International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development

January 2013, Vol. 2, No. 1

ISSN: 2226-6348

Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Environmental

Management: A Case Study of Zaka District, Masvingo
Province, Zimbabwe
Joshua Risiro
Lecturer, Department of Curriculum Studies, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
Email: jrisiro@gmail.com

Doreen, T. Tshuma
Lecturer, Department of Curriculum Studies, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
Email: tshumadoreen@gmail.com

Alphious Basikiti
Geography Student, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
Email: basikitialphious@gmail.com

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to find out forms of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in
practice in the Zaka District of Masvingo and how these forms of IKS can be used as an
environmental management tool. A case study approach was used. The study used informant
interviews, focus groups, participant observation and photographs to collect information.
Purposive sampling was used to select community elders, clan elders and traditional leaders
and healers who were believed to have in depth knowledge on traditional practices used in the
area in the conservation of biodiversity. There are sacred places, taboos and totems that ensure
conservation of natural resources in the study area. Certain trees and animals have got some
taboos that save them from human exploitation. Selected clans are responsible for carrying out
mukwerere (rain making) and mukuro (harvesting) ceremonies. The community is not allowed
to harvest wild fruits and edible insects in the sacred places before the mukuro ceremony.
Sacred wells have remained unpolluted and ensured continued supply of clean water. Mixed
farming and stone ridging have been used to conserve soil. There is land degradation in areas
not preserved by traditional practices and culture. A policy on IKS and integration of IKS in the
school curriculum are important in resource conservation. The infusion of IKS and modern
methods of resource conservation is recommended. Traditional leaders need to be empowered
as custodians of natural resources in their communities. There is need to carry out more
research on IKS in other areas of Zimbabwe.

Keywords: Indigenous Knowledge Systems, sacred places, taboos, totems, traditional

ceremonies, ancestral spirits

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Introduction

This paper argues that colonisation and colonial education in Zimbabwe disregarded indigenous
knowledge systems that are important in the conservation of biodiversity within indigenous
societies. The colonisers in pursuit for local resources engaged in resource exploitation without
much consideration of the cultural beliefs embedded within the local communities. This has
resulted in rampant destruction of forests, animals and land degradation. Ausible [1994] cited
in Brosius [1997] noted a link between destruction of cultural diversity and extinction of
biological diversity. As native cultures disappear there is also a loss of knowledge of a way of
living in a balance with the earth. The paper argues that the restoration, respect and adherence
to cultural beliefs adopted by each community such as the role of mhondoro (ancestral spirits),
zviera (taboos) and totems are effective tools in the management of the environment. There is
need to give due importance to indigenous knowledge systems to safeguard our environment.

The recent decades have been characterised by massive destruction of biodiversity due to rapid
industrialisation, urban expansion and population pressure on land. The rapid industrial
expansion meant more resources such as minerals, timber and animal products. In the wetter
Eastern parts of Zimbabwe stretching from Nyanga to Chimanimani, tracts of land have been
cleared to give way to timber, tea and coffee plantations. The drier South East Lowveld and the
Zambezi valley have not been spared for commercial activities such as growing of cotton.
Commercial lumbering, mining and urbanization has destroyed natural forests and displaced
some animals while others died due to lack of proper habitats. The scramble for resources by
colonialists in most developing countries encroached and destroyed indigenous preserved
forests and animal species. Foreign invasions disregarded existing sacred places, taboos and
cultural beliefs passed from one generation to another within the communities.

Environmental degradation has seen various International Conferences aimed at protecting our
environment yet the destruction of biodiversity is continuing unprecedented. Many countries
including Zimbabwe have ratified the Convention on Biodiversity conservation, yet the
implementation is a challenge. The major challenges to these International agreements among
other factors are that, not all countries are signatories to the agreements; there is lack of follow
up, financial constraints and lack of political will [UNEP, 2000]. These challenges leave a gap in
environmental resource management. It is believed that if Governments give special attention
to indigenous ways of resource conservation it would go a long way in achieving sustainable use
of resources.

This paper exposes some of the Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) that have been practised
immemorial by the Kalanga people of Zaka district in Masvingo in order to manage and protect
their environment from land degradation.

Indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It is
the basis for local decision making in agriculture, health, food education and environmental
management [Warren, 1991]. It covers local, traditional, non-western beliefs, practices, and

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customs and usually refers to informal forms of knowledge [Horsthemke, 2004].It is the
knowledge of people of a particular geographical area that has survived for a long period of
time [Langil, 1999; Mapara, 2009]. According to Kalawole [2001] and Stone [2007] indigenous
knowledge refers to what indigenous people know and do, and what they have known and
done for generations, practices that have evolved through trial and error and proved flexible
enough to cope with change. In many cases traditional knowledge has been orally passed for
generations from one person to another and this can be expressed through stories, songs art
and even laws. Leach and Mearns (1994; 32) suggest that indigenous knowledge is frequently
charged with being methodically wide.unproven populist or politically naive; and that it
generates findings that are too complicated to be of practical use to policy makers. Often
western science and indigenous knowledge are seen as two different, competing knowledge
systems, characterized by a binary divide. Western science is seen as being open, systematic
and objective, dependent very much on being a detached centre of rationality and intelligence,
whereas indigenous knowledge is seen as being closed, parochial, unintellectual, primitive and
emotional (Mitchel, 1995; Herbert, 2000). Western knowledge therefore is seen as the whole
notion of modernity, and IKS is regarded as part of a residual, traditional and backward way of
life. However Davies (1994) and Kallard (2000) argue that indigenous knowledge has an
advantage over western science in the context of poor communities, in that information is
tested in the context of survival, and hence it is not just true or false in a dispassionate way (as
western science might conclude), but is either more or less effective in providing the means of
survival, a conclusion more meaningful in the context of everyday existence. Indigenous
knowledge therefore becomes something very much driven by the pragmatic, utilitarian and
everyday demands of life. The indigenous knowledge is thus dynamic and creative and
experimental, constantly incorporating outside influences and inside innovations to meet new
conditions.

Indigenous knowledge can be called by various names such as indigenous knowledge of

knowing [Mapara, 2009], traditional knowledge, rural knowledge as well as ethno science
[Altieri,1995] Indigenous knowledge is therefore generated by a particular society within a
geographical area and transmitted from one generation to another in order to provide solutions
to the existing problems of that time.

The introduction of Western education and Missionary activities watered down the value and
respect given to indigenous education and cultural beliefs. Some of the cultural beliefs were
regarded as primitive and superstitious. Nyati [2001] argues that indigenous people ended up
believing that their IKS were inferior, pagan and evil. Devlin and Zettel [1999] aver that
colonisation has resulted in most traditional practices being discarded. Eyong, Mufuaya and
Foyi [2004] argue that IKS has suffered for decades from strategies of disinformation from
western colonial education and religion. Prior to colonisation and import of western education
indigenous people had education grounded in their culture, taboos, totems and respect for
ancestral spirits. These would be passed from generation to another through story telling often
done at night at padare (courtyard). These cultural beliefs respected and practised by
indigenous people were on their own the custodians and legislators of environmental
management. The fear for the unknown was good enough for one not to temper with sacred

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forests and other animal species. Tempering with sacred forests, taboos and totems had
penalty to the offender such as illness, death, drought and disappearance. These ensured
forests, water resources and animals were protected from destruction and extinction. Spiritual
beliefs about the environment can influence how resources are managed. Local communities
conserve the environment as they would not want to go against their beliefs [Langil, 1999].

In Zimbabwe the use of taboos, totems and sacred places have been used to protect and
preserve the environment. Tatira [2000] observed that taboos have been used to maintain the
values and respect for human life especially the endangered, small and powerless creatures
such as pythons and pangolins. Taboos have penalties for the offenders such as failing rain if
one kills a python [Chemhuru and Masaka, 2010]. Animals were also protected from extinction
through various respects of totems. Each clan has got a totem belonging to an animal which the
clan would not kill and eat. It is strongly believed eating ones totem will result in loss of teeth
[Bourdilon, 1976]. Taboos have also been used to conserve fruit trees. Some plant species such
as muzhanje and mutohwe were not used for fire arguing that it would cause a lot of smoke yet
the idea was that these were fruit trees not to be destroyed [Duri and Mapara, 2007].Water
sources have also been kept clean and protected by adhering to taboos regarding to the use of
water [Chemhuru and Masaka, 2010].

Worldwide, culture, religion and sacred places have contributed to environmental

management. Studies in Western Ghats, Central and North Eastern India have shown that
several plants and animals have been conserved in the sacred groves [Khan, Khumbongmayum
and Tripathi, 2008]. Indigenous people had their own ways of conserving the environment
apart from the use of sacred places, taboos and totems. Nomads practised nomadic herding to
allow vegetation to regenerate. Shifting cultivation is being practised in the Amazon basin and
by the Karen of Thailand in South East Asia. This has given enough time for the soil to regain its
fertility [Burger, 1990] Indigenous people have been using IKS to solve environmental issues
such as treatment of cattle ticks by the Fulani tribe and production of a better bean variety in
Columbia and Rwanda [World Development Report,1998/99]

Modern methods of biodiversity conservation in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has responded to environmental problems by ratifying various International and

Regional Conventions on environmental management in order to conserve the environment.
The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was implemented through
establishment of Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
(CAMPFIRE). The programme involved local communities looking after their resources such as
animals and forests and in turn benefit from the proceeds from these resources. The proceeds
such as money from the sale of animals can be used for projects such as construction of
schools. In 1995 Zimbabwe adopted the Convention on Biological Diversity and in 1996 ratified
the Convention to combat Desertification. Its main focus was on irrigated crops, trees and
livestock production in dry areas. The Montreal Protocol on Pollution and climate as well as
Agenda 21 has been adopted in order to conserve the environment (UNEP, Global Environment
Outlook, 2000; Chenje, Sola and Paleczny, 1998]

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The implementation of some of these International agreements was done through various
educational programmes. These included Better Environmental Science Teaching (BEST) in
which the science curriculum in schools included environmental issues (Chikunda, 2007] The
Secondary Teacher Training Environmental Education Programme (STTEEP) was introduced in
the three Secondary Teachers Colleges namely Mutare, Belvedere and Hillside. The main aim of
the programme was to introduce environmental education in all subjects [STTEEP Project
Document, 2003-2006] The report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education
Training [1999] saw the need for training people about environmental issues and to integrate
environmental education into examinable subjects. Tertiary Institutions such as Great
Zimbabwe University, Midlands State University and University of Zimbabwe all offer some
courses on environmental management.

There are institutions in Zimbabwe meant to conserve biodiversity. These include National
Parks such as Chimanimani, Gonarezhou and Hwange National Parks. They are in place mainly
to preserve and protect animals and vegetation. Botanical Gardens such Harare and forest
reserves such as Rusitu and Chirinda forest have been used to conserve indigenous forests.
However increased population pressure and need for agricultural land and settlement has
caused untold deforestation, migration and extinction of some flora and fauna.

There is a need therefore to develop a data base on indigenous knowledge related to

environmental management. The modern and the traditional methods can be used together as
environmental management tool in order to conserve biodiversity in a sustainable manner.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to explore the forms of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)
practised in Zaka District of Masvingo and how they are used in resource conservation. There is
extensive destruction of vegetation due to human activities, disappearance of animals,
pollution and drying of rivers. There is strong need to provide solutions to reduce or prevent
further land degradation. It is of importance to find ways of enhancing the contribution of
indigenous knowledge in environmental conservation. Indigenous knowledge has been
practised before and after colonialism. However there has been less regard to the importance
of IKS as a result of Western education and beliefs that relegated IKS to the periphery in
environmental management. The restoration, preservation and practice of IKS on
environmental issues can improve biodiversity conservation. Documenting information on IKS
and making it public will have the effect of influencing the local community and the nation to
have a positive attitude and perceptions about IKS in resource conservation. People particularly
the young, will appreciate and respect indigenous knowledge as an environmental
management strategy. The research report becomes important in providing information,
education and environmental awareness to the community at large. The sustainable use of the
natural resources by the local community ensures continued availability for the resource for the
future generations. Wild fruits such as mazhanje (uapaca kirklania), medicinal plants and
insects such as harurwa (encostern delegorguel) are a source of livelihood for the people of

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Zaka and the surrounding District. Their continued availability is a source of food and income
hence the need to conserve them.

The research study is vital to environmentalists and ecologists in their campaigns against
environmental degradation, poaching, pollution of water resources and overfishing which are
prominent in the area. In trying to educate people who are conservative on new strategies on
conservation, it is necessary to use indigenous knowledge as basis for understanding and
appreciating new strategies on environmental management. Methods of blending the old and
new strategies can be devised to conserve the environment. Rural communities such as those
of Zaka are taught using known cultural traditions rather than imposing foreign strategies.
There is a need to integrate all forms of knowledge for effective resource management.

Indigenous knowledge on environmental issues needs to be incorporated into the curriculum in

the secondary schools of Zimbabwe. Currently there is absence or little IKS on environmental
management in the secondary education system in Zimbabwe. Data collection on IKS is the first
step towards its incorporation into the education system. Information on indigenous
knowledge is relevant and particular to different geographical areas hence the need to carry
out research in different localities. The information becomes readily available to curriculum
planners, conservanists and educationists.

The Study Area

Zaka District is situated in the south-eastern part of Zimbabwe, 86 kilometres from the
Provincial city, Masvingo. It is found in agro ecological zone five (5) in the Lowveld of Zimbabwe
that records between 600 800mm per annum. Rivers such as Chiredzi, Shange, Murerezi and
Chivaka drain the area, thereby providing source of irrigation water in the region. It is semi-arid
and interrupted by hills such as Bvuma, Chikona, Banya, Biri and Goto.Famous for harurwa
(encostern delegorguel) and wild fruits like mazhanje (uapaca kirklania) is the sacred Bvuma
Mountain whose vegetation has been conserved. The type of vegetation is largely acacia
adapted to dry conditions with trees like msasa (brachystegia spiciformis), mnondo
(julbernardia globiflora) and muunze (brachystegia tamarindoids) found on high ground such as
mountains. The soils are generally poor formed from a hilly terrain.

Subsistence farming is the main form of living. Farming is largely based on cattle and growing of
resistant crops including sorghum, millet, groundnuts as well as maize. Irrigated farming
provides the people with vegetables and green maize. Sale of wild fruits like mazhanje and
insects such as harurwa provide extra income as well as vitamin c and proteins respectively, to
many families. These are sold at Growth points like Jerera and Nyika.

The people mainly practice Christianity and African Traditional Religion. Some clans are the
custodians of certain cultures and practices. The Joto and the Matsai clans ensure that sacred
hills, forests and wells are preserved. The clans are also involved in carrying out traditional
ceremonies to thank the spirits for the wild fruits and insects before they are harvested. These
practices have contributed to the conservation of natural resources in the area.

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Method of Study

Informant interviews were used to collect information and the informants agreed to have their
names used in the publication. An interview guide was prepared to solicit required information.
Purposive sampling was used to select the informants. The sampling technique was selected as
it provided the researcher the opportunity to access information from respondents that
provided rich information [Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2011]. The elders, community leaders
and Headman were selected for interview as they were regarded to have information on
indigenous knowledge regarding environmental management. Interviews were appropriate
since the study has been dealing with some respondents with limited education. In addition it
allowed the interviewer to gather extra information exhibited through body and facial
expressions [Gall, Borg and Gall, 1996] The interviews gave an opportunity to capture some
attitudes and perceptions on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). The researchers also used
participant observation. The researchers attended traditional ceremonies on mukwerere (rain
making) which was performed by the Matsai clan. The ceremony was done in preparation for
the rain season. The ceremony is expected to bring some rains resulting in luxuriant vegetation
in the Chikona, Bvuma and other surrounding areas. The researchers also participated in the
mutoro ceremony (fruit and insects harvesting ceremony) conducted by the Joto clan which
give way to harvesting of harurwa and mandere (edible insects). Participant observation was
effective as it allowed the researchers to collect first-hand information in a natural setting.
Photographs on sacred places - conserved forests, hills and wells were taken to augment
detailed descriptions given in the text. Focus groups were used to discuss the villagersopinions,
beliefs and perceptions on indigenous knowledge on environmental management. Villagers
were able to express their views as they discussed in a group. The different forms of interviews
enabled the researchers to assess the trustworthiness of data from different respondents.

Results and Discussion

Interviews with respondents were largely based on traditional methods practised by the local
people in resource conservation. The traditional methods include taboos, ceremonies, totems
and sacred places

Makumucha (Village head) noted that:

Kueresa zvinhu nezvemitupo kwakachengetedza gomo re Bvuma. (Sacred and
taboos have helped in the conservation of Bvuma mountain forest).

People are not allowed to cut trees or collect wild fruits before the mutoro ceremony is
performed. Other places conserved because of their sacredness are Runinga and Banya forests.
Mapara [2010] observed that taboos have been used traditionally in environmental
management. Cox [1992] adds that sacred places were respected since failure to do so would
bring calamity.

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It was found that Chikona hill is well forested since it is used as a cultural place for mukwererer
[rainmaking making). Elders in this area perform rain making ceremonies as from September as
people prepare for the rain season. Beer for the rainmaking ceremony is brewed by elderly
women who no longer menstruate. The rukweza [rapoko] is used to brew the beer is soaked in
water depressions called makuvi.When the beer is ready few selected elders of the VaMatsai
totem go to the rain making sacred enclosure to perform the rain making ceremony. The rain
making ceremony is essential as it brings rains that herald the insects such as harurwa, madora
(caterpillars) and wild fruits such as mazhanje. The vegetation becomes dense and green as
well.

Photograph 1: Sacred enclosure in Chikona hills in Zaka

At the sacred enclosure, sacred temporary huts for the Mhondoro (medium spirits) are
constructed upon which muzukuru mukuru (senior cousin) stirs the beer and give it to Vadzimu
(Ancestral spirits) through pouring the beer in the curve and placing snuff on the grave of the
eldest grandfather. The rest will then start to drink the beer from a clay pot.Mutaki, a Matsai
elder emphasised and said:

Gomo re Chikona haripoterekwi, hamutemwi miti, uye hamupindwi ne vana

vadiki kana vasiri ve mutupo we Matsai (No one is allowed to cut trees or
enter Chikona hills except people of the Matsai tribe).

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Mutaki reiterated that the hills had caves where the Matsai ancestors were buried. This
emphasised the sacredness of the area leading to the conservation of flora and fauna in the
Chikona hills.

Conservation of resources such as forests in the Zaka is partly done by controlling the number
of people entering the forest through respect of the ancestors buried in the forest, forbidding
children that visit the shrine except the Matsai tribe and punitive measures to those who cut
trees for firewood in the forest.

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The Sacred Bvuma Mountain

The Bvuma Mountain is under the custody of the Joto of the Shumba (lion) totem. The
mountain has dense forest as no one is allowed to temper with the vegetation either for
domestic use or mineral prospecting. The mountain is famous for harurwa and mandere
(rutelida spp) which are a source of food and income for the community as the insects are sold
at growth points such as Nyika.

Photograph 2: Dense forest of the sacred Bvuma Mountain

Gogo Mubati (a local elderly woman) noted that the Joto clan perform ceremony in which beer
is brewed and poured under the pabiriro tree (a tree where mutoro ceremonies are held). After
the ceremony the community start to harvest the insects, harurwa and mandere. Wild fruits
such as mazhanje have taboos in regard to their harvesting. The fruits are harvested when they
are ripe and throwing stones to harvest them is not allowed. The taboo helps to reduce waste
and even damaging the plant.

Gogo Mubati claimed that the Europeans failed to extract gold in the area due to mysterious
occurrences in the mountain such as dug pits filled up again the next day. Whether true or not,
it is such hair rising stories that help in the conservation of the forests. The harvesting of the
insects after the mutoro ceremony ensures that insects are harvested only when mature and in

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abundance. This system protects insects from over harvesting and extinction. A particular clan
is left to oversee the harvesting of the insects, thus avoiding over exploitation.

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Sacred Wells

There are also sacred wells around Bvuma, Chikona and Runinga hills. The water from the
sacred wells is fetched by water gourds. Metal objects and blackened clay pots are not allowed
to collect water from the wells. It is believed that the wells have got njuzu (mermaids) such that
if offended by using unaccepted utensils to collect water, the mermaids will make the water
muddy or worse still the offender may be drowned or disappear into the waters. These myths
and beliefs help maintain sacredness of these places thereby keeping the water unpolluted and
conserved. The use of water gourds to fetch water is economic as little water is collected from
the well at a time. Water gourds are also clean as opposed to blackened pots thereby leaving
the water unpolluted after collection.

Photograph 3.Children collecting water with water gourds at a sacred well

People are not also allowed to kill aquatic life such as frogs. Gogo Mubati observed that three
wells have dried up due to failure by the local community to adhere to the traditions. She
argued that the wells have dried up because the local community has fenced the wells, washed
clothes using smelly soap and killing ancestral snake that lived in the water.

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Photograph 4: Fenced well that has dried up

Sekuru Chateya (elderly community leader) argued that:

vanhu vakavakira tsime zvisingabvumirwi nechinyakare, uye vakauraya nyoka
yaigara mutsime ndosaka mvura yakapera mutsime (People fenced the well
against the traditions and killed an ancestral snake resulting in the drying up of
the well).

Aquatic life such as frogs are conserved through this way as killing them will bring calamities
such as drying of wells.

Conservation of trees for medicinal and warding evil spirits

In Zaka district some plant species are planted around homes with the belief that they ward off
lightning and evil spirits. Some plants are used for medicinal purposes. Gogo Mubati
acknowledged that:
ndakasima muti uyu, mudovoti, kudzinga nyoka pamusha, zvidhoma uye
kudzivirira mombe dzangu kuti dzisasvodza (I planted this plant since it scares
away snakes, evil spirits and miscarriages on cows).

However some homes did not have such plants due to belief in Christianity. Various taboos are
taken care of before extracting medicinal herbs. Exposed plant roots are covered with soil. The

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bark is extracted from the east and west parts of the tree trunk. VaMachenga (elderly man)
reiterated that:

kana tachera mudziwemushonga, tinofushiragomba racho kuti muti usafa

ugobuda zvakare (After collecting herbal roots we cover the roots so that the
plants do not die).

Medicinal herbs should continue to survive after extraction. It is believed that the ill person is
not going to get cured if the plant dies. This belief ensured that traditional healers would not
destroy the whole plant when extracting medicine from plants. Nyota and Mapara (2010) posit
that nanga collected part of the plant to avoid extinction and destruction of plants.

Table 1: Role of Taboos in the Conservation of Vegetation

Type of Tree Taboo Traditional belief

Mukamba(pod mahogany); It is not allowed Traditional
Muonde(fig tree); to be chopped ceremonies are done
Mushakata (parinari for domestic under any of these
curatellifolia) use such as trees. They are
firewood associated with
ancestral spirits
Mutarara(lacaniodiscus It is not used It is placed on a grave
Fraxinifolinus) for domestic after burial. Witches
purposes get confused if they
attempt to exhume
the body
Murungu(lucky bean tree); It is not cut It is planted on graves.
Mupanda down for use at As it grows it signifies
the home life for the dead
Mvuko Not cut for Planted on graves to
firewood allow the dead to
avenge his/her killer
Gonde Not to be used Planted at the
for firewood homestead to ward
off lightning
Muzhanje/mushuku(uapaca Fruit trees are Mishaps; crops can be
kirklania) not cut down consumed by wild
for any use such animals
as firewood
Muzeze (peltiforum Not used as Bring in evil spirits and
africanum) firewood or confusion at the
brought to the home; causes decay of
home pumpkins

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Mutovhoti(spirostactiys) Not used to One will abandon the

build a house home before too long
Munyamharadza Not used or Causes separation of
brought home married couples
Mushuma(diosphyros Not used for Its smoke causes
mespiliformis) firewood blindness

Trees played different functions in the local communities they were found. Some plant species
survived extinction because of the role they play. These trees could be categorised according to
the role they played:

Trees associated with Ancestral Spirits: These trees include mushakata, muonde and
mukamba. Traditional ceremonies such as mukwerere (rainmaking) are often done under these.
The trees grow big and therefore offer shade. They were also used as dare (court yard) where
domestic issues are discussed. The Chief also meet and preside over cases brought to him
under these trees.

Trees associated with the dead: After burial, a branch of mutarara or mushozhowa tree is
placed at the top of the grave. This was aimed at confusing the witchcraft from exhuming the
body of the dead. The mvuko is planted on the grave in order to cause the dead to avenge
against the killer. The growth of mupanda on the grave symbolised life for the departed. These
trees are conserved for the role they played for the dead.

Fruit trees: These are protected from destruction as they are sources of food to the
community. Mazhanje are not allowed to be harvested before they are ripe. Chakata provides
nutritious fruits especially during the time of drought hence their coservation.

Medicinal Plants: Trees such as mubvumaropa is used as a medicine for various illnesses such
as sexually related disease. The traditional healers used only part of the plant such as the bark
or root.

Homestead protection plants: Trees such as gonde are grown at the home to protect the
homestead from lightning. The trees are therefore very useful to warrant their conservation.

Conservation of soil

The main forms of soil conservation in the area under study are through practising manje (zero
tillage) and intercropping. Zero tillage involves digging some holes where the seeds are planted
and leave the other areas intact. This conserves the soil structure and soil fertility as well as
reducing soil erosion. Marozhi (Stone ridging) was another form of soil conservation used in the
area. Mixed farming in which different seeds are planted in the same field was regarded as an
effective method of soil conservation. Mr Chuma, a local farmer had this to say:

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kurima mbeu zhinji mumunda zvinochengetedza ivhu uye kupedza udyi pamwe
nekuwedzera goho (Mixed farming conserves the soil and reduce pests as well
as increasing crop yield).

Reiss and Chapungu (2000) argue that intercropping is believed to reduce pest damage by 80%.
Bench terracing is a long standing indigenous farming practice used to conserve and manage
soil moisture. The terraces reduce water velocity and allow water to sink into the soil. The
break in water flow reduces soil erosion.

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Photograph 5: Bench terracing in ward 21 Chemhazha village

The villagers in Chemazha village use stones to form a ridge that breaks the flow of running
water and reduce loss of water from runoff. Bench terracing has allowed the locals to cultivate
on steep slopes.

Conclusion

There are various forms of indigenous knowledge systems practised in Zaka District of Masvingo
that assist in the conservation of the environment. These are sacred places, taboos and totems.
Bvuma, Chikona, and Runinga hills are some of the sacred places. In these forested hills there
are ancestors who have been buried in the caves. The sacred places have got dense forest
consisting of high plant species and wild animals. In these densely forested hills there are wild
fruits such as mazhanje as well as edible insects namely madora, harurwa and a variety of bird
species. The forests conservation lies on the cultural belief that there are Vadzimu (ancestral
spirits) in these forests and hills. It is believed they are the ones that offer the fruits, edible
insects and water from the wells found in these hills. Sounds of drum beating have been
reported to be heard whenever the ancestral spirits want something from the people such as
beer. In Zindora area there is a sacred well that has remained unpolluted and ever flowing due
to the respect of taboos in regard to collecting water from the well. The locals also have a
strong belief that within the wells there are mermaids that can make you disappear if water is

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polluted or if any of these taboos is not respected. At the sacred well metal objects and utensils
with soot are not allowed to be used in fetching water at the well. Water had dried up in those
wells where the locals have fenced the well or killed aquatic animals such as frogs.

Selected clans of the Joto and Matsai have got the right to carry out rain making and mutoro
ceremonies in the Bvuma and Chikona hills. Wild fruits and edible insects are only harvested
and eaten after the ceremony has been carried out. This ensures that only ripe fruits are
harvested. There are taboos regarding the harvesting of wild fruits. It is only the ripen fruits
which are harvested. There is no throwing of stones to make the fruits fall. The selected clans
are the custodians of the sacred places. They ensure that there is no rampant destruction of
vegetation and killing of animals in the forests.

Traditional healers extract part of the plant for medicine. This gives the continued survival of
the plant at the same time, healing of the patient. This has resulted in sustainable use of the
plant species. The locals earn a living from the sale of wild fruits and edible insects obtained in
the sacred areas.

There is evidence of land degradation in areas where traditional beliefs in ancestral spirits and
sacredness are not practised. There is farming on steep slopes resulting in soil erosion and
siltation of rivers and dams.

There are challenges to the use of traditional practices in conserving the environment. Most of
the young generation regard indigenous knowledge on environmental management as
primitive and old fashioned tradition practised by the less educated and elderly. However there
is strong belief in traditional practices among the elderly population

Christianity beliefs in the area are a major challenge. The Christian community does not accept
brewing beer for the ancestors during ceremonies such as mutoro (fruit harvesting ceremony).

There are different indigenous knowledge systems practised in the community of Zaka. These
traditional practices have been effective environmental management tools in those areas
regarded as sacred. There is a challenge on IKS in environmental management from the young
generation and from the Christian teachings and beliefs.

Recommendations

In view of the research findings and conclusion, it is recommended that Indigenous knowledge
systems policy be put in place in Zimbabwe. This would guide the activities on indigenous
knowledge. The Government can then give financial and human resources to support
indigenous knowledge within communities. At present Zimbabwe does not have a policy
specifically on indigenous knowledge.

There should be fund budgeted to assist institutions that carry out programmes on indigenous
knowledge in areas such as research, workshops and conferences on the subject matter. This

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would allow local communities to appreciate local traditions and culture. The young generation
needs to keep informed and encouraged on adopting IKS on environmental issues. The study
recommends integrating indigenous knowledge systems into the school curriculum so that all
age groups are exposed to IKS in order to appreciate our culture and traditions. The existing
curriculum except a little in the languages, do not have content on conservation of resources
using IKS. There is a need to produce literature on IKS for different places in Zimbabwe since
some traditional practices are peculiar to specific geographical areas.

Government Ministries that deal with environmental conservation need to work together with
local communities and Traditional leaders on environmental management issues. Indigenous
ways of conservation could be fused with modern methods of biodiversity conservation in
order to achieve sustainable use of resources. Traditional leaders and medium spirits should be
empowered through legislation to be the custodians of our traditions and natural resources
within their communities.

The study was confined to a small geographical area, one District in Zimbabwe. The findings
cannot be generalised to all other districts. Traditional methods on environmental management
are specific and applicable to the area in question. There is therefore a need to carry out similar
research in other regions in order to produce a comprehensive record on how IKS can be used
in resource conservation.

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Informants
Gogo Mubati [A local Elderly Woman]
Makumucha [Village Head]

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Mutaki [Matsai Elder]

Sekuru Chateya [Community Elder]
VaChuma [Local Farmer]
VaMachenga [Community Elder]

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