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64.

Wastewater treatment options

This Technical Brief reviews some of the options for wastewater treatment in low- and
middle-income communities. It should be used as a guide to the main options available.
Wastewater management is a costly business. Once wastewaters (taken here to mean any
combination of domestic sewage and industrial effluents) are produced and collected in
sewerage systems, then treatment becomes a necessity. It is important to note that reducing
the volume of wastewater produced and/or avoiding the need for sewerage and treatment
in the first instance has many advantages; the decision to move away from properly
implemented on-site sanitation should not be taken lightly.

On-site versus systems. Usually, potable water is


supplied to the house and is used for NOTE
off-site sanitation? flushing toilets, and as much as 40 per
Not all bacteria are harmful!
On-site sanitation is often (and should cent of household water use may be
be) the first option when considering a used for this purpose. Some countries
Bacteria may be:
sanitation intervention. Such systems do use dual supply systems where non- Harmful,
have very distinct advantages, not least potable water (often sea water) is used Harmless (benign)
because they are individual systems, so for toilet flushing, but such a system Helpful or Useful
the disposal of faecal material is requires more infrastructure and has
dispersed over a wide area, and not obvious capital cost implications. Wastewater treatment tries to reduce
centralized as with a conventional Therefore, most sewer systems are the numbers of harmful bacteria
sewage treatment works. One of the heavy users of precious potable water
main disadvantages with centralized supplies, which should be a factor when Wastewater treatment
facilities is that when they go wrong, the considering their implementation, encourages useful bacteria to treat
resulting problems can be very acute. especially in water-poor areas. wastewater

From a health point of view, there is not


much difference between any of the Re-use, recovery which can remove pathogenic material,
different options for sanitation (either on- Traditionally, sewage has been seen as notably waste-stabilization ponds.
or off-site) — so long as they are all a problem requiring treatment and
functioning properly. It is largely a disposal. Most conventional sewage Increasingly, sewage is being seen
question of convenience; an off-site treatment options are based on as a resource. The water and nutrient
system where wastes are flushed off the approaches to Northern countries’ content, in particular, can be very useful
owner’s property is more convenient as it problems, which has usually meant a for agricultural purposes (for example,
gets rid of the problem from the owner’s reduction in biodegradable organic through irrigation) if the sewage is
property. Off-site sanitation is usually material and suspended solids, plus treated to a suitable standard. There are
much more expensive than on-site. perhaps some nutrients (nitrogen and treatment options which seek to use this
phosphorous). Treatment has involved resource potential. Traditional sewage
There are instances, however, where the ‘removal’ of these pollutants, but treatment practices in South-east Asia,
off-site sanitation is deemed necessary removal is usually conversion to another for example, seek to use wastes
— because of unsuitable ground or product, usually sludge. The disposal of generated through pond systems which
housing conditions for on-site systems, sewage sludge is a major consideration are used to cultivate fish and generate
or because of a community’s in many locations, and it is often seen feed for animals. Some community-
commitment to an off-site system. There as an offensive product which is either based approaches (in Latin America in
is a certain amount of prestige in having dumped or burned. particular) seek to separate ‘grey’
an off-site connection; peer pressure is wastewater (non-faecally contaminated
often a significant motivating force. Once The priorities in developing countries wastewater) from ‘black’ (faecally
the decision has been made to are often different from those in contaminated) water so that they can
implement an off-site system, sewers developed countries. Often the main both be recycled and re-used as
become a necessity. Water has a large issue is how to control pathogenic appropriate. In principle, the grey water
dispersion, dilution and carriage material, and any form of sanitation (on can be re-used as irrigation water, and
capacity, and is, therefore, used as the or off-site) should have this as its main the black water/waste treated and re-
carriage medium in most sewer objective. There are treatment options used as fertilizer.

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Wastewater treatment options
used to break down the waste products
take in oxygen to perform their function.
Sewage treatment options may be classified into groups of processes This results in the high energy
according to the function they perform and their complexity: requirement (oxygen has to be supplied)
and a large volume of waste bacteria
Preliminary: this includes simple processes such as screening (usually by (‘sludge’) is produced. This makes the
bar screens) and grit removal. (through constant velocity processes complicated to control, and
channels) to remove the gross solid pollution. costly.

Primary: usually plain sedimentation; simple settlement of the solid The bacteria in ‘anaerobic’ processes do
material in sewage can reduce the polluting load by not use oxygen. Excluding oxygen is
significant amounts. easy, and the energy requirements and
sludge production is much less than for
Secondary: for further treatment and removal of common pollutants, aerobic processes — making the
usually by a biological process. processes cheaper and simpler. Also,
the temperature in which the bacteria like
Tertiary: usually for removal of specific pollutants e.g. nitrogen or to work is easy to maintain in hot
phosphorous, or specific industrial pollutants. climates.

However, the main disadvantages of


Traditionally, sewage treatment has potential resources (principally, irrigation anaerobic processes are that they are
taken place through the implementation water and nutrients). much slower than aerobic processes
of large centralized schemes. Many of and are only good at removing the
these do not work — and when they do Preliminary and primary treatment are organic waste (the ‘simple’ waste, the
not work, the resultant pollution and common to most sewage-treatment sugary material) and not any other sort
health problems are often severe. The works, and are effective in removing of pollution — such as nutrients, or
reason for failure is frequently that the much of the pollution. There are many pathogens. Anaerobic processes
options chosen in the first place, are not different types of secondary process. generally like ‘steady’ effluents — they
sustainable. Often, sewage treatment is The most common are described in the are not good with coping with variations
a low priority when compared to water table opposite, with brief comments on in flow or composition. For example,
supply, and municipal councils simply do their suitability for low- and middle-income anaerobic processes cannot cope with
not have the resources to keep the countries.Tertiary treatment processes are shock loads of heavy metals (from
facilities operational. In such generally specialized processes which are industrial processes, for example).
circumstances, there is a growing body beyond the need of most communities.
of opinion that advocates moves towards The requirement in most low-income
decentralized, local systems, which, it is countries is for a low-cost, low-
Options for low- and middle- maintenance sewage treatment system.
argued, could be supported by
income communities Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs)
community-based organizations. Such
Most wastewater treatment processes provide the best option in most cases —
approaches have been implemented in
have been developed in temperate, good levels of treatment at low capital
parts of South America.
Northern climates. Applying them in most and particularly low O&M cost. In
developing countries will have three main addition, it is one of the few processes
disadvantages: which provides good treatment of
Wastewater treatment pathogenic material. This has significant
■ high energy requirements; application potential for re-use of the
options
■ high operation and maintenance treated effluent in irrigation. The major
Very few sewage-treatment facilities in disadvantage is that significant areas of
requirements, including production of
most developing countries work. This is land are needed for treatment. WSPs are
large volumes of sludge (solid waste
often because most technologies for used in many locations worldwide,
material);
sewage treatment are big, centralized including Africa and Asia.
schemes which have been developed in ■ they are geared towards
the North where adequate financial, environmental protection rather than
material and human resources are human health protection — for
available. Transferring these example, most conventional Conclusion
technologies to tropical low- and middle- wastewater treatment works do not Any wastewater treatment plant needs
income communities has many potential significantly reduce the content of significant investment and O&M and
difficulties. However, there are some pathogenic material in the control, and therefore any decision to
sewage-treatment options which are wastewater. implement such a facility should be
more appropriate to developing country carefully considered. WSPs provide
scenarios. Such systems should Aerobic versus anaerobic the best option for a low-cost, low-
generally be low-cost, have low operation treatment maintenance system which is most
and maintenance requirements, and, Most conventional wastewater treatment effective in removing the pollutants
should maximize the utilization of the processes are ‘aerobic’ — the bacteria of major concern.

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Wastewater treatment options

Common options for secondary sewage treatment


(* indicates processes more suitable for developing countries)

Treatment process
process Description Key features Key features

Activated sludge Oxygen is mechanically Sophisticated process with many mechanical and electrical
process (ASP) supplied to bacteria parts, which also needs careful operator control. Produces
which feed on organic large quantities of sludge for disposal, but provides high
material and provide degree of treatment (when working well).
treatment.

Aerated lagoons Like WSPs but with Not very common; oxygen requirement mostly from aeration
mechanical aeration and hence more complicated and higher O&M costs.

*Land treatment Sewage is supplied Soil matrix has quite a high capacity for treatment of normal
(soil aquifer treatment – SAT) in controlled conditions domestic sewage, as long as capacity is not exceeded.
to the soil Some pollutants, such as phosphorus, are not easily removed.

Oxidation ditch Oval-shaped channel Requires more power than WSP but less land, and is easier to
with aeration provided control than processes such as ASP (see below).

*Reed (or constructed wet Sewage flows through an Treatment is by action of soil matrix and, particularly, the soil/root
lands) beds area of reeds interface of the plants. Requires significant land area, but no
oxygenation requirement.

Rotating biological Series of thin vertical Plates are exposed to air and then the sewage by rotating with
contractor (or biodisk) plates which provide surface about 30 per cent immersion in sewage. Treatment is by conventional
area for bacteria to grow aerobic process. Used in small-scale applications in Europe.

Trickling (or 'percolating') Sewage passes down An aerobic process in which bacteria take oxygen from
filters through a loose bed of the atmosphere (no external mechanical aeration).
stones, and the bacteria on Has moving parts, which often break down in developing
the surface of the stones country locations.
treats the sewage

*Upflow anaerobic Anaerobic process using Suited to hot climates. Produces little sludge, no oxygen
sludge blanket (UASB) blanket of bacteria to requirement or power requirement, but produces a
absorb polluting load poorer quality effluent than processes such as ASP.
(NOTE: other anaerobic processes exist, but UASB is the
most common at present).

Waste-stabilization Large surface - area ponds Treatment is essentially by action of sunlight, encouraging algal
ponds (WSP) ('lagoons' growth which provides the oxygen requirement for bacteria to
or 'oxidation ponds') oxidize the organic waste. Requires significant land area, but one of
the few processes which is effective at treating pathogenic material.
Natural process with no power/oxygen requirement. Often used to
provide water of sufficient quality for irrigation, and very suited
to hot, sunny climates.

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Wastewater treatment options

Raw sewage

Large solids Removal of bulky solids


SCREENING for disposal (paper, rags, plastic, etc).
PRELIMINARY
Dense solids Removal of dense solids
GRIT REMOVAL
for disposal

Sludge Removal of some light


PRIMARY PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION
organic matter

Oxidation of much of the


BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
remaining organic matter
SECONDARY
Sludge Removal of excess organic
SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION
matter following biological oxidation

TERTIARY TREATMENT Optional additional treatment


TERTIARY (POSSIBLY) to improve effluent quality

Liquid effluent To sludge


to discharge treatment

Figure 1. Typical stages in the conventional treatment of sewage

Further reading
Haandel, Adrianus C. van, and Lettinga, Gatze, Anaerobic Sewage Treatment: A practical guide for regions with a hot climate,
John Wiley, Chichester, 1994.
Mara D.D. et al., Waste Stabilization Ponds: A design manual for eastern Africa, Lagoon Technology International, Leeds, 1992.
Metcalf and Eddy Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, disposal and re-use, 3rd edition revised by George Tchobanoglous
and Franklin L. Burton, McGraw Hill Inc. International, 1991.
WPCF, Natural Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Manual of practice, Water Pollution Control Federation, Alexandria VA, 1990.

Prepared by Jeremy Parr, Michael Smith and Rod Shaw

WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AT LONDON AND LOUGHBOROUGH (WELL) is a resource centre funded
by the United Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID) to promote environmental health and well-
being in developing and transitional countries. It is managed by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
(LSHTM) and the Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University.
Phone: +44 1509 222885 Fax: +44 1509 211079 E-mail: WEDC@lboro.ac.uk http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/

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