ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijimpeng

A comparative study of energy absorption characteristics of

foam-lled and multi-cell square columns
Xiong Zhang, Gengdong Cheng
State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipments, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Dalian University of
Technology, Dalian 116023, China
Received 13 July 2006; received in revised form 10 October 2006; accepted 23 October 2006
Available online 19 December 2006

Abstract

A comparative study of energy absorption characteristics between foam-lled square columns and multi-cell square
columns was conducted by using nonlinear nite element codes LS-DYNA. The columns and the foam were made of the
same material aluminum and the thickness of all sidewalls of columns was kept 1.5 mm. Numerical results compared well
with theoretical predictions and showed that the energy absorption efciency of multi-cell columns was about 50100%
higher than that of foam-lled columns. It means that multi-cell columns were more attractive than foam-lled columns
and the reason for this was analyzed by a comparison of the collapse modes. Furthermore, a type of pre-crushed trigger
was introduced and modeled for multi-cell columns. This type of trigger was found to be effective to eliminate the initial
peak force and improve the efciency of a multi-cell column as an energy absorber.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Multi-cell column; Aluminum foam; Foam-lled tubes; Energy absorption

1. Introduction

Thin-walled metal tubes were widely used as energy absorbers for decades since they are relatively cheap
and weight efcient. They were utilized as energy absorbing devices to improve the structural crashworthiness
and passenger safety of high-volume industrial products such as cars, trains and ships. In last decades,
numerous researches [18] have been conducted theoretically and experimentally in metal columns with
various cross sections. Among these columns, circular, square, top-hat and double-hat sections received the
most attentions.
In the theoretical realm, by adopting a rigid-plastic material model, an approximate theoretical method to
derive the mean crushing force for cylindrical tubes deforming in concertina mode under axial crush loading
was rst given by Alexander in 1960 [1]. Then the SuperFolding Element method was proposed to deal with
prismatic columns by Wierzbicki and Abramowicz [2,3]. In their method, a kinematically admissible model
consisting of trapezoidal, cylindrical, conical and toroidal surfaces was developed as a basic folding

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 0411 84706599; fax: +86 0411 84706599.
E-mail address: zhang.xiong.dlut@gmail.com (X. Zhang).

0734-743X/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2006.10.007
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1740 X. Zhang, G. Cheng / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752

mechanism. The mean crushing load and the folding wavelength were then determined by the equilibrium of
the internal and external energy of the system. While theoretical aspect was perfecting by researchers, efforts
have also been spent in experimental research and numerical simulation [48]. The columns with various cross
sections were tested under quasi-static and dynamic axial crush loading. Powerful non-linear explicit nite
element codes such as PAM-CRASH, ABAQUS Explicit and LS-DYNA were used to simulate the large
deformation dynamic response of these structures. These numerical simulations showed good agreement with
experimental observations and theoretical predictions.
Beneting from the recent advances in cost-effective production processes, cellular solids such as aluminum
foam and honeycomb were gaining increasing practical interest. The mechanical behavior of aluminum foam
or honeycomb is attractive for energy dissipation. A typical compressive stressstrain curve of aluminum foam
consists of three regions: an elastic region, a plateau region with almost constant stress, and a densication
region. The long plateau region makes the aluminum foam an ideal material for energy absorbing. Recently,
Extensive studies [917] have been carried out and showed that lling thin-walled structures with aluminum
foam could signicantly improve the crashworthiness of these structures. When subjected to axial
compression, the metal sheet and the foam ller constitute a kind of composite structure: the foam ller
acts as a half elastic foundation for the sidewalls, causing the buckling length of the sidewalls to decrease,
leading to higher plastic deformations and resulting in an increase of the buckling load compared to the non-
lled columns.
Besides foam-lled columns, thin-walled extrusions with multiple cells were shown desirable for weight-
efcient energy absorption by Chen and Wierzbicki [18]. They presented closed-form solutions to calculate the
mean crushing strength of single-cell, double-cell and triple-cell hollow aluminum proles under quasi-static
axial loading. The triple-cell section showed the highest specic energy absorption (SEA), and the double-cell
section is more efcient than single-cell section. Kim [19] derived the analytical solution for the mean crushing
force of a multi-cell proles with four square elements at the corner. The SEA of the new multi-cell structure is
reported increasing by 190% over the conventional square box column. Zhang and Cheng [20] recently
developed a theoretical solution to the square multi-cell columns by dividing the section into three basic
components. The energy absorption efciency is also shown increased signicantly when square column was
divided into multi-cell column.
Since both foam ller and multi-cell could improve the energy absorption characteristics of hollow columns,
a comparative study was conducted in the present work. Numerical analyses were carried out to simulate the
axial crushing of foam-lled square aluminum extrusions and multi-cell square aluminum columns with same
weight. Aluminum alloy, AA6060 T4 was used for column material since the material properties could be
modeled as isotropic with good accuracy and negligible strain rate sensitivity was evident for this alloy. It was
well characterized and commonly used. Aluminum foam manufactured by Hydro Aluminum AS was used for
foam ller. The Hydro Aluminum foam was one type of foam that has been the most thoroughly investigated
and that was extensively used and studied by researchers [1113,17,25]. The Deshpande-Fleck constitutive
model was adopted for this aluminum foam. Non-linear explicit nite element codes LS-DYNA [21] was
employed. In addition, a static or dynamic pre-crushed trigger was introduced to eliminate the initial peak
force of multi-cell columns under axial crush loading.

2. Theoretical aspect

2.1. Foam-filled columns

As mentioned above, many researches have been conducted to explore the energy absorption characteristics
of foam-lled columns experimentally and numerically. The interaction between the sidewall and the internal
ller was found to be most important for determining the energy absorption efciency. Santosa and
Wierzbicki [9] developed a formula for the mean crushing force of foam-lled square columns by using
numerical simulation results and concluded that the strengthening effect of the foam ller could be
approximated the same level as the axial strength of the foam ller. Namely the increase of mean crushing
force had a proportionality constant of 2. This result is veried for very low strength foam with plateau stress
0.3 MPaospo1.48 MPa. Further, Santosa et al. [10] extended the analysis to larger range of plastic collapse
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X. Zhang, G. Cheng / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752 1741

stress 0.3 MPaospo12.5 MPa. The strengthening proportionality coefcient is determined experimentally
and numerically to be a slightly lower value 1.8. The average crushing load of foam lled tube is given as
Pmf Pm 1:8sp b2 (1)

with Pm the mean crushing force of empty column, sp the foam plateau stress and b the wall width.
Hanssen et al. [11,12] developed an empirical formula for the average crushing load of foam lled square
columns by experimental investigation. The crushing force was divided into three parts: the average crushing
force of empty column, the uniaxial resistance of foam and the interaction effect between column and foam
ller. The interaction effect is a function of geometrical parameters and material properties of foam and
extrusion. The formula was shown to be agreed very well with experimental results and is given as
p
Pmf Pm sp b2 C sp s0 bt (2)
where C is a constant, s0 is the characteristic stress of tube material, b and t are width and thickness of column,
respectively. For empty tubes, Abramowicz and Jones [4] developed the expression of average force
theoretically with the form
Pm 13:06s0 b1=3 t5=3 . (3)
For dynamic loading, an increase of the average force of non-lled aluminum extrusions compare to the
static case is reported by Langseth and Hopperstad [7]. Based on their results, Hanssen et al. [12] developed
their formula for average force of foam-lled tube under dynamic loading by neglecting the rate sensitivity of
the foam ller and assuming that the interaction effect was unaffected. Their formula is written as
p
Pdmf lPm sp b2 C sp s0 bt, (4)
with l an enhancement coefcient introduced to consider the dynamic effect. It was reported to range between
1.3 and 1.6 for AA6060 T4 square columns while the loading velocity was in the range 820 m/s [7]. When
initial geometrical imperfections were introduced, a lower value was reported.

2.2. Multi-cell columns

For multi-cell square columns, the mean crushing force was recently presented by Zhang and Cheng [20] by
analyzing a complete collapse of a single fold. It is determined by the energy equilibrium of the system,
namely, the external work done by compression has to be dissipated by plastic deformation in bending and
membrane.
Pm  2H Z W bending W membrane , (5)
where H is the half-length of a single fold, Pm denotes the average crushing force, Z the effective crush distance
factor. Wbending and Wmembrane are, respectively, the energy dissipation in bending and membrane
deformation. By adopting the simplication that extensional triangular elements and stationary hinge lines
constitute the basic folding element [18], Zhang and Cheng [20] derived the expression of Wbending and
Wmembrane. Wbending was calculated by summing up the energy dissipation at stationary hinge lines. For each
ange, three horizontal stationary hinge lines are developed. Then
X
3
W bending M 0 yi Lc 2pM 0 Lc , (6)
i1

where M 0 14s0 t2 , the fully plastic bending moment of the ange, y is the rotation angle at each hinge line and
the rotation angles at three hinge lines are supposed to be p/2, p and p/2, Lc denotes the total length of all
anges.
The membrane energy Wmembrane was derived by integrating the extensional and compressional areas of
three basic components: the corner part, the crisscross part and the T-shape part. The membrane energy
dissipated by the three basic components was given in the following [20].
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(1) The corner part: The corner part has been analyzed by Chen and Wierzbicki [16]. After deformation, three
membrane elements (one in extension and two in compression) were developed for each ange. The
membrane energy dissipated by the corner part during one wavelength crushing was:
W corner 2  12s0 tH 2 4M 0 H 2 =t. (7)

(2) The crisscross part: The deformation mode of the crisscross part is much more complicated than the corner
part. Extracted from the numerical results of multi-cell columns, a typical collapse mode of the crisscross
part is shown in Fig. 1. The centerline of the crisscross part was observed to fold at the 451direction
between two anges as shown by the dash line. Based on the collapse mode, a simplied folding mode is
shown in Fig. 2(a). The bold line denotes the section before deformation. Two anges compressed each
other and another two anges were elongated. The illustration of membrane elements is shown in Fig. 3.
For all four anges, two anges were in extension and two in compression. Again integrating the

Fig. 1. Typical collapse mode of the crisscross part by FEM: (a) top view and (b) side view.

Fig. 2. Simplied folding modes: (a) the crisscross part and (b) the T-shape part.

Fig. 3. Illustration of the membrane elements: (a) in extension and (b) in compression.
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X. Zhang, G. Cheng / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752 1743

extensional and compressional area, the membrane energy dissipated by the crisscross part during one
wavelength crushing was:
W crisscross 4  s0 tH 2 16M 0 H 2 =t. (8)

(3) The T-shape part: The collapse mode of T-shape part is relatively simple as shown in Fig. 4. The centerline
of the T-shape was observed to fold in the plane of the protruded anges as shown by the dash line. Based
on the collapse mode, a simplied folding mode is shown in Fig. 2(b). The bold line denotes the section
before deformation. Two anges compressed each other and another ange was unaffected. The shape of
the membrane element of T-shape part is the same as crisscross part as shown in Fig. 3. For all three
anges, two anges were in compression and another one was unaffected. Again integrating the
extensional and compressional area, the membrane energy dissipated by the T-shape part during one
wavelength crushing was:
W Tshape 2  s0 tH 2 8M 0 H 2 =t. (9)
The whole energy dissipated by membrane deformation is
W membrane N c W corner N o W crisscross N T W Tshape
4N c 16N o 8N T M 0 H 2 =t, 10

Fig. 4. Collapse mode of the T-shape part: (a) top view (b) side view and (c) front view.

Fig. 5. Illustration of the division of multi-cell section.

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1744 X. Zhang, G. Cheng / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752

where Nc, No and NT denote the number of corner, crisscross and T-shape patterns in the cross section,
respectively; As shown in Fig. 5, Nc, No and NT are 4, 9 and 12, respectively, for a 4  4 multi-cell section.

Substitute Eqs. (6) and (10)(5) and apply the stationary condition qPm =qH 0, the mean crushing force
was given as
r
2 2N c 4N o 2N T pLc
Pm M 0 (11)
Z t

A dynamic enhancing coefcient k was introduced account for the inertia effects and Z is set 0.71 since it was
found about 0.70.75% [2,3]. Therefore
p
Pm ks0 t N c 4N o 2N T pLc t (12)

k is equal to 1 for static case and a little more high value for dynamic case.

3. Columns for comparison

In the present work, a group of foam-lled and multi-cell columns with same weight were compared for
energy absorption characteristics. Both the foam and sidewall of these columns were made of aluminum. The
thickness of all sidewalls of columns is kept 1.5 mm including the wall thickness of internal webs of multi-cell
columns, while the middle extrusion cross-section width b was selected to be 80, 60 and 40 mm. Multi-cell
columns with 2  2 section and 3  3 section were adopted. Corresponding foam density was selected for
foam-lled columns to keep the same weight with multi-cell columns of different sections. An illustrative gure
was shown in Fig. 6 and Table 1 listed the foam density for foam-lled columns and the weight of the
extrusions.

t
middle
plane

2 2 Section Foam filled 3 3 Section Foam filled

Fig. 6. Illustration for multi-cell columns and foam-lled columns with same weight.

Table 1
Geometry and material parameters

Width b (mm) 80 60 40
Wall thickness t (mm) 1.5 1.5 1.5
Multi-cell section 22 33 22 33 22 33
Foam density (g/cm3) 0.103 0.206 0.138 0.277 0.21 0.421
Weight (g) 388.8 518.4 291.6 388.8 194.4 259.2
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4. Numerical simulation

4.1. Material properties

4.1.1. Aluminum extrusions

The material of extrusions used here is the aluminum alloy AA6060 T4 with mechanical properties: Youngs
modulus E 68.2 GPa, initial yield stress sy 80 MPa, the ultimate stress su 173 MPa, Poissons ratio
n 0.3 and the power law exponent n 0.23. The complete stressstrain relation for this material is shown in
Fig. 7. To take strain hardening effects into account, the ow stress for material with power law hardening can
be calculated by using [10]
r
sy su
s0 . (13)
1n
Therefore, the ow stress for AA6060 T4 adopted here is 106 MPa.

4.1.2. Aluminum foam

The aluminum foam material produced by Hydro Aluminum AS and used by Hanssen et al. [1113] was
adopted here. A self-similar isotropic constitutive model for metal foams developed by Deshpande and Fleck
[22] was used. According to this model, the yield strength of the cellular material can be expressed using the
potential
f s^  Y p0, (14)
where f represents the yield surface, Y is the yield strength and s^ is an effective equivalent stress dened as
s2e a2 s2m
s^ 2 , (15)
1 a=32
with se the effective von Mises stress and sm the mean stress. The parameter a controls the shape of the yield
surface. It is a function of the plastic Poissons ratio np and is given as
9 1  2np
a2 . (16)
2 1 np
The material model adopts the following strain hardening rule [23]
!
^ 1
Y sp g a2 In , (17)
D 1  ^=D b

0.2

0.16
Stress (GPa)

0.12

0.08

0.04

0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Strain

Fig. 7. Engineering stress-strain curves for AA6060 T4.

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where ^ is the equivalent strain, sp, a2, g, eD, and b are material parameters and can be expressed as functions
of the foam density:
   n
1 r
sp ; a2 ; g; C0 C1 f . (18)
b rs
The compaction strain eD can be empirically related to the density of foam by the equation [24]
 
rf
D  ln 1:4 . (19)
rs
In the present work, the plastic Poissons ratio was set to 0.1 for all foam density and the other material
parameters are listed in Table 2.

4.2. Finite element models

Two representative nite element models of foam-lled tube and multi-cell tube were shown in Fig. 8. For
foam-lled tube, only a quarter of the model was built due to the symmetry character, while a full model was
built for multi-cell tube for simplicity and accuracy. Symmetrical boundary conditions were applied on
symmetry planes of foam-lled tube. The bottom of all columns was clamped, while the other end was crushed
in the axial direction by a rigid wall with prescribed velocity 10 m/s. Indention triggers were introduced 20 and
12 mm below the top surface of foam-lled columns and multi-cell columns, respectively, to ensure stable and
regular crushing modes.
The sidewall of extrusions was modeled with Belytschko-Tsay 4-node shell element with three integration
points through the thickness and one integration point in the element plane, and the aluminum foam was
modeled with 8-node solid element. Shell elements and solid elements were modeled in a character size of 22.5
and 4 mm, respectively. The extrusion material AA6060 T4 was modeled with material model#24 in

Table 2
Material parameters for analyses [25]

sp (MPa) a2 (MPa) 1/b g (MPa)

C0 0 0 0.22 0
C1 590 140 320 40
n 2.21 0.45 4.66 1.4

Fig. 8. Representative nite element models: (a) foam-lled column and (b) multi-cell column.
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X. Zhang, G. Cheng / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752 1747

LS-DYNA and the aluminum foam was modeled with material model#154, which was developed for
Deshpande and Fleck Foam in LS-DYNA [21] by Reyes [23].
Four different types of contact were employed in the simulation of foam-lled columns, while only two
types were used for multi-cell columns. For the aluminum tube itself an automatic single-surface contact was
adopted to account for the contact between lobes during deformation, while an automatic surface-to-surface
contact was applied between the tube and the foam. Between the rigid body and the foam, and between the
rigid body and the tube, an automatic node-to-surface contact was used. In addition, an internal contact
algorithm was applied to the foam elements to prevent negative volume and numerical collapse. For multi-cell
columns, only the automatic single-surface contact and automatic node-to-surface contact were used for tube
itself and between the rigid body and the tube, respectively. A static friction coefcient of 0.2 and a dynamic
friction coefcient of 0.1 between all surfaces in contact were assumed.

4.3. Numerical results and discussion

Numerical results of foam-lled columns and multi-cell columns were derived by using LS-DYNA. The
forcedisplacement curves of sections with width 80 mm were shown in Fig. 9. The average force curves were
also shown in the same gure. The average crushing forces of the columns were calculated using the following
expression:
Rd
p dd
Pm 0 , (20)
d
where P and d are the load and displacement, respectively.
The average force of 2  2 multi-cell column and foam-lled column (0.103 g/cm3) with width 80 mm were
34.3 and 17.4 KN, respectively, when the relative deformation (dened as d/l, l is the length of the columns)
equal to 60%; while the average force of 3  3 multi-cell column and foam-lled column (0.206 g/cm3) with
width 80 mm were 68.1 and 32.8 KN, respectively, at the same relative deformation. It was found that the
average crushing force of multi-cell columns were approximately twice that of foam-lled columns with the
same weight. Namely, the energy absorption efciency of multi-cell columns was almost 100% higher than
foam-lled columns.
The collapse modes of columns with width 80 mm were shown in Fig. 10. As we known, the collapse modes
of the columns can be changed by foam lling. Foam lling caused the buckling length of the sidewalls to
decrease and resulted in an increase of the buckling load. As shown in Fig. 10, ve lobes were formed for
hollow column. However, six and seven lobes were formed in the deformation of foam-lled columns with
foam density 0.103 and 0.206 g/cm3, respectively. For multi-cell columns, we can analyze the similar way as
foam-lled columns. The crushing force can also be divided into three parts: the average crushing force of
empty column, the internal web and the interaction effect between them. See from Fig. 10 that the collapse
modes of empty columns were changed more drastic by introducing internal webs than foam lling. Nine lobes
were developed for 2  2 multi-cell column and thirteen lobes were formed for 3  3 multi-cell column, which
means that the interaction effect of multi-cell columns were more great than foam-lled columns. Although no
attempt were conducted to compare the crushing resistance of the foam and the internal web, this can to some
extent explain the much higher energy absorption efciency of multi-cell columns than foam-lled columns.
The average forces of columns with different section width in Table 1 are listed in Table 3. These average
forces were dened at the relative deformation 60% to ensure that no densication took place. Again, the
energy absorption efciency of multi-cell columns was found much greater than that of corresponding foam-
lled columns with same weight. In the present investigation, numerical results show that the energy
absorption efciency of multi-cell columns was about 50100% higher than that of foam-lled columns.
The theoretical predictions of the average crushing force of foam-lled columns were also shown in Table 3.
The predictions derived by Eqs. (1) and (4) were given, respectively. In Eq. (4), l was set to 1.1 for the
introduction of initial geometrical imperfections. The theoretical predictions of average force of multi-cell
columns were calculated by Eq. (5). k was set to 1.3, since no imperfection was introduced for internal web of
multi-cell columns. From Table 3, we can see that the numerical results of the average crushing force of both
foam-lled columns and multi-cell columns compared well with theoretical predictions. The maximum
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22 multi-cell column
60 Average force curve of multi-cell column
0.103 foam-filled column
50 Average force curve of foam-filled column

40
Force

30

20

10

0
0 50 100 150
Displacement

33 multi-cell column
120 Average force curve of multi-cell column
0.206 foam-filled column
100 Average force curve of foam-filled column

80
Force

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150
Displacement

Fig. 9. Forcedisplacement curves and average force curves: (a) 2  2 multi-cell column and foam-lled column (0.103 g/cm3) (b) 3  3
multi-cell column and foam-lled column (0.206 g/cm3).

deviation of numerical results from theoretical predictions appeared in 3  3 multi-cell column with width
40 mm and was found to be 17%. The deviation could arise from dynamic coefcient k , which was set to a
constant 1.3. In practice, dynamic enhancing coefcient k should be a variable changing with the geometric
and material parameters. Experimental and theoretical research should be carried out to determine this
coefcient more accurately. In addition, we can see from Table 3 that for low-density foam, the theoretical
predictions by Eq. (1) compared well with numerical results while predictions made by Eq. (4) were slightly
overestimated. And for high-density foam, the difference between the two formulas was negligible.
The present investigation was limited to only one aluminum alloy (6060 T4) and one aluminum foam
(manufactured by Hydro Aluminum AS). It is possible that the conclusions could be different for different
combinations of alloy/foam. However, for the combination of aluminum alloy and aluminum foam, the multi-
cell columns are believed to gain much better energy absorption characteristics than foam-lled columns since
AA6060 T4 has a relatively low strength in aluminum alloys. Since aluminum is gaining increased attention
due to its low weight and the aluminum components has become more and more attractive in high-volume
industrial products, the present study may guide the engineers and researchers developing safety components
and crash absorbers with aluminum.
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X. Zhang, G. Cheng / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752 1749

Fig. 10. Collapse modes of columns: (a) hollow column, (b) foam-lled column (0.103 g/cm3), (c) 2  2 multi-cell column, (d) foam-lled
column (0.206 g/cm3) (left: cut-open view right: general view) and (e) 3  3 multi-cell column (left: front view right: general view).

Table 3
Numerical results and theoretical predictions for average crushing force

Width 80 (mm)
Columns 22 0.103 (g/cm3) 33 0.206 (g/cm3)
Numerical results (KN) 34.3 17.4 68.1 32.8
Theoretical predictions (KN) 39.3 Eq. (1) 17.7 68.1 Eq. (1) 35.1
Eq. (4) 20.0 Eq. (4) 34.8
Width 60 (mm)

Columns 22 0.138 (g/cm3) 33 0.276 (g/cm3)

Numerical results (KN) 32.1 16.9 63.5 34.3
Theoretical predictions (KN) 34.1 Eq. (1) 16.8 59.0 Eq. (1) 35.2
Eq. (4) 19.2 Eq. (4) 34.7
Width 40 (mm)

Columns 22 0.21 (g/cm3) 33 0.421 (g/cm3)

Numerical results (KN) 30 17.8 56.4 37.1
Theoretical predictions (KN) 27.8 Eq. (1) 15.8 48.2 Eq. (1) 36.1
Eq. (4) 18.2 Eq. (4) 35.2
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5. Pre-crushed trigger

As we known, the general characteristics of the forcedisplacement curves of thin-walled columns under
axial crushing are similar: the axial force reaches an initial peak force, followed by a sharp drop and then
uctuations. The initial peak force was one of the most important factors technicians should consider when
designing an energy absorber, since the maximum force level was associated with safety. The peak force should
be kept below a certain level for an absorber even if it can absorb the required energy. Traditionally, the high
peak force was lowered by introducing a trigger. The trigger can be introduced by a variety of methods.
Indentation trigger [6,12] was used most commonly since it is convenient to apply. Other methods such as
triggers based on elastic buckling mode shapes [19] or introducing a taper [26] in one of its extremities were
also alternatives.
Indentation triggers have been introduced in the previous sections for multi-cell columns. However, the
initial peak forces were still much higher than average forces. The main effect of introducing the indentation
triggers seems to regularize the collapse modes rather than lower the peak force. Triggers based on buckling
mode shapes were complex and troublesome and they also not work very effectively for lowering the peak
forces [18,19]. In this section, pre-crushed triggers were modeled and investigated for multi-cell columns. They
are relatively convenient to be introduced and found to be effective in eliminating the initial peak force.
To derive the pre-crushed trigger in a control way, indentation trigger used in previous Section 4.2 was also
introduced. This indentation trigger can induce local buckling and stable the deformation mode. An explicit-
to-implicit sequential solution followed by an implicit-to-explicit sequential solution was conducted to
simulate the pre-crushed columns under axial crush loading by ANSYS [27]. The multi-cell columns were rst
crushed axially with a distance of 10 mm by rigid plane with a velocity of 2 m/s; and then an implicit
springback analysis was implemented to simulate the unloading process; an explicit analysis was nally carried
out to simulate the axial crush of the pre-crushed columns.
The 2  2 multi-cell column with width 80 mm analyzed in previous section was again investigated here for
introducing pre-crushed trigger. The deformation result after a 10 mm axial crush is shown in Fig. 11(a) and
the deformation after the springback analysis is shown in Fig. 11(b). The forcedisplacement curve of the
multi-cell column with pre-crushed trigger is shown in Fig. 12. The forcedisplacement curve of column
without pre-crushed trigger is also shown in the same gure for comparison. One can see that the initial peak
force was almost completely eliminated by introducing the pre-crushed trigger and that the average crushing
force decreased slightly. One drawback of the pre-crushed trigger was that the effective crushing distance was
slightly decreased. This will lead to a reduction of the energy absorbed by the columns. However, compared
with the merit pre-crushed trigger brought, this effect was negligible. The pre-crushed trigger was also found
effective for other multi-cell columns in previous section, and is promising to eliminate the initial peak force
for columns with different sections and for extrusions made of different materials. Further study should be
carried out about this in the future.

Fig. 11. Deformation results (a) axial crush with a distance of 10 mm (b) after springback analysis.
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X. Zhang, G. Cheng / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 17391752 1751

70
without pre-crushed trigger
60
with pre-crushed trigger
50

40

Force
30
20

10
0
0 50 100 150
Displacement

Fig. 12. Comparison of the forcedisplacement curves of the 2  2 multi-cell column with and without pre-crushed triggers.

6. Conclusion

A comparative study of energy absorption characteristics between foam-lled square columns and multi-cell
square columns was presented in this paper. The columns and the foam were made of the same material
aluminum. Numerical simulations were conducted by using nonlinear explicit nite element codes LS-DYNA.
The average forces of these foam-lled columns and multi-cell columns derived by numerical results were in
good agreement with theoretical predictions. In the present study, the energy absorption efciency of multi-
cell columns was found about 50100% higher than that of foam-lled columns, which means that multi-cell
columns were more attractive than foam-lled columns. The reason for this was analyzed by a comparison of
the collapse modes. Furthermore, a type of pre-crushed trigger was introduced and modeled for multi-cell
columns. This type of trigger was found to be effective to eliminate the initial peak force and improve the
efciency of a multi-cell column as an energy absorber. It is promising to improve the efciency for columns
with different sections and for extrusions made of different materials by introducing pre-crushed triggers.
In a real car crash event, axial crushing mode of columns is always happening together with bending
collapse mode. Extensive studies have been done in this aspect such as Chen [28], Kim and Wierzbicki [29],
and Chen, Wierzbicki et al. [30]. The bending collapse of multi-cell columns is suggested for future study. In
addition, more attention should be dedicated to the investigation of oblique impact loading of thin-wall
structures.

Acknowledgements

The present work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 10332010),
National Creative Research Team Program (No.10421002) and National Basic Research Program of China
(2006CB601205).

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