Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 547553

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Ethnobotanical survey of biopesticides and other medicinal plants

traditionally used in Meru central district of Kenya
D.W. Gakuya a,n, S.M. Itonga b, J.M. Mbaria b, J.K. Muthee a, J.K. Musau b
a
Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, PO Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya
b
Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, PO Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: The purpose of this study was to carry out a survey and document
Received 15 August 2012 plants used in Meru-central district by traditional healers with emphasis on those used as biopesticides.
Received in revised form Materials and methods: The study was carried out at Igane and Gatuune sub-locations, Abothuguchi
15 November 2012
East division of Meru-Central district, Kenya. The data collection involving 23 traditional healers was
Accepted 18 November 2012
done using semi-structured questionnaire, focused group discussion and transect walks. Plants samples
Available online 29 November 2012
were collected and botanically identied at the herbarium of the Department of Land Resource
Keywords: Management and Agriculture Technology in the University of Nairobi.
Ethnobotanical study Results: The results of the ethnobotanical survey revealed that herbalists belonged to both gender with the
Medicinal plants
majority being male (82.6%) and female (17.4%). Their ages ranged from 28 to 82 years. Seventy (70) plant
Biopesticides
species, belonging to 35 families, were identied as being used as biopesticides and also as medicinal. The
Meru central district
Kenya families encountered were Asteraceae (10%), Euphorbiaceae (8.6%), Lamiaceae (8.6%), Fabaceae(8.6%),
Caesalpiniaceae (5.7%), Rubiaceae (5.7%), Liliaceae (4.3%), Apocynaceae (2.9%), Flacourtiaceae (2.9%),
Verbenaceae (2.9%) and the rest of the 24 families had 1.4% each. These medicinal plants were used to
treat and manage a wide range of diseases and conditions including parasitic, microbial, helminthosis,
protozoa, cuts and wounds, fractures, dental, arthritis, allergic, snake bites, reproductive as well as
metabolic. Among the plants used, shrubs were the commonest at 42.8%; trees were 32.9%, while herbs
and liana were at 22.9% and 1.4%, respectively. Majority of the respondents used leaves, roots and bark to
make their herbal preparations with only a few using seeds, owers, whole plant, ower sap and pods. The
plants that were cited by the respondents to be used as biopesticides were Prectranthus barbatus Andr.
(47.8%), Tephrosia vogelii Hookf. (39.1%), Ocimum gratissimum L (34.7%), Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (8.7%),
Cascabella thevetia( L.)Lippold (4.3%) and Oncoba routledgei Sprague (4.3%).
Conclusion: Meru central district is rich in biodiversity of biopesticides and other medicinal plants and
there is need for further pharmacological studies to validate their use as potential drugs for pests and
disease control.
& 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
It is estimated by the World Health Organization (WHO) that
around 80% of the population in Africa use traditional medicines
and about 85% of traditional medicine involves the use of plant
extracts (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1985; Hack-Seang, 2005). Simi-
larly in developed countries 70% to 80% of the population has used
some form of alternative or complementary medicine (World
Health Organization (WHO), 2008). There is a refocusing interest
on traditional medicine due to global demand for more affordable
therapeutics and concern for side effects (Singh, 2007). Plants
have been used in traditional medicine for several thousand years
n Many communities in Kenya rely on a wide range of indigenous
Corresponding author. Tel.: 254 722443434.
E-mail addresses: danielgakuya@yahoo.com,
dwgakuya@uonbi.ac.ke (D.W. Gakuya).
(Abu-Rabia, 2005). The higher plants who mostly originate from
Africa, Asia and South America are estimated to contribute 33% of
drugs produced in developed countries (Rogo, 2004).
Medicinal plants are the major raw materials for both traditional
and conventional medicine. These plants are also used as source of
nutrition (soup and tonics in children milk), appetizers (Acacia
nilotica), and energy boosters (Catha edulis) and for aroma in teas
(Ocimum spps) (Maundu et al., 2004). They are harvested for local use
and also an ingredient of herbal medicine for use in pharmaceutical
industry both locally and internationally. The traditional medical
knowledge of medicinal plants and their utilization by indigenous
cultures are vital for conservation of cultural traditions and biodiver-
sity, community healthcare and also in the current drug development
and in the near future (Pei, 2001).
practices to manage human and animal diseases and conditions
(Gathuma et al., 2004; Githiori, 2004; Kokwaro, 1993; Miaron et al.,

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.11.028
548 D.W. Gakuya et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 547553
2004). Kenya is endowed with diverse range of plants with a
number of them being used by indigenous people to make
infusions, decoctions and other traditional dosage forms to manage
various ailments. Traditionally this knowledge is passed on through
generations by word of mouth. There is therefore, an urgent need
for ethnobotanical surveys among the native people in order to
document the wealth of knowledge of folk medicine before it is lost
by erosive effects of modernization. Several authors have docu-
mented medicinal plants used by various communities in Kenya
(Kokwaro, 1993; Kaendi, 1997; Miaron et al., 2004; Bussmann,
2006; Kareru et al., 2007; Nguta et al., 2010; Muthee et al., 2011;
Wambugu et al., 2011).
Recent surveys conducted using semi-structured questionnaires,
transect walks, oral interviews and focus group discussions, docu-
mented 80 medicinal plants used for different ailments belonging to
70 genera in Loitoktok district of Kenya (Muthee et al., 2011).
Similar surveys conducted in Msambweni district of Kenya reported
40 species of plants used as antimalarial belonging to 35 genera and
24 families (Nguta et al., 2010). In the treatment of chronic joint
pains due to osteoarthritis in Machakos and Makueni district, it was
reported that herbalists used 37 plant species belonging to 32
genera and 23 families (Wambugu et al., 2011).
Pest control is a major concern for human, livestock and plant
health and productivity. A screening for pesticidal activity of plant
extracts with some known medicinal attributes could lead to the
discovery of novel agents for pest control (Sertkaya et al., 2009).
Globally there has been search for alternatives to chemical
pesticides with the aim of testing the use and efcacy of natural
products for pest control and crop protection (Balasubramanian
et al., 1997, 2008). Biopesticides are cost effective, safer, readily
available, biodegradable and therefore more environment-
friendly and will offer alternative to conventional pesticides
(Ranasing, 2007; Gupta and Dikshit, 2010).
Several studies in Kenya and other countries have documented
the efcacy of plant biopesticides. The larvacidal activities of ve
Meliaceae plants species have been documented to act against
Fig. 1. Map of Kenya illustrating the geographical location of Meru Central district.
Anopheles gambiae (Ndungu et al., 2004). Crude methanol extracts
of Turraea wakeeldii and Turraea oribunda were found to be more
potent than Azadiractin against Anopheles gambiae (Ndungu et al.,
2004). The larvacidal effects of Neem extracts have been reported by
Vatandoost and Vaziri (2004).The acaricidal effects of some plants
and the traditional knowledge in tick control have also been
documented (Wanzala et al., 2006). Other plants reported to act as
biopesticides include; Nicotiana rustica as an insecticide (Krieger,
2001), Ryania speciosa against European stockborer (Krieger, 2001),
Zingiber ofcinale L. against Biomphalaria glabrata and Schistosoma
mansoni (Adewunmi et al., 1990), Tagetes species, Crotalaria spect-
abilis, Ricinus communis, Azadirachta indica against nematodes
(Sharma and Trivedi, 2002; Germani and Plenchete, 2004; Wang
et al., 2007), Tephrosia virginiana, Lonchocarpus utilis, Lonchocarpus
urucu, Derris elliptica, Verbascum thapsus producing rotenone and
therefore potentially used as rodenticide (Fang and Casida, 1999).
Meru County is among the regions in Kenya where traditional
knowledge about the use of plants in the environment has relatively
remained fairly intact. In this region of Kenya, there is scanty
information and documentation of the knowledge on traditional
medicine. The knowledge is only available to the members of the
community especially the older generation. The purpose of the
current study was to document the traditional uses of medicinal
plants among the people of Meru Central region especially those used
as biopesticides to form a basis for developing biopesticides for the
control of animal and plant pests.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
Meru Central District is one of the districts in Meru County and
lies to the east of Mount Kenya whose peak cuts through the
southwest border of the district. It borders other districts in
Laikipia, Meru, Tharaka Nithi, Isiolo, Kirinyaga and Nyeri counties.
 D.W. Gakuya et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 547553
The district straddles the equator, lying within latitude 0130 4500 N
about 0120 3000 S and within longitudes 371 and 381E. The district
covers a total area of 2982 km2 of which Mount Kenya and Imenti
forests cover 1030 km2 leaving only 1952 km2 for human settle-
ment. Fig. 1 shows Meru Central district in relation to the map of
Kenya and the Mwanganthia location and Igane sub-location
where this work was carried out.
Meru Central district is divided into ten (10) administrative
divisions. Timau division is the largest while Mirigamieru west is
the smallest division. The district has a total of fty (50) locations
and one hundred and forty four (144) sub-locations. Miriga-mieru
West is the most densely populated division with 1306 persons
per km2 while Timau, which is the largest division in the district,
is the least densely populated with 72 persons per km2 as at 1999
(Meru District Strategic Plan, 2005).
Meru Central District has slightly over 160 health facilities that
are spread all over the district. There is a problem of accessibility
of health facilities since the average distance to the nearest health
facility is 7 km. The doctor to patient ratio is 1:3259 (Meru
District Strategic Plan, 2005). This therefore implies that most of
the health facilities in the district are manned by other cadres of
health service providers.
2.2. Data collection
Prior meetings with the local administrators and herbalists to
sensitize them and to identify participants for the ethnobotanical
workshop were conducted in the beginning of July 2009. This was
followed by a workshop involving 23 herbalists which was held
between 17 and 19 July 2009 at Igane sub-location, Abothuguchi-
East division. The data was collected using a survey that involved
the use of semi structured questionnaire and interviews con-
ducted in the local language and using interpreters. The inter-
views which were conducted privately, commenced after a formal
consent of the interviewee was sought. The questions included
their biodata, knowledge about the plants they use to manage
diseases and pests, plants parts used, method of preparation and
including the details on route of administration and dosages. This
was followed by transect walks to identify, photograph and
collect the plants in their locality and later focus group
discussions.
2.3. Collection and botanical identication of plant samples.
The plants were identied by traditional herbalists with the
assistance of a team of researchers during the transect walks.
They were photographed at their locality, collected and later
identied by a taxonomist at the herbarium of the department of
Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology at the
University of Nairobi and voucher specimens deposited there.
2.4. Data analysis and reporting
All the information gathered before and during the workshop
was compiled and summarized and descriptive statistics of
frequencies and percentages were computed. The relative impor-
tance of the individual plant species for biopesticidal and medic-
inal utililization was determined by calculating their user
values(UVS) as per Muthee et al., (2011), which was a slight
modication of the method used by Phillips and Gentry
(1993).The user value of a plant species (UVS) SiUVis/ns, UVis
being the user value of one plant species to one informant and ns
being the number of informants interviewed for the species. In
this study, the number of informants (ns) was taken to be the
number of informants mentioning the use of plant species as all
the informants had the same chance of naming any of the species
549
used as biopesticidal and medicinal purposes as per the ques-
tionnaire used. The UVis was determined by the formula UVis
SUis/nis, where Uis is the number of uses mentioned by an
informant for the particular plant species and nis is the number of
interviews by the informant which in our case was one.
The consensus factor (FIC) for the use of biopesticides and
medicinal plants for the management of pests and diseases was
calculated using the method of Trotter and Logan (1986), where
FIC Nur  Nt/Nur 1. Nur is the number of use-reports of infor-
mants for a particular illness usage, where the use-reports is a
single record for use of a plant mentioned by an individual and Nt
is the number of species used for a particular illness category of
all informants. The pest and diseases managed by traditional
healers were categorized before calculation of the consensus
factor.
3. Results and discussion
Of the 23 traditional herbalists interviewed, 82.6% were males
and 17.4% were females. The female informants age ranged from
48 to 82 years with a mean age of 59.8 years while the male
informants age ranged from 28 to 80 years with a mean age of
59.4 years. The average age of the respondents in the study area
was therefore approaching 60 years. This information on the age
implies that the younger generation is not fully engaged in the
traditional medicine practice and therefore a breakdown in
dissemination of knowledge between the old and younger gen-
eration. This in essence means that with time this knowledge may
be lost unless efforts are made to reverse the situation. This
situation is similar to that reported by Muthee et al. (2011)
among the Maasai of Loitoktok district in Kenya. The majority of
the herbalists had a primary school education (74%), while the
others had a secondary (4.3%) and college education (4.3%). Three
of the herbalist had not attended school at all and one had only
attended the adult education programme. The literacy level in
this area is above the Kenyan national adult literacy level of 71%
(Ndemo, 2005).
The number of plant species documented in this study as being
ethnobotanically important for medicinal and biopesticidal use
were 70, belonging to 35 families (Table 1). The most frequently
utilized families of plants were Asteraceae (10%), Euphorbiaceae
(8.6%), Lamiaceae (8.6%), Fabaceae (8.6%), Caesalpiniaceae (5.7%),
Rubiaceae (5.7%), Rutaceae (5.7%), Liliaceae (4.3%), Apocynaceae
(2.9%), Flacourtiaceae (2.9%), Verbenaceae (2.9%) and the other 24
families at 1.4% each. The medicinal plants were used to treat and
manage mainly parasitic, microbial, helminthosis, protozoa, cuts
and wounds, fractures, dental, arthritis, allergic, snake bites
reproductive as well as metabolic diseases. Among the medicinal
and biopesticidal plants used, shrubs were the commonest at
42.8%, trees accounted for 32.9% while herbs and liana had 22.9%
and 1.4%, respectively. Majority of the respondents used leaves,
roots and bark to make their herbal preparations with only a few
using seeds, owers, whole plant, ower sap and pods. Most of
these plants have been reported in other studies (Kokwaro, 1993;
Beentje, 1994; Muthee et al., 2011).
The traditional healers were using different plants to treat one
ailment but some plants species were being used to treat more
than one ailments. The calculated plant species use values (UVs)
are shown in Table 1. The ve most frequently cited plant species
used as biopesticides and medicinal were Plectranthus barbatus
Andr. (48.7%) followed by Tephrosia vogelii (Hoof.f.) (39.1%),
Ocimum gratissimum L (34.7%), Aloe vera L ( 30.4%) and Millettia
dura Dunn (26.1%). Similarly, the ve plants with the highest use
values were Plectranthus barbatus (0.57), Prunus africana (Hoof.f.)
Kalkman (0.52), Tephrosia vogelii (0.39), Aloe vera L (0.39) and
550 D.W. Gakuya et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 547553

Table 1
Plants used in the management of various diseases and pests in Meru Central district, Kenya (n 23).

Family Botanical name and voucher Meru name Habit Part Medicinal/biopesticide uses N (%) UVs
number used

Acanthaceae Anisotes ukambensis Lindau SM084 Mugituri S B Control of bleeding in pregnant women 1 (4.3) 0.04
Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf. Murigurigu T R/SB Anti-malarial, typhoid Amoebiasis,pneumonia 4 (17.4) 0.26
SM 005
Carrisa edulis(Forssk)Vahl SM 052 Mukawa S R/B Stomachache, Dizziness malaria, headache 4 (17.4) 0.30
Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold SM 008 Karwego S F/L Mosquito repellent 1 (4.3) 0.04
Asteraceae Wedelia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Willd. Muti S L Wounds, antidiarrhoea poison antidote 4 (17.4) 0.17
SM 057
Bidens pilosa L. SM 041 Munyugunyugu H L Dizziness 1 (4.3) 0.04
Conyza bonariensis(L.) Cronquest Mweru H R Toothache 1 (4.3) 0.04
SM 026
Solanecio mannii (Hook.F.). C.Jeffery Matoroboro H F/L Purgative 1 (4.3) 0.04
SM 026
Lactuca inermis Forssk. SM 044 Muthunka H WP Heart burn 1 (4.3) 0.04
Vernonia colorata(Willd.) Drake. Mwatha jwa H R Anthelmintic, cough pneumonia,stomachache 2 (8.7) 0.17
SM 073 njau
Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. SM 040 Mwatha S L/R Heart burn, management of crop pests and maggots 2 (8.7) 0.09
Piliostigma thonningii Mukuura T L/SB Prolonged menstruation Gonorrhea and other venereal 2 (8.7) 0.17
(Schumach)Milne-Redhead SM 035 diseases, cough
Canellaceae Warbugia ugandensis Sprague SM 046 Muthiga T L Anti-malarial, stomachache Pneumonia,u, toothache 3 (13.0) 0.26
rheumatism
Capparaceae Capparis sepiaria L. SM 015 Mutanda S R/L Emetic, Purgative, chest pains, wounds 1 (4.3) 0.17
mbogo
Caricaceae Carica papaya L. SM 020 Mubabai T SD/R/ Anti-amoeba, anthelminitic pneumonia 4 (17.4) 0.22
L
Celastraceae Catha edulis (Vahl.)Forssk.Ex Endl. Muraa T L Pneumonia, Toothache 2 (8.7) 0.09
SM 058
Combretaceae Terminalia brownii Fressen. SM 072 Muruuku T B Anthelmintic, pneumonia Fever 4 (17.4) 0.22
Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis L. SM 011 Mukenkeiya H FS Eye infections, earache 1 (4.3) 0.09
Convolvulaceae Astripomoea malvacea(Klotzsch) A. Mukua na nthi H R Anti-malarial, stomachache dysentry, constipation 1 (4.3) 0.17
Meeuse. SM 003
Cyperaceae Cyperus papyrus L. SM 024 Ndago H R Pneumonia, headache malaria 2 (8.7) 0.13
Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum Hiern. SM 034 Mumanku S R Anthelmintic, constipation 1 (4.3) 0.09
Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.)Baill. Mukwego T B Pneumonia 1 (4.3) 0.04
SM 054
Croton megalocarpus Hutch. SM 029 Mukinduri T L Anthelmintic control bleeding on cuts 2 (8.7) 0.09
Euphorbia milii Des Moul. SM 014 Jerusalem S F/L Warts 1 (4.3) 0.04
Jatropha curcas L. SM 043 Kiariki gia S L/SD Control bleeding on cuts and wounds, lice and eas control 1 (4.3) 0.09
chomba
Phyllanthus sepialis Mull.Arg. SM 064 Mukuuru S R Constipation, general body illness 1 (4.3) 0.09
Ricinus communis L. SM 064 Mwariki S B/SD Control bleeding on cut wounds 2 (8.7) 0.09
Fabaceae Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Ex Dc. Muhuti T R/B Anthelmintic, anti-diarrhoea Pneumonia 3 (13.0) 0.13
SM 082
Indigofera lupatana Bak.f. SM 076 Muthara S R Anthelmintic, antimalarial pneumonia, Backache 1 (4.3) 0.17
Millettia dura Dunn. SM 042 Mwangua T R Anthelminitic, pneumonia ,diarrhoea,amoeba 6 (26.1) 0.3
Securidaca longipedunculata Fres Muguruka S R Quicken delayed delivery, purgative, dizziness, headache 1 (4.3) 0.17
SM 025
Tephrosia purpurea (L) Pers.SM 047 Kagundugundu S R Anti-malarial 1 (4.3) 0.04
Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. SM 067 Mumpuko S R Constipation, control of rodents ectoparasites, crop pests 9 (39.1) 0.39
Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merrill. Muroo S R Anti-malarial stomachache Indigestion 1 (4.3) 0.13
SM 065
Oncoba routledgei Sprague SM 032 Mwege T F Treatment of jigger infestation 1 (4.3) 0.04
Hyperricaceae Harungana madagascariensis Lam ex Munyamwe T B Breast development in young women, malaria 1 (4.3) 0.09
Poir SM 002
Lamiaceae Ajuga remota Benth. SM 001 Kirurage H L Anti-malarial, dysentry. stomachache, pneumonia 4 (17.4) 0.22
Toothache
Fuerstia africana T.C.E.Fr. SM 080 Mutaciune H L/R Gonorrhea and other venereal diseases 1 ( 4.3) 0.04
Leucas grandis Vatke SM060 Majara H L Anthelmintic, ear infection 3 (13.0) 0.13
Ocimum gratissimum L. SM 004 Makuri H L Antimalarial,stomachache Pneumonia, mosquito repellent 8 (34.7) 0.35
bees attractant
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. SM 019 Mwaraaka S L Pneumonia, pesticide for weevils, eas, cockroaches, cough 11 (47.8) 0.57
Rosmarinus ofcinalis L. SM 005 Kamucubu S L Innapetence, smelly body and feet 1 (4.3) 0.09
Liliaceae Allium cepa L. SM 018 Gitunguru H BL Pneumonia 2 (8.7) 0.09
Aloe secundiora Engl. SM 009 Gicukurui/ H L Anti-malarial,chest pains conjuctivitis,wounds 1 (4.3) 0.17
Gikunu
Aloe vera L. SM 007 Gicukurui H L Anti-malarial, wounds 7 (30.4) 0.39
Meliaceae Trichilia emetica Vahl. SM 066 Mutwati T B Anthelmintic, pneumonia innapetence 4 (17.4) 0.22
Stephania abyssinica Kamutuma/ H R Colic in infants, stomachache 1 (4.3) 0.09
Menispermaceae ( Quart-Dill & A Rich) Walp. SM 050 ciontu
Mimosaceae Albizia gummifera. (J.F.Gmel)C.A.Sm. Muchambi T B/P Anti-malarial, stomachache, pneumonia 2 (8.7) 0.13
SM 013
Moraceae Morus alba L. SM 053 Mutaratare S L Blindness 2 (8.7) 0.09
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus saligna L. SM 016 Mubamauta T L Fever, cold, Flu,wounds,malaria ,allergy 2 (8.7) 0.26
Olecaceae Ximenia caffra Sond. SM 033 Muroroma S L/R Antihelmintic, anti-diarrhoea Toothache, painkiller 4 (17.4) 0.17
 D.W. Gakuya et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 547553 551

Table 1 (continued )

Family Botanical name and voucher Meru name Habit Part Medicinal/biopesticide uses N (%) UVs
number used

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. SM 017 Karocho S R Anthelmintic, Removal of pseudo-teeth in children skin 1 (4.3) 0.17
blisters, swollen legs
Rosaceae Prunus africana (Hook.f) Kalkman SM Mwiria T B Cough, u, congested chest, backache, cancer 5 (21.7) 0.52
059 painkiller,bood cleansing,anthrax ,body ache,joint ache
Rubiaceae Breonadia salicina (Vahl) Hepper Mugoti T R/B Anti-malarial, headache 3 (13.0) 0.13
&J.R.I.Wood. SM 030
Pavetta teitana K.Schum. SM 061 Murema S L/R Pneumonia 1 (4.3) 0.04
muthwa
Pentodon pentandrus Mukurwa L R Anthelmintic, pneumonia ,cough 2 (8.7) 0.13
(Schumach&Thonn.)Vatke. SM 085
Vangueria infausta Burch.subsp Mukuura S R Anthelmintic 1 (4.3) 0.04
rotundata(Robyns) Verdc. SM 051
Rutaceae Citrus lemon L SM 027 Ndimu S F Pneumonia,prostate cancer 2 (8.7) 0.09
Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f.ex Mukiibia T L Anti-diarrhoea, pneumonia, teeth cleansing 1 (4.3) 0.13
Benth SM 070
Fagaropsis angolensis (Engl)Dale Mukuria T B/R Anti-malarial, stomachache, headache 5 (21.7) 0.30
SM 031 mpungu
Zanthoxylum chalybeum Mugucwa T L/B Anthelmintic/Antimalarial 3 (13.0) 0.17
Engl. SM 036 R Toothache
Simaroubaceae Harrisona abyssinica Oliv. Mutagata S L/R Anti-malarial,helmithosis, 2 (8.7) 0.13
SM 038 B amoebiosis
Solanaceae Withania somnifera (L) Dunal. SM 078 Mugumbau S L/R Allergic conditions,malaria 1 (4.3) 0.09
Verbenaceae Clerodenrum eriophyllum Gurke. Muringa iriia S R/L Swollen testicles,otitis,earache anthelmintic, Amoebiasis, 2 (8.7) 0.3
SM 037 stomachache, snake bites
Lantana trypylla L. SM 022 Mathiriti S L/R Pneumonia, constipation Stomachache 2 (8.7) 0.09

Habit S: shrub, T: tree, H: herb, L: liana.

Part R: roots, SB: Stem bark, B: bark, SD: Seeds, LV.: Leaves, WP: Whole plant, FS: ower sap, BL: Bulb, P: pods, F: fruits.
N (%): represents the number of participants mentioning the use of the plant species as medicinal and biopesticide and as their percentage of the total participants.
UVs: species use value.

Table 2 the plants used as biopesticides (Plectranthus barbatus and

The informants consensus factor (FIC) for plant usage in the management of Tephrosia vogelii ) were also the most frequently used among all
various pest and disease categories in Meru Central district, Kenya. the plants and had also a high plant use value as shown in Table 1.
This implies that these plants may have the potential of being
Pests and disease Number of Number of use Informants
category Taxa reports Consensus factor
developed as biopesticides and more studies on their activity is
needed. However, their increased frequency of use may lead to
(Nt) (Nur) (FIC) their being endangered and therefore the need to evaluate their
conservation status. The majority of the disease categories had a
Reproductive disorders 6 7 0.16
very low or no consensus factor at all though the number of plant
Helminthosis 15 16 0.07
Malaria 18 42 0.58 species used as in the case of gastrointestinal (28) and respiratory
Gastrointestinal 28 31 0.10 (25) disorders and helminthosis (16) were many.
disorders The common methods of drug preparation was boiling the
Respiratory disorders 25 27 0.07
fresh plant material in water or grinding the dried material and
Pest management 5 29 0.89
Ear problems 2 2 0.00
then soaking it in water. The preparation methods were similar to
Eye infections 3 4 0.33 those previously reported in other ethnobotanical studies
Wounds and control 7 8 0.14 (Nanyingi et al., 2008; Muthee et al., 2011; Wambugu et al.,
bleeding on cuts 2011). Generally the dosage of medicinal plants administered to
Teeth problems 8 9 0.13
children was less than adults. Adult human beings were given one
General body sickness 16 25 0.38
Skin conditions 2 2 0.00 glass (about 200 ml) for most of the plant extracts. The quantity of
Snake bite and poison 2 2 0.00 plant parts used was measured by number of leaves, seeds and
antidote fruits and the length of the root or at times handful of the plant
Cancer 2 3 0.50
parts. The dosage depended on age and the physical appearance
of the patient, social cultural explanation of the illness, diagnosis
and the experience of the herbalist. The most common route of
Ocimum gratissimum (0.35). These plants are in great demand by drug administration was the oral route. There was no standardi-
the herbalists and are also being used for many ailments and zation of dosages and this call for further research on methods of
therefore a possibility of becoming scarce. There is therefore a preparations, efcacy, safety, dosages on the plant products.
further need to assess their availability and institute conservation The six plants that were reported by the respondents to be
methods. used as biopesticides were Plectranthus barbatus (47.8%), Tephro-
The pests and diseases managed by the traditional healers sia vogelii (39.1%), Ocimum gratissimum (34.7%), Vernonia lasiopus
were broadly categorized into 14 categories and their consensus O.Hoff(8.7%), Cascabela thevetia L. (4.3%) and Oncoba routledgei
factor calculated as shown in Table 2. Sprague(4.3%). These plants used as biopesticides were only 8.6%
There was a high consensus factor for pest management at of the total plants mentioned as being used as biopesticides and
0.89 followed by malaria and cancer at 0.58 and 0.5, respectively. other medicinal uses. Among these plants used as biopesticides
This implied that the herbalist had a high rate of consensus on the four (66.7%) have also other medicinal uses. Plectranthus barbatus
usage of the plant species to manage the three conditions. Two of was being used to manage pneumonia, Tephrosia vogelli to
552 D.W. Gakuya et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 547553
Table 3
Plants used as biopesticides in Meru Central district Kenya.
Species/Family Part used Active principles
Cascabela thevetia(L.) Flower/ Thevetin A and B, Peruvoside,
Lippold. leaves neriifolin thevetoxin, ruvoside
(Apocynaceae) Fruits
Vernonia lasiopus Leaves Epivernodalol Lasiopulide
O.Hoffm.
Oncoba routledgei Flowers Not documented
Sprague
(Flacourtiaceae)
Ocimum suave Willd. Leaves Eugenol, cis-beta-ocimene
(Lamiaceae)
Plectranthus barbatus Leaves Diterpenoids, rosmaniric acid,
Andr.(Lamiaceae) avonoid glucuronides Forskolin
Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. Whole Rotenone, deguelin, tephrosin,
(Papilionaceae) plant 6a,12a-dehydrodegguelin
manage constipation, Vernonia lasiopus as cure for decreased
libido and stomach-ache while Ocimum gratissimum was being
used as antimalarial, management of stomach-ache and pneumo-
nia. This implies that some of these plants with multiple uses are
likely to become scarce unless proper conservation methods are
put into place. Plectranthus barbatus was the most commonly used
by traditional healers as biopesticides while Cascabela thevetia
and Oncoba routledgei were the least used.
Some of these plants used in Meru Central district as biopes-
ticides have also been reported elsewhere to be used for the same
purpose except Oncoba routledgei which is mentioned for the rst
time as a biopesticide as shown in Table 3. Plectranthus barbatus
has been reported to have contact toxicity against insects and
mites (Kubo et al., 1984; Raskari et al., 2005).
Tephrosia vogelii has been reported to reduce insect damage to
stored grains by being toxic to them and also as a repellent
(Pandey et al., 1986; Sharma et al., 1992; Smith and Baudoin,
2000; Ogendo et al., 2004; Koona and Dorn, 2005). In has also
been used as a rat poison (Aliu, 1996; Nwude, 1997) and against
ticks, lice, eas and mange mites (Mwambane, 2000). The essen-
tial oils from Ocimum gratissimum. Leaves act as insecticides
against mosquitoes, ies and other insects that attack stored
grain (Chogo and Crank, 1981; Obeng-ofori and Rechmuth, 1997;
Ojianwuna et al., 2011).
Vernonia lasiopus was reported to be used in the Teso farming
system to protect crops and draught animals against insects both
in the garden, stores and ectoparasites (Matovu and Olila, 2010)
and reduced the abundance of the bean beetle Ootheca bennigseni
for at least 7 days (Paul et al., 2007).
Cascabela thevetia based oil paint has been reported to have
signicant repellent action against subterranean termite and
would therefore be useful in protecting wood from termite attack
(Kareru et al., 2010). The extract from the kernels of Cascabela
thevetia fruit has also been reported to be toxic to terrestrial slugs
and snails and this may be a useful in their control (Panigrahi and
Raut, 1994).
4. Conclusion
There is rich biodiversity of medicinal plants in Meru Central
district where at least 70 species of both medicinal and biopes-
ticides plants are utilized. Traditional medicinal knowledge in
Meru is in the custody of old people and the younger generation is
less involved in the herbal practice. There is a need to educate and
sensitize the younger generation on the potential and importance
of conserving the local biodiversity, indigenous knowledge and
practices. Some of the plants are used for both biopesticidal and
References
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N/A/
Chogo and Crank (1981), Obeng-ofori and Rechmuth (1997), Ojianwuna and Umoru (2010),
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for these documented plants in this area. The areas that need to
be emphasized include; conservation, harvesting, marketing and
value addition and utilization. The medicinal and biopesticidal
plants documented in this study (especially those with high
frequency of use) call for further pharmacological studies to
validate their use as there is the potential of developing novel
drugs for disease and pest control.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Government of Kenya through
the Department of Veterinary services for funding these studies
and the staff of the Department of Land resource management
and Agricultural Technology (LARMAT) and National museums of
Kenya for their support in botanical identication of the plants.
A lot of thanks also go to the traditional herbalists who partici-
pated in these studies and also the area chief Mrs. Jennifer
Marangu and the two assistant chiefs Fabian Muriithi and
Geoffrey Kigunda for their great assistance during the workshops.
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