SIMPLE SENTENCES

called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a

complete thought.

very often when writing a paper or an essay, we have to use complex or compound
sentences, i.e. we need to combine two or more simple sentences using coordination or
subordination

independent clause Dependent clauses

An independent clause contains a A dependent clause contains a subject

subject, a verb, and a complete
thought.
I wrote my first novel last year
independent (can stand alone as a
complete simple sentence)
"I went to the store" (independent)
because I went to the store" (dependent)
"after I went to the store" (dependent)
and a verb, but no complete thought.
After i wrote my first novel last year.
dependent (must be connected to a clause
or part of another clause; subordinate to a
main clause) or
The dependent clause begins with
what is called a subordinating conjunction.
This causes the clause to be dependent upon
the rest of the sentence for its meaning; it
cannot stand by itself.
The train has automatic doors that
only open when the train is stationary

COORDINATION

o FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) , however.

o both . . . and either . . . or neither . . . nor not . . . but
not . . . nor not only . . . but (also) whether . . . Or
o A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction:
o Henry got a new job, so he has to move.
o I have a lot of homework, but I am not going to study tonight.
Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.
A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
coordinating conjunctions for (BECAUSE), nor, yet occur almost exclusively in
writing, so they add a level of formality:
o The experiment was deemed successful, yet our results were unsatisfactory.
o The students were unhappy with their professor, for he often wasted their time
in class.
Punctuation patterns

Independent c, coordinating conj. Tom reads novels, but Jack reads

independent clause Independent c; comics.
conjunctive adverb, independent Tom reads novels; however, Jack
Independent clause; independent reads comics
clause. Tom reads novels; his friend reads
comics.

Conjunctive adverbs - When the job of an adverb is to connect ideas, we call it a

conjunctive adverb.
 Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, meanwhile, Moreover, nevertheless, next,
conversely nonetheless
finally, furthermore, Hence, however, Otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently,
indeed, instead, likewise, Then, therefore, thus

SUBORDINATION =COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence has an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses
(independent clauses are in italics):
o Since we got to the concert late, we had to make our way to our seats in the
dark.
o We left class early so that we could attend a special lecture.
Lucy sang beautifully(main clauses), even though she was tired(subordinate clause).
subordinating conjunction - because, since, after, although, when or a relative
pronoun such as that, who, or which.
o When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
o B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.

R Conjuctions example
e
l
a
ti
o
n
s
h
i
p
Ti when, while, Whenever the afternoon bell rings, a teeming horde of
me whenever children rush eagerly out of the school building.
I never knew what love meant until I met you.
after, once, still,
My uncle always calls after he watches the news.
until, before, as soon

as
Pl Where, I know a place where blackberries grow wild all along the
ace wherever roadside.
Wherever you can find an empty spot, just drop your

luggage there.

C as, in order Since you have to leave early, why don't you arrive a few
ause/ that , because , days earlier too?
e since, so that The cat took off in a panic because the dog started barking
ffect and growling.


C if, provided that, If my ticket doesn't arrive today, I won't be able to fly out
ondition unless tomorrow.
if only, in case He won't listen to you unless you make him turn off the radio
and look at you.


C although, Although I have called repeatedly, the credit card company
ontrast though has not corrected my account.
even though, He still brings her roses even though he knows she is allergic
to them.
while, wheras,

Punctuation patterns

A. Dependent clause, independent Although Tom reads novels, Jack

clause reads comics.

B. Independent clause dependent Jack reads comics although Tom reads

clause novels.

C. Independent, nonessential Jack Smith, who reads comics, rarely

dependent clause, clause. reads novels.

D. Independent essential dependent People who read comics rarely read

clause clause. novels.

Because he spent too long in the sun, he felt ill.

Georgie was told off after forgetting to do her homework.
In the case of an emergency, ring 999.
Stuart, who didnt have a clue about the time, was late.
Some subordinate clauses begin with a non-finite verb. These can be easily spotted by -ed
or -ing at the end of the verb, e.g.
o Hoping for success, Rob worked really hard.
o Sam, being a hard worker, gained great respect.
o Filled with mischief, Tom put salt in the sugar bowl.
o Praised for her hard work, Gemma felt pleased with herself.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

A relative clause is a dependent, subordinate clause that begins with a question word
(e.g. who, which, where) or the word that. You can use it to modify a noun or
pronoun (i.e. to identify or give more information about it).

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
o these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we
are talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person
or thing involved.
Elephants who like mice are very unusual.
o In this sentence we understand that there are many elephants, but it is clear that we
are only talking about the ones who like mice.
o Punctuation: Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

o You use a non-defining relative clause to supply additional information about the
noun, whose identity or reference is already established. You can also use it to
comment on the whole situation described in a main clause.
 Albert Einstein, who put forward the theory of relativity, is considered by many
as the most intelligent person in human history.
o You should not use the relative pronoun that in non-defining relative clauses.
o Non-defining relative clause is always separated by commas from the rest of the
sentence

Relative pronouns
Person Thing Place Time Reason
Subject who/that which/that
Object who/whom/ that/ which/ where when why
Possessive whose whose

- In defining relative clauses who, that or which can sometimes be omitted. This
depends on whether the relative clause is the subject or the object of a sentence.
- When the relative clause is the subject of the sentence it cannot be omitted.
o The woman who lives next door works as a nurse.
o We cannot say The woman lives next door works as a nurse, as the woman is
the subject of the sentence.
- When the relative clause is the object of the sentence it can be omitted.
o The chair that I am sitting on belonged to my grandmother. =
o The chair I am sitting on belonged to my grandmother.
- A trick that may help decide if the relative clause is the subject or object is to look at
the word followed by the relative pronoun
o ... who showed me the pictures... --> the pronoun is followed by a verb so you
cannot omit it
o ... which I showed him ... --> the pronoun is NOT followed by a verb so you can
omit it
- But this explanation only applies for "who", "which", and "that".
- In addition to this, when a defining relative clause takes a continuous or ing form who,
that or which can be omitted.
1. The dog that is lying on the grass is very vicious. The dog lying on the grass is
very vicious.
2. The children who are doing the test are very intelligent. The children doing the
test are very intelligent.

In extra information clauses nothing can be omitted from the sentence. Instead, it
should be remembered that commas are always placed around the extra information
clause.

1. David Keene, who plays for Birmingham City, is an excellent footballer.

2. London, which is the largest city in England, has a population of around
ten million

Finit and non-finit clauses

o The verbal element in a non-finite clause may take four forms:

bare infinitive
to-infinitive
-ing participle
-en participle
for NP to infinitive
I remembered that I was responsible. (finite)
I remembered to do it. (non-finite)
I saw that you did it. (finite)
I saw you do it. (non-finite)
 Tired from studying all afternoon, she went for a walk.
Opening the book slowly, she began to read.
Having already finished their projects, they can have a rest.
They have made plans to send their friends birthday cards this year.

Compering compound and complex

o compound sentences differ from complex sentences in one important way:

o COMPOUND John was tired, but he finished his homework.
o COMPLEX Although John was tired, he finished his homework.
o In the first sentence, the writer is communicating that both clauses are equally important. In
the second sentence, the writer is saying that the subordinate clause ("John was tired") is
less important than the independent clause ("he finished his homework").

Compound- compley senteces
o They have two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause:
o Judy went to the bookshop, and she bought a book which she needed for a friend.
o Because it is a well-known thing, I assumed everybody knew it, but then I had to
explain it from the begining.

Academic style
o the English used in academic texts, particularly in written ones
o a style of writing that is formal and impersonal
o promoted in universities as it makes university essays and reports appear serious and
scholarly
o can enable you to think more logically, more clearly and more realistically as you work on
your assignment

o feauters of academic style avoid always and never

tentative rather than assertive o formal academic writing
language characteristic
formal vocabulary words derived from latin/french
formal grammar origin
clarity and accuracy single word verbs
coherence and cohesion formal connecting words
referencing correctly impersonal constructions
tentative rather then assertive complex sentences
language no contractions
avoid using strong, assertive claims the use of abstract nouns/noun
use the following words: possible, phrases
probably, may, might, appears, use of cautious language
seems, often, ... structure of writing
e.g. This may be/appears to be the reference to credible sources as
most important factor. spporting evidence

Can you see anything unusual in the following sentences?

Exams make candidates feel nervous, and so they forget what they have
o
learned.
o Students do not perform well under the pressure of an exam.
o Examinations make people work hard.
o Students memorize a lot of information in the last few weeks, so that they can
pass the exam.
Those sentences have two things in common.each makes a definite and not a cautious
statement
 (For example, the definite statement in the first sentence means that all exam
candidates feel nervous, and all candidates forget everything they have learned.)
Similarly, the second sentence wrongly states that all candidates do not perform well
on exams. The third sentence incorrectly suggests that everyone works hard - not just
some candidates. The last one means that no one ever learns in the months before the
exam.
o Do not write definite statements unless they are facts that are indisputable.

1.Sometimes, exams may make candidates feel nervous, and they may forget what
they have learned.
2. It appears that some students do not perform well under the pressure of an exam.
3. Some authors (Burns, 1998; Jones, 2011; Smith, 2001) claim that
examinations make people work hard.
4. Some students may try to memorize information in the last few weeks, so that they
can pass the exam.

Some words that help soften assertive statements:

apparently, often, some, many, most, may, might and could.

Below are some of the word and phrases used to make statements more tentative

o Tentative It appears that ...

Some people claim that ...
It is said that ...
It has been suggested
that ...
It seems that ...
There is a tendency
to/for ...
o Stronger Evidence
It is widely accepted that ...
It is now generally
recognized that ...
o Unlikely Situation
It is very doubtful that ...

Formal vocabulary
o Informal writing-compare
o When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, it's
hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in
the future.
o It's so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or
female. I don't think that is an acceptable approach and is even against the law.

FORMAL INFORMAL POPULAR

Comprehend Understand get it

Intoxicated Drunk wasted
Exhausted Tired whacked out
Dejected Sad bummed out
offspring, child child kid

longer words instead of simple ones more precise and less ambiguous in meaning,
e.g. get obtain, look into investigate

use Standard English and avoid slang words and colloquialisms :kid-child

for specialized topics/subjects use specialized terms (jargon): preschool-aged children

o compound nouns (blackboard, brother-in-law, mineral water)

o gerunds noun (-ing)
 Reading is a very important skill.
o
Preschool institutions are important for developing social skills.
o
That is ballet dancing.
o
Participles-used as an adjective (-ing or -ed)
o
Crying baby....
o
Shaken, he walked away form the wrecked car.
o

Nominalization

1 Nouns are useful in academic writing because they convey an objective, impersonal
tone; can also make the text more concise because they can pack a great deal of
information in a few words; formal written English uses nouns more than verbs
This information enables us to formulate precise questions.
This information enables the formulation of precise questions.
Nominalization

Changing a verb or adjective to a noun

Decide-decision; difficult- difficulty; the fantastic

2 Nominalization

Noun phrase with two or more nouns where the first / the first two nouns function

as adjectives
Officer of the police-police officer
The investigation of an accident-accident investigation

FORMAL GRAMMAR
use There, or One as a subject, e.g. There is a serious risk of ..., One may ask whether ...
use empty it (It was found/ it is not possible/ it is evident/it will make/it may be
important)
use the passive voice and inanimate subject with active verb (the results/findings
indicate..)
o e.g. The committee discussed the topic. The topic was discussed by the
committee.
Avoid rhetorical questions-do not directly address the reader with a question,
o Do social workers reinforce institutionalized racism?

Reduced relative clauses

The bus which leaves at 6:03 was late today. The bus leaving at 6:03 was late today.

The man whom I saw yesterday. The man I saw yesterday.

Appositive /appositive phrase/clause

My daughters new puppy, Aron, comma My daughters new puppy, a golden

retriever,
My friend Mary. No comma
Personal Clearly, Agent or
It is clear that performer
In my opinion 'Objective' There is little doubt
I believe that It has been argued that I undertook the
In my view that study
Some writers I propose to
claim
 In this essay I will No agent or The study was This essay
examine performer undertaken examines
It is proposed
to

THE INFORMAL YOU

The film is about what happens when you become middle-aged The film is about
what happens when a man becomes middle-aged/to a man when he becomes middle-
aged

The film makes you meditate on the meaning of life. The film makes one meditate
on the meaning of life.

conciseness-expressing much in few words; clear and succinct

Avoid saying the same thing twice.

Many uneducated citizens who have never attended school continue to vote for
better schools.

He referred to basic and fundamental principles of physics.

He referred to basic principles of physics.

He requested a trial by a jury.

He requested a jury trial.

He believed but could not confirm

He assumed

Avoid pleonasm -a phrase that repeats itself

"true fact," "twelve noon," "I saw it with my own eyes"-should be avoided

Clarity and accuracy

do not repeat ideas

use language correctly

do not exaggerate

Avoid ambiguity

Each of us saw her duck. It is not clear whether the word duck refers to an action of
ducking (avoiding) or a duck that is a bird and belongs to her.

Avoid generalisations such as:

everyone knows, obviously, it is generally agreed.

 COHERENCE- all sentences logically follow one another i.e. each sentence relates to the
sentence that precedes it and the one that follows it. readers can follow along easily,
the ideas tie together smoothly and clearly

COHESION

o the way in which the elements of the surface text are interrelated;

o it is a semantic relation between one element in the text and some other element that
is crucial to the interpretation of it-one element is interpreted by reference to another

o it is achieved by lexical cohesion, reference, ellipsis, connectors

o the way in which the elements of the surface text are interrelated;

o it is a semantic relation between one element in the text and some other element that
is crucial to the interpretation of it-one element is interpreted by reference to another

o it is achieved by lexical cohesion, reference, ellipsis, connectors

o examples

This course is difficult. It is packed with useful information.

This course is difficult, but it is packed with useful information.

Jean tries to get her work done on time. She has a physical disability.

Although she has a physical disability, Jean tries to get her work done on time.

o REFERENCE- demonstratives and personal pronouns have the property of reference-

they make connections between different parts of the text. They may refer to a word, a
phrase, a sentence or even to several sentences.
o Pronouns
This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are useful pronouns for
referring back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that
what you are referring to is clear.
o Determiners (articles-a, an, the; possessive adjectives-my, your, his, her, their,
ones, its, our;demonstrative adjectives-this, that, these, those)
Other words (both, too many, there, since then, so)
Example: When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they
are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again.
Those that work out better the second time around are the ones that
promise the most rewards.

ELLIPSIS AND SUPSTITUTION

o ELLIPSIS - repeating a structure but omitting some of the surface expressions

-used for the sake of economy in language ( to avoid redundancy )
-the most frequently omitted word is subject.
o Substitution - repeating a structure but replacing/substituting some of the surface
expressions

CONNECTIVES

AND type: connectives of result- join a cause with a result, effect or

consequence
 So, therefore, as a result, accordingly, consequently, thus, hence, because

OR type: connectives of reformulation

-in other words, to put it more simply, it would be better to say

but type: connectives of concession-a kind of contrast is added

-however, nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, in spite of that, despite that, all the same

Make three sentences using one of the three types of connectives (other than AND, OR,
BUT)

ACADEMIC DISCOURSE
discourse - (1) In linguistics, a unit of language longer than a single sentence. (2) More
broadly, the use of spoken or written language in a social context.
academic discourse -primarily expository writing
with the intent to demonstrate knowledge within an
academic setting
Academic discourse, is the (often written)
communication of ideas and thoughts to others
within a particular field or specialization (most
often) with an aim to persuade.

There is not simply one type of academic discourse

each field (i.e. English Literature), and even
subfield (i.e. Postcolonial Studies) has its own
specific type of discourse, with its own conventions
and norms.

Discourse markers words or phrases which signal

semantic relations between two clauses, sentences, etc., connect them, and can
indicate writers attitudes, e.g. however, to sum up, etc.

GENRES
the study of how language is used within a particular setting

THESES AND DISSERTATIONS

A research report - presented as part oF an academic course for a higher degree

Theses & dissertations available in electronic format
Part of a worldwide network
available on the Internet research more accessible
JOURNAL

A journal is a periodical, which generally contains material relating to research

Appears at regular intervals weekly, monthly, quarterly
Content varies and can include editorials, articles, book reviews, etc.
They do not necessarily have the word journal in the title, e.g. Child Development,
Teacher magazine,tc record
Educations journal
 o Action in Teacher Education, American Educator, American Teacher, Asia-Pacific
Journal of Teacher Education, Cambridge Journal of Education, Child Development

STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

Academic articles are usually organized according to a recognizable structure.

Introductory paragraph(s) present the stakes of the research, along with some sort of
thesis statement.
Supplementary body paragraphs develop the thesis by presenting and analyzing
examples and evidence. The body of the article is sometimes divided into subtopics
which alert the reader to the main point of that particular section.
Scientific articles are often organized along the following lines: introduction methods
results
The topic of a paragraph is stated in one sentence. This is called the topic sentence.
usually at the beginning of a paragraph, i.e. the first sentence in a paragraph
(not always)
it is also the most general sentence in a paragraph introduces an overall idea;
it does not contain many details
CLOUDS ARE WHITE The shapes of clouds are determined by various factors.

SUPPORTIVE SENTENCES
supporting sentences support or explain the idea expressed in the topic
sentence
there are often more than two supporting ideas in a paragraph
five to seven sentences, at minimum in a paragraph
CONCLUSION SENTENCE
Restate the topic sentence in different words.
A clincher sentence or concluding sentence clinches the point made in the
paragraph.
It summarizes the paragraph.
a sort of a topic sentence in reverse
Types of paragraphs
The narrative paragraph - tells a story
The persuasive paragraph. - tries to convince the audience
The descriptive paragraph - describes something
The expository or explanatory paragraph - gives information or explains
something

Text types

Expository texts
require the writer to this can be accomplished through
o investigate an idea, o comparison and contrast,
o evaluate evidence, o definition,
o expound on the idea, and o example,
o set forth an argument concerning o the analysis of cause and effect,
that idea in a clear and concise etc.
manner.

Argumentative texts

writing that requires the student to

 o investigate a topic;
o collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and
o establish a position on the topic in a concise manner
o call for extensive research of literature or previously published material,
o may also require empirical research where the student collects data through
interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments,
o detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand
different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a position
and support it with the evidence collected during research,
o must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.
The structure of the expository/argumentative essay is held together by:
o a clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph
of the essay,
o clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion,
o body paragraphs that include evidential support,
o evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal),
o a conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of
the evidence provided.
Descriptive texts
the writer provides a description of an object, person, place, experience, emotion,
situation, etc.
encourages the writers ability to create a written account of a particular experience
Narrative texts
telling a story
these texts are often anecdotal, experiential, and personalallowing the writer to
express him/herself in a creative and, quite often, moving ways.

Language functions

Language functions are uses and structures of the language organised according
to what the writer wants to communicate. They consist of sentences and / or
paragraphs that are connected in a logical way.

INTRODUCTIONS

clearly constructed, will create a good impression on the reader

not too long, depending on the purpose of the writing

Will indicate the structure of the writing by giving an overview of the content in
sequence

introductory paragraphs should accomplish two tasks:

o get the reader's interest so that he or she will want to read more.

o let the reader know what the writing is going to be about-a carefully crafted
thesis statement.

it is impossible to say or do or write anything that will interest everybody.

Show that writing is finished

 CONCLUSIONS

Usually-a summary of the main points already made-commenting the implications, the
need of further research or certain action
Has to logically follow from what has been written before
Should not introduce a new argument or examples
To conclude, to end, therefore,
in conclusion, to complete, in short,
to close, to bring to an end, to sum up,
last of all, thus to summarize,
finally, hence, to recapitulate

DESCRIPTION

Present simple active and present simple passive are used

people apparatus and equipment

family relationships countries, continents
occupations Animals
institutions
DESCRIPTION : PROCESS AND PROCEDURE

Passive

present passive (is/are + verb stem + ed)- general description of process and
procedure
past passive (was/were + verb stem + ed)- particular procedure in the past
description that does not envolve proces or procedure present simple active
tense
Sequence is important in both process and procedure
describing time relations
actions in sequence
sequence markers first, then, next, finally used to link the sentences
relative pronouns and relative clauses (relative pronouns-who, which, that,
whom, whose, where)-used to avoid repeating a subject
DEFENITIONS

When we describe things we sometimes need to define them as well, especially in

academic writing, so that it is perfectly clear what we mean. We may also need to
give examples of what we define and to classify.

Thing to be defined + verb + general class word + wh-word + particular

characteristics.

A librarian is a person who is in charge of or works in an institution which contains

books, newspapers, etc. for people to read, study or borrow.

A school is an institution where children are educated.

Example:

A botanist is a person who studies plants.

 1 2 3 4 5

1 = thing to be defined 4 = wh-word

2 = verb 5 = particular characteristics
3 = general class word

ACADEMIC DEFINITION

o Cautious in defining:
Theology may be defined as the study of religious beliefs and theories.
Define:Geography-science-earths surface/ Linguistics-science-language
Relative clauses ( wh- word) : Plastics can be defined as substances which are made of
long chains of carbon atoms.
Omitting wh- word : Plastics can be defined as compounds made with long chains of
carbon atoms.
Wh-word may also be omitted in the following way:
o Criminology can be defined as the study which deals with crime.
o Criminology can be defined as the study of crime.
Define: special education - the education children- have physical or learning
problems
Use verbs: name (but rarely used)
Denote
call (but can be tricky)
refer (use for terminological explanations)
When using these verbs you normally provide the definition first and then at the end
provide the term you are defining.
Use phrases: known as / defined as
Frequently used verb tenses for definitions are present simple (active and passive).
Verbs that are often used for definition:
o Is concerned with
o Deal with
o Relate to
o Involve