x2 36x 16. So I need to find another zero before I
can apply the Quadratic Formula. I'll try x = 2:

Since I got a zero remainder, then x = 2 is a zero, so x + 2 is a factor.

Plus, I'm now down to a quadratic, 15x2 14x 8, which happens to
factor as:

(3x 4)(5x + 2)
 Then the fully-factored form of the original polynomial is:

15x4 + x3 52x2 + 20x + 16

= (x 1)(x + 2)(3x 4)(5x + 2)

Given that is a zero of x4 + 6x3 7x2 30x + 10, fully

solve the
equation x4 + 6x3 7x2 30x + 10 = 0.

Since they have given me one of the zeroes, I'll use synthetic division
to divide it out:

(You will probably want to use scratch paper for

the computations required when manipulating the radical
root.) Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2002-2011 All Rights Reserved

Since you only get these square-root answers by using the Quadratic
Formula, and since the square-root part of the Formula is preceded by
a "plus-minus" sign, then these square-root answers must always come
in pairs. Thus, if is a root, then so also must be a
root. So my next step is to divide by :

I had started with a fourth-power polynomial. After the first division, I

was left with a cubic (with very nasty coefficients!). After the second
division, I'm now down to a quadratic (x2 + 0x 5, or just x2 5), which
I know how to solve:

Then the full solution is:

If you have studied complex numbers, then you may see a problem of the
following type.

Given that 2 i is a zero of x5 6x4 + 11x3 x2 14x + 5, fully solve the

equation x5 6x4 + 11x3 x2 14x + 5 = 0.

They have given us a zero, so I'll use synthetic division and divide out 2
i:

(You will probably want to use scratch paper for

the computations required when doing complex division.)

Recall that, to arrive at a zero of 2 i, they must have used

the Quadratic Formula, which always spits out complex answers in
pairs. That is, you get the imaginary part (the part with the "i") from
having a negative inside the "plus or minus square-root of" part of the
Formula. This means that, since 2 i is a zero, then 2 + i must also be
a zero. So I'll divide by 2 + i:

This leaves me with a cubic, so I'll need to find another zero on my

own. (That is, I can't apply the Quadratic Formula yet.) I can use
the Rational Roots Test to help find potential zeroes, and a quick graph
of x3 2x2 2x + 1 can help. I will try x = 1:
 Now I'm down to a quadratic (x2 3x + 1, which happens not to factor),
so I'll apply the Quadratic Formula to get:

Then all the zeroes of x5 6x4 + 11x3 x2 14x + 5 are given by:

The examples above repeatedly refer to the relationship between factors and
zeroes. In other lessons (for instance, on solving polynomials), these
concepts will be made more explicit. For now, be aware that checking a
graph (if you have a graphing calculator) can be very helpful for finding test
zeroes for doing synthetic division, and that a zero remainder after synthetic
division by x = a means that x a is a factor of the polynomial. If you do not
have access to a graphing calculator for helping you find the right zeroes to
try, there are some tricks you can use.

Exercise:
Solve these polynomials.

Ratios and Proportions:

1. Ratios:
Proportions are built from ratios. A "ratio" is just a comparison between two
different things. For instance, someone can look at a group of people, count
noses, and refer to the "ratio of men to women" in the group. Suppose there
are thirty-five people, fifteen of whom are men. Then the ratio of men to
women is 15 to 20.
Notice that, in the expression "the ratio of men to women", "men" came first.
This order is very important, and must be respected: whichever word came
first, its number must come first. If the expression had been "the ratio of
women to men", then the numbers would have been "20 to 15".

Expressing the ratio of men to women as "15 to 20" is expressing the ratio in
words. There are two other notations for this "15 to 20" ratio:

odds notation: 15 : 20
15
fractional notation: /20

You should be able to recognize all three notations; you will probably be
expected to know them for your test.

Given a pair of numbers, you should be able to write down the ratios. For
example:

There are 16 ducks and 9 geese in a certain park. Express the ratio of
ducks to geese in all three formats.

Consider the above park. Express the ratio of geese to ducks in all
three formats.

The numbers were the same in each of the above exercises, but the order in
which they were listed differed, varying according to the order in which the
elements of the ratio were expressed. In ratios, order is very important.
Let's return to the 15 men and 20 women in our original group. I had
expressed the ratio as a fraction, namely, 15/20. This fraction reduces to 3/4.
This means that you can also express the ratio of men to women as 3/4, 3 : 4,
or "3 to 4".

This points out something important about ratios: the numbers used in the
ratio might not be the absolute measured values. The ratio "15 to 20" refers
to the absolute numbers of men and women, respectively, in the group of
thirty-five people. The simplified or reduced ratio "3 to 4" tells you only that,
for every three men, there are four women. The simplified ratio also tells you
that, in any representative set of seven people (3 + 4 = 7) from this group,
three will be men. In other words, the men comprise 3/7 of the people in the
group. These relationships and reasoning are what you use to solve many
word problems:

In a certain class, the ratio of passing grades to failing grades is 7 to 5.

How many of the 36 students failed the course? Copyright Elizabeth
Stapel 2001-2011 All Rights Reserved

The ratio, "7 to 5" (or 7 : 5 or 7/5), tells me that, of every 7 + 5 =

12 students, five failed. That is, 5/12 of the class flunked. Then ( 5/12 )
(36) = 15 students failed.

In the park mentioned above, the ratio of ducks to geese is 16 to 9.

How many of the 300 birds are geese?

The ratio tells me that, of every 16 + 9 = 25 birds, 9 are geese. That

is, 9/25 of the birds are geese. Then there are ( 9/25 )(300) = 108 geese.

Generally, ratio problems will just be a matter of stating ratios or simplifying

them. For instance:

Express the ratio in simplest form: $10 to $45

This exercise wants me to write the ratio as a reduced fraction:

.10/45 = 2/9.

This reduced fraction is the ratio's expression in simplest fractional form.

Note that the units (the "dollar" signs) "canceled" on the fraction, since the
units, "$", were the same on both values. When both values in a ratio have
the same unit, there should generally be no unit on the reduced form.

Express the ratio in simplest form: 240 miles to 8 gallons

When I simplify, I get (240 miles) / (8 gallons) = (30 miles) / (1 gallon),

or, in more common language, 30 miles per gallon.

In contrast to the answer to the previous exercise, this exercise's answer did
need to have units on it, since the units on the two parts of the ratio, the
"miles" and the "gallons", do not "cancel" with each other.

Conversion factors are simplified ratios, so they might be covered around the
same time that you're studying ratios and proportions. For instance, suppose
you are asked how many feet long an American football field is. You know
that its length is 100 yards. You would then use the relationship of 3 feet
to 1 yard, and multiply by 3 to get 300 feet.
2. Proportion
Ratios are the comparison of one thing to another (miles to gallons, feet to yards,
ducks to geese, et cetera). But their true usefulness comes in the setting up and
solving of proportions....

A ratio is one thing compared to or related to another thing; it is just a statement or

an expression. A proportion is two ratios that have been set equal to each other; a
proportion is an equation that can be solved. When I say that a proportion is two
ratios that are equal to each other, I mean this in the sense of two fractions being
equal to each other. For instance, 5/10equals 1/2. Solving a proportion means that you
are missing one part of one of the fractions, and you need to solve for that missing
value. For instance, suppose you were given the following equation:

You already know, by just looking at this equation and comparing the two fractions,
that x must be 5, but suppose you hadn't noticed this. You can solve the equation
by multiplying through on both sides by 10 to clear the denominators:

x=5

Verifying what we already knew, we get that x = 5.

Often times, students are asked to solve proportions before they've learned how
to solve rational equations, which can be a bit of a problem. If you haven't yet
learned about rational expressions (that is, polynomial fractions), then you will need
to "get by" with "cross-multiplication".

To cross-multiply, you take each denominator a CROSS the "equals" sign and
MULTIPLY it on the other fraction's numerator. The cross-multiplication solution of
the above exercise looks like this:

Then you would solve the resulting linear equation by dividing through by 2.
Proportions wouldn't be of much use if you only used them for reducing fractions. A
more typical use would be something like the following:

Consider those ducks and geese we counted back at the park. Their ratio
was 16 ducks to 9 geese. Suppose that there are 192 ducks. How many
geese are there?

I'll let "G" stand for the unknown number of geese. Then I'll clearly label the
orientation of my ratios, and set up my proportional equation:

I'll multiply through on both sides by the G to get it up to the left-hand side,
out of the denominator, and then I'll solve for the value of G:

Then there are 108 geese.

To solve the propertion above with cross-multiplication, you would do the following:

"Cross-multiplying" is standard language, in that it is very commonly used, but it is

not technically a mathematical term. You might not see it in your book, but you will
almost certainly hear it in your class or study group.
Notice how, in my equation at the beginning of my solution above, I wrote out the
ratio in words:

This is not standard notation, but it can be very useful for setting up your
proportion. Clearly labelling what values are represented by the numerators and
denominators will help you keep track of what each number stands for. In other
words, it will help you set up your proportion correctly. If you do not set up the ratios
consistently (if, in the above example, you mix up where the "ducks" and the
"geese" go in the various fractions), you will get an incorrect answer. Clarity can be
very important.

3. Checking Proportionality
There is some terminology related to proportions that you may need to know. In the
proportion:

...the values in the "b" and "c" positions are called the "means" of the proportion,
while the values in the "a" and "d" positions are called the "extremes" of the
proportion. A basic defining property of a proportion is that the product of the
means is equal to the product of the extremes. In other words, given the
proportional statement:

...you can conclude that ad = bc. (This is, in effect, the cross-multiplication
demonstrated on the previous page.) This relationship is occasionally turned into a
homework problem, such as:

24 30
Is /140 proportional to /176 ?

For these ratios to be proportional (that is, for them to be a true proportion
when they are set equal to each other), I have to be able to show that the
product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes. In other words,
they are wanting me to find the product of 140 and 30 and the product
of 24 and 176, and then see if these products are equal. So I'll check:
 140 30 = 4200
24 176 = 4224

While these values are close, they are not equal, so I know the original
fractions cannot be proportional to each other. So the answer is that they are
not proportional.

The other technical exercise based on terminology is the finding of the "mean
proportional" between two numbers. Mean proportionals are a special class of
proportions, where the means of the proportion are equal to each other. An example
would be:

.1/2 = 2/4 Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2001-2011 All Rights Reserved

...because the means are both "2", while the extremes are 1 and 4. This tells you
that 2 is the "mean proportional" between 1 and 4. You may be given two values
and be asked to find the mean proportional between them.

Find the mean proportional of 3 and 12.

I'll let "x" be the number that I'm looking for. Since x will also be both of the
means, I'll set up my proportion with 3 and 12 as the extremes, and x as both
means:

Now I'll solve for x:

3 12 = x2
36 = x2
6 = x

Since I am looking for the mean proportional of 3 and 12, you would figure
that I would need to take the positive answer, so that the mean proportional
would be just the 6. However, considering the fractions, either value would
work:

So, actually, there are two mean proportionals: 6 and 6

Your book (or instructor) may want you only to consider the positive mean
proportional, since the positive value is between 3 and 12.

Find the mean proportional of 3 and 12.

I'll set this up the same way as before, and solve:

(3)(12) = x2
36 = x2
6=x

So there are again two mean proportionals: 6 and 6

Your book (or instructor) may only want "6" as an answer.

Find the mean proportional of 3 and 12.

Note the difference is signs; this problem is different from the ones that
preceded it. But I can set up the proportion in the exact same way:

Now I'll solve for x:

(3)(12) = x2
36 = x2

Since I can't take the square root of a negative number, then there is no
solution for the mean proportion of the two given values.

Find the mean proportional of 3/2 and 3/8.

At first, you might think that this isn't possible, but it is. I'll just set up the
proportion using fractions within fractions, and proceed normally:
 So the two mean proportionals are 3/4 and 3/4.

Your book (or instructor) may only be looking for " 3/4 ".

Exercise:

Factorials, Permutations and

Combinations
1. Factorials
A factorial is represented by the sign (!). When we encounter n! (known as 'n factorial')
we say that a factorial is the product of all the whole numbers between 1 and n,
where n must always be positive.

For example

0! is a special case factorial.

This is special because there are no positive numbers less than zero and we defined a
factorial as a product of the numbers between n and 1. We say that 0! = 1 by claiming
that the product of no numbers is 1. The reasoning and mathematics behind this is
complicated and beyond the scope of this page, so let's just accept 0! as equal to 1.

This works out to be mathematically true and allows us to redefine n! as follows:

For example

The above allows us to manipulate factorials and break them up, which is useful in
combinations and permutations.

Useful Factorial Properties

The last two properties are important to remember. The factorial sign DOES NOT
distribute across addition and subtraction.

2. Permutations
Suppose we want to find the number of ways to arrange the three letters in the
word CAT in different two-letter groups where CA is different from AC and there are
no repeated letters.

Because order matters, we're finding the number of permutations of size 2 that can
be taken from a set of size 3. This is often written 3_P_2. We can list them as:

CA CT AC AT TC TA

Now let's suppose we have 10 letters and want to make groupings of 4 letters. It's
harder to list all those permutations. To find the number of four-letter permutations
that we can make from 10 letters without repeated letters (10_P_4), we'd like to
have a formula because there are 5040 such permutations and we don't want to
write them all out!
For four-letter permutations, there are 10 possibilities for the first letter, 9 for the
second, 8 for the third, and 7 for the last letter. We can find the total number of
different four-letter permutations by multiplying 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 = 5040.

To arrive at 10 x 9 x 8 x 7, we need to divide 10 factorial (10 because there are ten

objects) by (10-4) factorial (subtracting from the total number of objects from which
we're choosing the number of objects in each permutation). You can see below that
we can divide the numerator by 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1:

10! 10! 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
10_P_4 = ------- = ---- = --------------------------------------
(10 - 4)! 6! 6x5x4x3x2x1

= 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 = 5040
From this we can see that the more general formula for finding the number of
permutations of size k taken from n objects is:

n!
n_P_k = --------
(n - k)!
For our CAT example, we have:

3! 3x2x1
3_P_2 = ---- = ----------- = 6
1! 1
We can use any one of the three letters in CAT as the first member of a
permutation. There are three choices for the first letter: C, A, or T. After we've
chosen one of these, only two choices remain for the second letter. To find the
number of permutations we multiply: 3 x 2 = 6.

Note: What's a factorial? A factorial is written using an exclamation point - for

example, 10 factorial is written 10! - and means multiply 10 times 9 times 8 times
7... all the way down to 1.

3. Combinations
When we want to find the number of combinations of size 2 without repeated
letters that can be made from the three letters in the word CAT, order doesn't
matter; AT is the same as TA. We can write out the three combinations of size two
that can be taken from this set of size three:

CA CT AT

We say '3 choose 2' and write 3_C_2. But now let's imagine that we have 10 letters
from which we wish to choose 4. To calculate 10_C_4, which is 210, we don't want to
have to write all the combinations out!

Since we already know that 10_P_4 = 5040, we can use this information to find
10_C_4. Let's think about how we got that answer of 5040. We found all the possible
combinations of 4 that can be taken from 10 (10_C_4). Then we found all the ways
that four letters in those groups of size 4 can be arranged: 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 4! = 24.
Thus the total number of permutations of size 4 taken from a set of size 10 is equal
to 4! times the total number of combinations of size 4 taken from a set of size 10:
10_P_4 = 4! x 10_C_4.

When we divide both sides of this equation by 4! we see that the total number
of combinationsof size 4 taken from a set of size 10 is equal to the number of
permutations of size 4 taken from a set of size 10 divided by 4!. This makes it
possible to write a formula for finding 10_C_4:

10_P_4 10! 10!

10_C_4 = -------- = ------- = ----------
4! 4! x 6! 4!(10-4)!

10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
= --------------------------------------
4 x 3 x 2 x 1 (6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1)

10 x 9 x 8 x 7 5040
= -------------- = ------ = 210
4x3x2x1 24

More generally, the formula for finding the number of combinations of k objects you
can choose from a set of n objects is:

n!
n_C_k = ----------
k!(n - k)!
For our CAT example, we do the following:

3! 3x2x1 6
3_C_2 = ------ = ----------- = --- = 3
2!(1!) 2 x 1 (1) 2

Introduction to Probability
The study of probability helps us figure out the likelihood of something happening.
For instance, when you roll a pair of dice, you might ask how likely you are to roll a
seven. In math, we call the "something happening" an "event."

The probability of the occurrence of an event can be expressed as a fraction or a

decimal from0 to 1. Events that are unlikely will have a probability near 0, and
events that are likely to happen have probabilities near 1.*
In any probability problem, it is very important to identify all the different outcomes
that could occur. For instance, in the question about the dice, you must figure out all
the different ways the dice could land, and all the different ways you could roll a
seven.

* Note that when you're dealing with an infinite number of possible events, an event
that could conceivably happen might have probability zero. Consider the example of
picking a random number between 1 and 10 - what is the probability that you'll pick
5.0724? It's zero, but it could happen.

Likewise, when dealing with infinities, a probability of 1 doesn't guarantee the

event: when choosing a random number between 1 and 10, what is the probability
that you'll choose a number other than 5.0724? It's 1.

One event, all outcomes equally likely

Suppose we have a jar with 4 red marbles and 6 blue marbles, and
we want to find the probability of drawing a red marble at random.
In this case we know that all outcomes are equally likely: any
individual marble has the same chance of being drawn.

To find a basic probability with all outcomes equally likely, we use a

fraction:

number of favorable outcomes

---------------------------------------
total number of possible outcomes

What's a favorable outcome? In our example, where we want

to find the probability of drawing a red marble at random, our
favorable outcome is drawing a red marble.

What's the total number of possible outcomes? The total

number of possible outcomes forms a set called a sample
space (see note). In our problem, the sample space consists
of all ten marbles in the jar, because we are equally likely to
draw any one of them.

Using our basic probability fraction, we see that the probability of

drawing a red marble at random is:
 number of red
4
marbles

-------------------------
= ---
--

total marbles in
10
jar

Since 4/10 reduces to 2/5, the probability of drawing a red marble

where all outcomes are equally likely is 2/5. Expressed as a decimal,
4/10 = .4; as a percent, 4/10 = 40/100 = 40%.

Suppose we number the marbles 1 to 10. What is the probability of

picking out number 5?

Well, there is only one number 5 marble, and there are still 10
marbles in the jar, so the answer is 1 marble (favorable outcome)
divided by 10 marbles (size of sample space) = 1/10 or 10 percent.

Note: What is a sample space?

The sample space is a set consisting of all the possible outcomes of

an event (like drawing a marble from a jar, or picking a card from a
deck). The number of different ways you can choose something from
the sample space is the total number of possible outcomes.

Because each probability is a fraction of the sample space, the sum

of the probabilities of all the possible outcomes equals one. The
probability of the occurrence of an event is always one minus the
probability that it doesn't occur.

For example, if the probability of picking a red marble from a jar that
contains 4 red marbles and 6 blue marbles is 4/10 or 2/5, then the
probability of not picking a red marble is equal to 1 - 4/10 = 6/10 or
3/5, which is also the probability of picking a blue marble. Given the
only two events that are possible in this example (picking a red
marble or picking a blue marble), if you don't do the first, then you
must do the second. That is, given this example, the probability of
picking a red marble plus the probability of picking a blue marble
will equal 1 (or 100 percent).

Then - Two events, all outcomes equally likely

Now let's suppose we have two events: first you draw 1 marble from
the 10, and then I draw another marble from the nine that remain.
What is the probability that you will draw a blue one first? What is
the probability that I will draw a red one second (given that you
have already drawn a blue one)?

Again, we'll use our fraction. When you draw the first marble, there
are 10 marbles in the jar of which 6 are blue, so your probability of
drawing a blue one is 6/10 (60 percent) or 3/5.

After you draw it's my turn, but now the size of our sample space
has changed because there are only 9 marbles left; 4 of them are
red, so the probability that I'll draw a red marble (again, assuming
that you have already drawn a blue one) is 4/9.

And - Two events, second outcome dependent upon the first

We just calculated the probability for two events whose outcomes
were equally likely: in the first, you drew a blue marble; in the
second, I drew a red one after you had drawn.

But suppose we want to know the probability of your drawing a blue

marble and my drawing a red one? This may seem like the same
question, but it is not the same because we now have more than
one event. Here are the possibilities that make up the sample space:

A. (you draw a blue marble and then I draw a blue marble)

B. (you draw a blue marble and then I draw a red marble)

C. (you draw a red marble and then I draw a blue marble)

 D. (you draw a red marble and then I draw a red marble)

These are the only four possibilities - but they are not all equally
likely. When we have an event made up of two separate events with
the word and, where the outcome of the second event is dependent
on the outcome of the first, we multiply the individual probabilities
to get the answer.

The probability of example (b) above, is:

your probability of drawing a blue marble (3/5) multiplied by

my probability of drawing a red marble (4/9): 3/5 x 4/9 = 12/45
or, reduced, 4/15.

How about the probability of example (a)?

We've already calculated the probability of your drawing a blue

marble; it's 3/5. How about the probability of my drawing a
blue marble too?

Well, after you draw a blue, there are 9 marbles left and 5 of
them are blue, so for me the probability will be 5/9. Multiply 3/5
times 5/9 and you get 3/9 or, reduced, 1/3.

PROBABILITIES OF "OR" AND "NOT" EVENTS:

Sometimes we are interested in computing probabilities of more
complicated events. Here we introduce two basic probability rules.
The first rule is useful for finding the probability of one
event or another event. The second rule tells us how to compute the
probability that an event does not occur.
The addition rule (for computing probabilities of "or" events)
We will illustrate this rule with an example. Suppose Ohio has a two-
digit lottery game and the winning number will be chosen at random
from all possible two-digit numbers

{00, 01, 02, 03, ..., 97, 98, 99}.

There are 100 possible winning numbers and since each has the
same chance of being chosen, we assign a probability of 1/100 = .01
to each number.

Suppose we want to find the probability that the winning number

has the same two digits or the winning number is between 89 and
96 inclusive. If these two events ("same two digits" and "between 89
and 96") are no overlapping, then we can find the probability of
"same two digits" or "between 89 and 96" by adding:

Prob("same two digits" or "between 89 and 96") = Prob("same two

digits")+Prob("between 89 and 96")

Are these two events no overlapping? No overlapping means that it

is impossible for the two events to occur at the same time. Here
"same two digits" means the winning number is from the set {00,
11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, and 99}. "Between 89 and 96" means
that the number is in the set {89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96}. Note
that these two sets have nothing in common; in other words, it is
impossible for the winning number to have the same two digits and
be between 89 and 96. So we can add the probabilities to find the
probability of the "or" event. The probability of "same two digits" is
10/100 and the probability of "between 89 and 96" is 8/100.
Therefore the probability of interest is

Prob ("same two digits" or "between 89 and 96") = 10/100 + 8/100

= 18/100 = .18

What if we wanted to find the probability of "same two digits" or "an

even second digit"? Here we can't use this addition rule, since these
two events are overlapping. It is possible for the winning to have the
same two digits and have an even second digit -- the number 44
(and other numbers) is in both events. So this rule cannot be used in
this case.

This rule is also applicable in the case where you want to find the
probability of a collection of different outcomes. Suppose you toss a
coin five times and you wish to find the probability that the number
of heads is 2 or fewer. You can think of the event "2 or fewer heads"
as an "or" event:

{2 or fewer heads} = {0 heads} or {1 head} or {2 heads}

By definition, the three outcomes {0 heads}, {1 heads} and {2

heads}, since you can only observe at most one of these outcomes
when you toss the coin three times. So the addition rule can be used
and

Prob (2 or fewer heads) = Prob (0 heads) + Prob (1 head) + Prob (2

heads)
The complement rule (for computing probabilities of "not" events)
Let's return to our lottery example. What if you're interested in the
probability that the winning number does not have the same two
digits? The rule for "not" events is called the complement rule:

Probability ("not" an event) = 1 - Probability (event)

In this case, we can write

Probability (not same digits) = 1 - Probability (same digits)

We have already found the probability that the winning number has
the same two digits, so the probability of interest is

Probability (not same digits) = 1 - 10/100 = 90/100

The complement rule is especially useful in the case where it hard to

compute the probability of an event, but it is relatively easy to
compute the probability of "not" the event. For example, suppose
we wish to compute the probability of tossing at least one head in
10 tosses of a coin. In this case, it would make sense to first perform
the easier computation, the probability of "not at least one head" or
"no heads". Then we apply the complement rule to find the
probability of the event of interest.
 Probability (at least one head) = 1 - Probability (no heads)

Exercise:
I. What is the probability of throwing one dice and getting the number
greater than 4?

II. What is the probability of throwing two dice and getting the sum of the
fallen numbers greater than 3?

III. We select 7 playing cards out of 32. What is the probability that among
the selected cards there are exactly three hearts?

IV. What is the probability of flipping a coin and getting the head fallen
five times in a row?

V. The customer wants to buy bread and a can. There are 30 pieces of
bread in the shop, including 5 from the previous day, and 20 cans with
unreadable expiration date, of which one has expired. What is the
probability that the customer will buy fresh bread and a tin under
warranty?

VI. Abstracted secretary placed three letters randomly into three

envelopes. What is the probability that at least one of the recipients
gets his letter?

VII. There are 10 pots exposed in the shop, 2 of which have hidden defects.
The customer buys two pieces. What is the probability that at least one
of them has a hidden bug?

VIII. What is the probability of throwing one dice seven times in a row and
getting the number 6 fallen exactly 3 times?

IX. The test contains 10 questions, each one with available four different
answers, among which just one is correct. To pass the test at least 5
questions must be answered correctly. What is the probability that
completely unprepared student will pass the test?

X. We have 100 tickets in the hat numbered from 1 to 100. With what
probability will we pull out a number that is divisible by two or by five?

XI. There are 49 products in the box, from which only 6 are high quality.
What is the probability of pulling out 6 random products from the box
and having at least four of them high quality?
 XII. What is the probability of throwing two dice and getting the sum of the
fallen numbers exactly 9?

XIII. What is the probability of throwing one dice and get:

a) the even number
b) the number divisible by three
c) the number less than six?

XIV. There are 60 chemical flasks in the laboratory, 6 of which are

incorrectly labeled. What is the chance that if we randomly choose 5
flasks, exactly 3 of them will be labeled correctly?

XV. What is the probability that if we choose a trinity from 19 boys and 12
girls, we will have:
a) three boys
b) three girls
c) two boys and one girl ?

XVI. There are 30 products in the box, from which 3 are faulty. Find the
probability of pulling out 5 random products from the box and having
among them at most two the faulty ones.

XVII. Johnny wrote a random natural number from 1 to 20. Determine the
probability that he wrote a prime number.

XVIII. Suzie has available the digits 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. What is the probability

that when she creates a random three-digit number from the given
digits, it will be the number 445?

XIX. Out of 100 pairs of shoes 5 pairs are of poor quality. The auditor selects
randomly four pairs of the shoes. What is the probability that at least
one from the selected pairs is of poor quality?

XX. In the lottery 5 numbers are drawn from among 35. For 3 correctly
guessed numbers lottery pays the third prize. What is the probability of
winning the third prize, if we submit just one ticket with 5 guessed
numbers?

XXI. In the mall they have 100 TV sets, of which 85 are of the first and 15
are of the second quality. The first ten customers received the TV set of
the first quality. What is the probability that the eleventh customer will
buy the TV set of the second quality?
 XXII. We have 4 white and 3 blue balls in a bowl. Accidentally we pull out
two balls. What is the probability that:
a) both of the pulled out balls are white
b) one ball is white and the other one is blue ?

XXIII. What is the probability of throwing three dice and

a) get the sum of the fallen numbers exactly 9 ?
b) get the sum of the fallen numbers exactly 10 ?
c) Explain why when throwing three dice the sum of 10 falls more often
than the sum of 9.

XXIV. There are 800 components in the warehouse, 20 of which are broken.
What is the probability that between 9 randomly selected components
no more than 3 of them will be broken?

XXV. In the class of 30 students, seven of them don't have done the
homework. The teacher chooses randomly 6 students. What is the
chance that at least four of them have done their homework?

Differentiation
1. Differentiation Basic rules:
The following rules allow us to find algebraic formulae for the
derivative of most differentiable functions we know how to write
down.

Derivative of Constant Function

, for any constant c

Derivative of Identity Function

The Sum Rule

The Product Rule

In particular

The Chain Rule

y = f(u), u = g(x), f and g differentiable.

Then

The Quotient Rule

In particular,

The Power Rule

For any power n, integer, rational or irrational. Hence,

Implies

2. Exercise:
A. Differentiate each of the following functions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

B. Differentiate each of the following functions.

(a)

(b)

C. The position of an object at any time t (in hours) is given by,

Determine when the object is moving to the right and when

the object is moving to the left.
D.

E.