CHAPTER 2

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF COMMON

FLUID MACHINES
Numerous types of fluid machines are used in the chemical process industries.
Their basic objective is to transfer mechanical energy to a flow medium. This
chapter discuses the classification, characteristic features, operating principles
and applications of the common types of fluid machines used in the chemical
and process industries.

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID MACHINES

Fluid machines are mostly classified based on the flow medium they handle and the
principle of energy transfer. In the first case they are classified into pumps and gas
movers. In the second case they are classified into dynamic and positive displacement
machines. In each category the classification goes some steps further as discussed below.

Pumps are fluid machines designed to transfer energy to liquids while fans, blowers and
compressors are designed to transfer energy to gases; the latter three are commonly
known as gas movers. The classification of the gas movers into fans, blowers and
compressors is mainly based on the discharge to suction pressure ratio: Pr =P D/PS.
Table2.1 summarizes this classification.

In calculations involving pumps and fans the density of the fluid does not change
appreciably and incompressible flow theory can be assumed in the analysis. In analyzing
blowers and compressors, however, there will be significant change in density between
the suction and discharge ends of the machine therefore compressible flow theory should
be employed. As the discharge to suction pressure ratio increases the temperature rises
beyond the safety limit and artificial cooling (commonly with cooling water or air) is

17
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 18

used and with still further increase in PD/PS it becomes more advantageous to use
multiple stage compression with separate cooling between stages.

Table 2.1 Characteristics of Fluid Machines

Fluid Machine Type of Fluid Pr=PD/PS Artificial Cooling
Pumps Liquid - No
Fans Gas <1.15 No
Blowers Gas 1.15<Pr<3 No
Compressors Gas >3 Yes

The other classification is based on whether the energy is transferred mainly in the form
of pressure energy or velocity energy. While by mechanical energy of a flow medium we
mean the sum of the velocity energy, pressure energy and geodetic (potential) energy of
the flow medium it is usually required to limit the velocity energy due to the energy loss
accompanied with fluid friction, which increases significantly with the velocity of the
flow medium. On the other hand too small flow velocity inside fluid machines results in
bigger sizes or limited capacity. Hence fluid machines, which transfer energy mainly in
the form of velocity energy, are generally less efficient but more compact.

Based on this principle of energy transfer, fluid machines are classified into dynamic and
positive displacement. In dynamic fluid machines energy is added to the flow medium
mainly by increasing its velocity in excess of what is required at the discharge end and
converting this excess velocity energy into pressure energy at the discharge portion of the
machine. Centrifugal and axial flow machines are the most commonly used dynamic
fluid machines in process industries.

In positive displacement machines energy is added to the flow medium by a direct

application of force on one or more movable boundaries of the flow medium. This
application of force directly increases the pressure energy and no conversion from
velocity to pressure energy is required. There are reciprocating and rotary types of
positive displacement machines. In the reciprocating machines the part of the machine
that transfers the energy moves fro and back horizontally (up and down if the machine is
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 19

arranged vertically). Piston, plunger, and diaphragm are the most common reciprocating
pumps and compressors in process industries. In rotary positive displacement machines
the part that directly transfers the energy to the flow medium is one or more rotating
elements called rotors. Gear pumps, screw pumps and compressors, lobe pumps and
compressors, vane pumps and compressors are some of the most common rotary positive
displacement machines used in chemical and process industries. Figure 2.1 describes the
classification discussed above.

Fluid Machines

Dynamic Positive Displacement

Turbomachines Special Effect Reciprocating Rotary

-Centrifugal -Jet pumps -Piston -Screw

-Axial flow -Gas lift -Plunger -lobe
-Mixed flow -Diaphragm -vane
- Gear*
*gear pump

Figure 2.1 Classification of fluid machines

2.2 CHARECTERISTICS FEATURES AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES

In the section below the characteristic features, operation principles, applications and
ranges of the most common fluid machines are discussed. Even though the basic features
of most pumps, fans compressors and blowers are the same, because of the differences in
construction and in attaining compression and pumping, machines involving compression
are discussed separately from those that involve pumping.

Pumps: Both dynamic and positive displacement pumps are used in process industries.
Among these centrifugal and axial flow pumps are the most commonly used ones. Axial
flow pumps are used when the flow rate required is high and the head is low. Centrifugal
pumps are used in high head- low flow rate applications. Although not as common, jet
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 20

pumps are also used. Positive displacement pumps are used for low flow rate high head
applications and when the flow rate is required to remain constant irrespective of
variation in head. Rotary positive displacement pumps are also effective in handling
viscous liquids. They are also preferred in high headlow flow rate applications. Both
reciprocating and rotary pumps are in use.

Fans: Fans are limited to centrifugal and axial flow. In processes requiring low to
medium flow rate and high-pressure centrifugal fans are used. In high flow rate-low
pressure applications axial flow fans are used.

Blowers and compressors: Both dynamic and positive displacement blowers and
compressors are common in industrial applications. From the dynamic, centrifugal and
axial flow compressors are the most commonly used. Their basic features and operation
principles are similar to centrifugal and axial flow pumps. Both rotary and reciprocating
positive displacement compressors are used in process industries.

2.2.1 Dynamic Fluid Machines

Turbomachines
Turbomachines include centrifugal, axial and mixed flow machines. Turbo pumps, fans
and compressors are very widely used fluid machines in almost all types of industries.

Drive(Motor )

Discharge

Pump

Suction
Base plate

Figure 2.2 Centrifugal pump

Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 21

They are specially preferred because of their long maintenance free operation.
Centrifugal machines consist of an impeller/impellers mounted on a shaft that is driven
by a motor, diesel engine, gas or steam turbine. The impeller is covered by a casing also
called housing. The essential components of the impeller are its blades (See Figure 2.4 to
2.6). The number and design of the blades directly affects the performance characteristics
of the machine. Figure 2.2 shows a centrifugal pump with a motor drive. Figure 2.3
shows an axial flow pump without the motor.
Pump
discharge

Shaft Pump
suction

Impeller

Figure 2.3 Axial flow pump without the drive

Turbomachines are commonly divided into radial flow, mixed flow and axial flow
machines. The classification is based on the direction of flow of the fluid inside the
machine. Figure 2.4 depicts radial, mixed and axial flow impellers.

Mixed Flow Impeller Axial Flow Impeller

Radial Flow Impeller
Figure 2.4 Types of impellers

The different parts of a centrifugal impeller are indicated in Figure 2.5. The outer covers
of the impeller are called shrouds. The purpose of the shroud is to guide the fluid through
the impeller and it is not directly related to the energy transfer, hence it is not an essential
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 22

part. Axial flow impellers do not have shrouds while radial and mixed flow impellers
may or may not have shrouds.

Front shroud

Hub

Blade

Back shroud
Impeller Eye

Figure 2.5 Components of a centrifugal impeller

An impeller that has both front and back shroud is called closed impeller and one that has
only the back shroud is called semi-open impeller. An impeller that does not have both
shrouds is called open impeller. Figure 2.6 shows a semi-open impeller.

Back shroud
Blades

Figure 2.6 Semi open impeller

In centrifugal (radial flow) machines (Figure 2.7) the flow medium from the suction
nozzle enters the impeller through the impeller eye and is distributed radially outwards
between blade channels. While passing through the blade channels the blades transfer
energy from the shaft to the flow medium by increasing its torque. When the fluid leaves
the impeller its velocity increases significantly. In the casing this excess velocity energy
is gradually converted to pressure energy.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 23

In axial flow machines the flow medium flows axially, parallel to the centerline of the
Figure 2.7 Section of a centrifugal pump
shaft. While passing through the impeller the blades increase the velocity by imparting a
rotational component to it, which later may be converted to pressure energy using
stationary or moving vanes.

The main features of centrifugal fans and compressors are the same as centrifugal pumps.
Their working principles are also the same; their theoretical analysis is discussed in
chapter 4. Below you find some images of centrifugal and axial flow fans and
compressors.

Figure 2.8a Multistage Figure 2.8b Multistage Axial

Centrifugal Compressor Compressor

Figure 2.9a Centrifugal Fan Figure 2.9b Axial flow fan

Jet Pumps
Jet pumps are dynamic pumps that use the momentum of one fluid (motive fluid) to move
another. Jet pumps do not have any moving part. They consist of two main parts, the
nozzle and diffuser. Figure 2.10 shows a general-purpose jet-pump and its major parts.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 24

Jet pumps work by the Bernoulli principle. When the motive fluid passes through the
nozzle, the static pressure energy is converted to velocity energy with the maximum
velocity being around the discharge end of the nozzle. At this point the static pressure is
lower than any part in the pumping system. Hence, liquid is drawn into the pump and gets
mixed with the motive liquid. In the first part of the diffuser, the two liquids are mixed
and the velocity is in excess of that is required in the pipe system at the end of the pump
the area of the diffuser increases and the velocity energy is converted back to pressure
energy.

Diffuser
Motive Discharge
fluid

Throat
Nozzle
Suction
Figure 2.10 A general-purpose jet pump

Ejectors and injectors are the two types of jet pumps common in chemical industries.
The ejector, which is also known as siphon or eductor, is used for low-pressure
applications. The discharge static pressure is lower than the static pressure of the motive
fluid. Injector is a type of jet pump, which uses a condensable gas to entrain a liquid and
discharge against a pressure higher than either motive or suction pressure. It is used for
boiler feed with steam as the motive fluid.

Jet pumps are sometimes used in combination with centrifugal pumps. In such cases the
centrifugal pump is the motive pump and is mainly used to circulate the motive fluid.
This jet pump- centrifugal pump combination is commercially known simply as a jet
pump. It is specially used for pumping water from wells.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 25

Discharge Discharge

Suction
Suction
(a) Motive fluid
(b) recirculation
Figure 2.11 Shallow-well (a) and Deep- well (b) jet pumps (Jet-centrifugal)
In shallow well jet pumps both the centrifugal pump and eductor (jet pump) are closely
attached and the circulation of the motive fluid takes place inside the casing of the
surface pump, hence there is only one inlet pipe that goes to the well, the suction-pipe.

Centrifugal
Pump

Eductor

Foot valve

Strainer
Figure 2.12 Jet pump-centrifugal pump used together (deep well)

In deep well applications the centrifugal pump is at the surface and the eductor is at
subsurface (Figure 2.12), hence wee see two pipes inside the well and at the end of the
surface pump. One of the pipes is to circulate the motive fluid while the other is for
moving the mix upwards. Jet pumps are less efficient than most mechanical pumps but
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 26

their simple construction, absence of moving parts, their light weight, compact design
and low cost makes them attractive for many applications.

2.2.2 Positive Displacement Machines

I. Reciprocating Pumps and Compressors

The most common reciprocating machines are piston, plunger and diaphragm machines.
The characteristic feature and operating principles of these reciprocating pumps and
compressors are discussed below.

A. Reciprocating Pumps
Piston Pumps
Figure 2.13 shows the schematic diagram of a piston pump. Piston pumps are
reciprocating positive displacement pumps that consist of a piston (5) moving fro and
back in a cylinder (1). Check valves are provided at the suction and discharge ports (3)
and (4).
7
1
4
2
3 5

Figure 2.13 Piston pump

At the start of the backward (towards right in Figure 2.13) motion of the piston the
pressure in the cylinder decreases and when it is sufficiently low the suction valve opens.
As the piston moves backwards liquid is drawn into the cylinder until it reaches the end
of the suction stroke at the extreme right. As the piston starts the forward motion
(towards left in Figure 2.13) the pressure inside the cylinder grows and the discharge
valve opens and the liquid starts to discharge. Discharge takes place until the liquid
drawn during the suction stroke is removed from the cylinder. There are single acting and
double acting piston pumps.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 27

Figure 2.14a Single acting piston pump Figure 2.14b ouble acting piston pump

In single acting pumps suction and discharge processes take place at different times and
only one face of the piston is used. In double acting piston pumps both faces of the piston
are used and both suction and discharge take place at the same time in the same cylinder
at different sides of the piston head. Figures 2.14a and 2.14b show a single acting and a
double acting piston pumps respectively.

The capacity of crank actuated piston pumps varies cyclically with time. This is because
of the variation of the speed of the piston head at different crank angles. This variation of
capacity is called pulsation. There are different ways of reducing the pulsation. One of
the common ways is using multiple cylinders in parallel, driven by the same crankshaft.
The details will be discussed in chapter 5. Piston pumps are typically used in high head-
low flow rate applications and where significant variations of capacity with system head
are not tolerable.

Plunger Pump
The moving element in plunger pumps is known a plunger. The main difference between
a plunger and a piston is that the plunger moves past a stationary packing, whereas a
piston carries its packing with it. For pumping liquids that contain solids plunger pumps
are more appropriate than piston pumps.

Plunger

Cylinder
Figure 2.15 Plunger pump
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 28

Diaphragm Pumps
The diaphragm pump consists of a flexible membrane, a pumping chamber, suction and
discharge check valves and a driving mechanism.
Air bleed valve Discharge

Relief valve
Plunger
Diaphragm

Pumping
Hydraulic fluid chamber

Relief valve
Suction
Figure 2.16 Diaphragm pump

The driving mechanism may be a mechanical system (eccentric mechanism), a hydraulic

system or a pneumatic system. Figure 2.16 shows a diaphragm pump driven by a
hydraulic system.

The hydraulic system is driven by piston-cylinder mechanism in which the piston moves
the hydraulic fluid and the hydraulic fluid moves the diaphragm. When the diaphragm
moves to the left a partial vacuum is created in the pumping chamber and the suction port
opens and liquid is drawn in to the pump. When the diaphragm is pushed to the right, the
pressure inside the pumping chamber grows and the discharge valve opens and the liquid
is pushed through the discharge port.

The driving mechanism of diaphragm pumps is completely isolated from the pumped
fluid by the diaphragm. For this reason, the diaphragm pump is applied where leakage or
contamination of the process fluid cannot be tolerated. The diaphragm in a mechanically
driven pump cannot be supported over its entire area. Stresses place a limit on the
pumping pressure. The fluid-driven type, which dose not have this drawback, is used for
higher pressure.

Diaphragms are fabricated from elastomers, plastics and metals. Fluid driven pumps with
metal diaphragms may be used up to 45,000 psi (3103 bar). With plastics such as Teflon,
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 29

operation is usually restricted to below 1,500 psi (103.4 bar) and 2800 F. Elastomer
materials are usually limited to 750 psi (51.7 bar) and 2120F.

B. Reciprocating Compressors
The most common types of reciprocating compressors are piston, plunger and diaphragm
compressors. The operating principles and major parts of plunger and piston compressors
are the same. Hence piston compressors and diaphragm compressors are discussed.

Piston Compressors
The basic components of a piston compressor are: piston, cylinder, suction and discharge
check valves (Figure 2.17). During the suction stroke, the piston moves down and the
pressure inside the cylinder decreases and when it reaches the suction pressure the
suction valve opens and gas starts to be drawn into the cylinder. At the end of the suction
stroke the piston changes it direction and starts to move up and the suction valve gets
closed.

Figure 2.17 Piston compressor

The volume of the gas inside the cylinder decreases and the pressure increases. When the
pressure inside the cylinder exceeds the spring force of the discharge valve, it opens and
the gas is forced out of the cylinder. The piston, however, is not allowed to hit the head of
the cylinder and some amount of gas is always left inside the cylinder. This leftover gas
expands during the suction it reduces the capacity of the compressor hence its effect
should be considered during analysis. When higher pressures are required multiple
compressors are arranged in series with cooling of the gas in between.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 30

Piston compressors are available in single acting and double acting configurations. In
sing acting compressor compression takes place only on one side of the piston head while
in double acting compression takes place on both sides; suction on one side while
compressing at the other side at the same time. Both single-acting and double acting
compressors are available in lubricated or non-lubricated designs. Non-lubricated
cylinder designs utilize rider and wear rings on the pistons. Non- lubricated cylinder
designs are used in applications that cannot tolerate compressor lubricants in the process
or product.

Diaphragm Compressor
A diaphragm compressor consists of a set of diaphragms, a piston, a hydraulic cylinder
and a hydraulic oil system. The structure of diaphragm compressors is similar to
diaphragm pumps. The piston moves a volume of hydraulic oil and the oil bends a set of
diaphragms up and down, and the diaphragm compresses the gas. A diaphragm
compressor is used when little or no leakage is tolerable. In such cases ordinary piston
compressor cannot be used due to leakage or gas contamination. Some of the applications
are:

Table 2.2 Application of Diaphragm Compressor

Type of gas Examples

Toxic Boron triflouride
Corrosive Fluorine
Flammable Hydrogen
Pyrophoric Silane
Oxidizer Chlorine

II. Rotary Pumps and compressors

Rotary pumps and compressors are positive displacement fluid machines in which energy
is transferred from the rotating element (rotor) of the pump to the fluid by direct
application of force on the boundary of the fluid. This boundary is defined by the rotating
and stationary components of the pump. The inlet and outlet ports of rotary fluid
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 31

machines are separated by the action and position of the pumping elements and the close
running clearance of the fluid machine. Hence unlike reciprocating machines rotary fluid
machines do not need check valves. The following most common rotary pumps used in
process industries are gear pumps (External Gear and Internal Gear Pumps), lobe
pumps, vane pumps and screw pumps. The most common rotary compressors in process
industries are: sliding vane compressors, screw compressors, lobe compressors. The
characteristics feature, operation principle, application and range of operation of the
common rotary machines are discussed in the following section.

A. Rotary Pumps
External Gear Pumps
External gear pumps work by the action of two rotating gears, which are cut externally
that mesh and unmesh to cause the pumping action. In the most common design only one
of the gears is directly driven by motor, the other one is idler gear, it is driven by the
former gear. For severe services, however, both pumping gears are driven by timing
gears. The two gears are supported on both sides by bearings. Figure 2.18 shows typical
external gear pump with side cover removed.
External spur
gears

Figure 2.18 External gear pump with side cover removed (spur gear)

The gears of external gear pumps may be of type spur, helical or herringbone (double
helical) gears. For small duty spur gears are invariably used because it is difficult to cut
small helical and herringbone gears. Figure 2.19.shows a herringbone gear pump. Helical
and herringbone gear pumps deliver uniform flow with insignificant pulsation as
compared to spur gear pumps.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 32

Herringbone gear

Figure 2.19 A herringbone gear pump

Figure 2.20 shows the schematic diagram of a gear pump. When the gears unmesh at the
suction side of the pump a partial vacuum is created and the liquid is drawn into the
pump. This liquid is then trapped between the moving gear teeth and the fixed casing and
is carried along to the discharge side of the pump. While rotating the gear teeth transfers
energy to the fluid by directly applying force on the surface of the entrapped liquid. The
meshing of the gear teeth and small clearance between the teeth and the casing prevents
return of liquid from discharge to the suction side.

The suction and discharge ends of the pump are determined by the direction of gear
rotation. A basic external gear pump can discharge liquid either way, depending on the
direction of rotation. However, in most gear pumps the direction of rotation is fixed and
is clearly marked on the pump.

Figure 2.20 External gear pump

External gear pumps can be designed with close tolerance, which makes them convenient
for precise flow control. Due to this, external gear pumps are common in processes that
require precise flow rates like in polymer processing and handling of expensive liquids.
External gear pumps are lightweight, require small space and can handle liquids that
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 33

contain gasses and vapors. The liquid should be relatively clean. They depend on the
liquid pumped to lubricate internal moving parts and can be damaged if run dry.

Spur gear pumps have low capacity, commonly less than 200 gpm (45.4 m3/hr). Helical
and herringbone gear pumps however can handle up to 5000 gpm(1135.6 m3/hr). Rotor
speeds up to 1800 rpm can be used. External gear pumps can work against a pressure of
5000 psig (344.7 bar).

Internal Gear Pumps

In internal gear pumps the driving gear has internally cut gear teeth that mesh and umesh
with the teeth of an externally cut idler gear to cause a pumping action. The idler gear is
set off-center from the driving gear (see Figure 2.21) and the resulting space on the side
opposite the meshing point is filled with a stationary crescent-shaped piece attached to
the casing.

Figure 2.21 Internal gear pump

Unlike external gear pumps the gears of an internal gear pump rotate in the same
direction. This results in a lower relative velocity between the two gears, which reduces
friction, wear and turbulence. It also permits pumping of liquid that are more shear
sensitive.

The unmeshing of the internal teeth of the rotor and the external teeth of the idler creates
a partial vacuum in the suction side. This causes liquid to flow into the pump. The liquid
is then carried to the discharge side of the pump between the teeth of both the rotor and
idler, and the fixed casing. The crescent part of the fixed casing divides the liquid flow
between the rotor and idler gear. Internal gear pumps are available with capacities up to
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 34

1,100 gpm (249.8 m3/hr). In general, discharge pressures are limited to 100 psig (6.89
bar).

Lobe Pumps
Lobe pumps consist of a pair of rotors with two to four lobes that operate similar to
external gear pumps. Unlike gear pumps the two rotors are driven independently using
timing gears and usually a small clearance is maintained between the lobes. The flow is
more pulsating than gear pumps and the pulsation decreases as the number of lobes
increases. These pumps are simple for cleaning and are preferable where sanitary is a
priority like in food, beverage, pulp and paper and pharmaceutical industries. They can
handle solids, slurries, and pastes.

Discharge

Two lobe rotors

Suction

Figure 2.22 Lobe pump

Lobe pumps tend to wear less than external gear pumps. In some pumps, the lobe ends
are fitted with replaceable packing strips to protect the lobes from wear. Since the rotors
movement is controlled by timing gears and not one-driving-the-other, the alignment is
not as critical as for external and internal gear pumps.

Suction Discharge

Three lobe rotor

Figure 2.23 Schematic drawing of a lobe pump

Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 35

Lobe pumps are readily available in capacities up to 600 gpm (136.3 m3/hr). However,
lobe pumps up to 2000 gpm(454.2 m3/hr) capacities have been made. The commonly
available pumps operate against discharge pressure up to 400 psig (27.6 bar).

Vane Pump
Vane pumps are available in a number of vane configurations including sliding vane,
flexible vane, swinging vane, rolling vane and external vane. Each type of configuration
offers unique advantages. For example external vane can handle large solids. Flexible
vane pumps, on the other hand can only handle small solids but create good vacuum.
Despite the different configurations, most vane pumps operate under the same basic
principle. A slotted rotor is eccentrically supported in a cycloidal cam. Vanes are fitted
inside the slots of the rotor. The rotor is sealed into the cam by side plates. As the rotor
revolves, centrifugal force, hydraulic pressure, and/or pushrods push the vanes to the
walls of the fixed casing to form a seal.

Figure 2.24 Sliding vane pump

The eccentricity of the revolving rotor produces a partial vacuum at the suction side of
the pump, causing an inflow of liquid. The fluid is trapped in the pockets created by the
vanes, rotor, and cam and side plates. As the rotor rotates around, the vanes sweep the
fluid to the opposite side of the crescent where it is squeezed through the discharge end.
The tight seal among the vanes, rotor, cam and side plates is the key to the good suction
characteristics common to the vane pumping principle.

Vane pumps have negligible pulsation and give constant flow rate independent of the
discharge pressure. Their vanes are self-compensating for wear, and the original capacity
is not affected until the vanes are critically worn out. Replaceable vane liners are
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 36

available. They are light in weight and can handle liquids containing vapors and gasses.
Vane pumps are not suitable for high viscosity liquids and liquids containing abrasive
solids and foreign matter in liquid can damage the pump.

Vane pumps are available in capacities up to 2000 gpm (454.2 m3/hr). They can operate
at temperatures up to 450 F and against discharge pressure up to 150 psig (10.3 bar).
Such pumps can also be made to operate up to 2000 psig (137.9 bar). The commonly
available pumps handle liquids with viscosity up to 500,000 SSU. Rotor speeds up to 960
rpm are used.

Screw Pumps
The rotating element in screw pumps is a helical screw that revolves in a fixed casing.
When the screw rotates cavities are formed at the suction and move towards the discharge
side of the pump.

Figure 2.25 Single-rotor screw pump

The formation of this cavity produces partial vacuum that causes liquid to flow into the
pump and moves along the progressing cavity. At the discharge side, the shape of the
fixed casing causes the cavity to close. This generates an increase in pressure, forcing the
liquid into the outlet line. The discharge pressure required determines the length and pitch
of the helical screw rotor.

In twin screws (Figure 2.26) two rotors with involute helical surfaces are used in place of
a single helicalscrew rotor. On entering the suction chamber, liquid is divided and flows
to opposite ends of the pump body. At these points, liquid enters the twin rotors and is
conveyed to the center of the pump where it is discharged. Timing gears lubricated by the
liquid being pumped prevent contact between the twin screw rotors
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 37

Screw pumps have negligible pulsation and can handle liquids containing vapors and
gasses. They can be used for liquids containing a substantial amount of solids. They
produce relatively low wear on moving parts. They are known for their exceptional long
life. Their disadvantages are that they are heavy and need large space. Variations in
viscosity and discharge pressure cause significant change in capacity. Screw pumps are
available in capacities up to 3000 gpm (681.4 m3/hr). The commonly available pumps
operate against discharge pressure up to 1000 psig (68.9 bar). Screw pumps can pump
liquids with viscosity as high as 5 million SSU.

Discharge

Suction
Figure 2.26 Twin screw double end pump

B. Rotary compressors

Sliding Vane Compressors

Sliding vane compressors consist of a cylindrical housing in which the rotor is

eccentrically mounted. Vanes are placed in longitudinal slots cut into the rotor. Upon
rotation the vanes slide out of the slots due to centrifugal force and form a seal against the
internal wall of the housing. The gas is trapped in the space between the vanes, side
plates and housing and is carried over the discharge side. In the process its volume
gradually reduces and its pressure increases. Finally it is exhausted at higher pressure at
the discharge end of the machine.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 38

Figure 2.27 Sliding vane compressors

Vane compressors exist in oil lubricated and oil flooded designs. In both cases, the
compressor oil serves not only for lubrication but also as a sealant between individual
vanes and the housing inner wall. For oil flooded vane compressors, a considerable
quantity of oil is introduced into the compression chamber. This quantity of oil serves to
remove the heat generated due to compression. This type of compressor can produce up
to 50 psig (3.4 bar) per stage and is available in two stage arrangements for pressures up
to 125 psig (8.6 bar). Capacities range up to 1,500 to 2000 ft3/min. The injected oil is
filtered through separators after compression and channeled back to the circuit after
separation.

Screw Compressors
The screw compressor consists of two helical rotors fitted inside a casing. Bearing sets
are fitted to each rotor to absorb axial and radial loads that develop during normal
operation. The main rotor (male) rotor is driven through a shaft extension by an engine or
electric motor. The other rotor (female) is driven by the main rotor. Screw compressors
are available in both lubricated and oil-free configurations.

Figure 2.28 Section of a screw compressor

In lubricated units, the male rotor drives the female and oil is injected into the cylinder
serving as both a lubricant and coolant, and also as an oil seal to reduce back slippage.
On non-lubricated types, timing gears are used to drive the rotors and multi-staging is
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 39

necessary to prevent gas temperatures from going too high. The popularity of rotary
compressors is due to the relatively simple design, ease of installation, low routine
maintenance requirements, ease of maintenance, long operating life and affordable cost.

Oil Lubricated Screw Compressor

In oil lubricated screw compressors, lubricating oil is injected directly into the
compression chamber to seal the rotors and to cool the compressed air or gas. This
cooling of the compressed air allows gas to be compressed to higher pressures in a single
stage configuration (around 14 bar for air).

Fig. 2.29 shows the compression process at different stages in a screw compressor. The
air enters through the inlet opening into the screw grooves of the rotor, which are open
towards the suction side. As the rotors mesh the gas is trapped between the rotor groves
and the casing. In the course of rotation, the male and female rotors generate a v-shaped
space for the air drawn in, which becomes smaller and smaller right up to the end,
between the rotor lobes and the cylinder walls.

Figure 2.29 Compression process in screw compressor

Oil Free Screw Compressors

Process industries in the manufacturing of textile products, foods and beverages,

chemicals, medical and plastics usually require that the lubricant should not contaminate
the process gas. In such cases oil free compressors are require since any contact with
compressor can reduce the product quality. Oil-free rotary screw compressors offer many
of the same performance, reliability and cost savings of lubricated rotary designs but
without compressor lubricant in the compression chamber.
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 40

Oil-Free rotary screw compressors are of multi stage designs. This is done to gain the
improved efficiency of an intercooler and to minimize the final discharge temperature.
Cooling of the intercooler can either be air or water-cooled. Water-cooling is normally
the preferred method since the lower operating temperatures will reduce the moisture
load on downstream purification equipment. Flow, pressure and horsepower ratings for
oil free compressors are listed below (table 2.3)

Table 2.3 Range of, single stage oil free screw compressors

Quantity
Discharge pressure (bar) 7-8.5
Flow rate (m3/min) 5.5 12.5
Brake Power (kW) 35-75

Lobe Blowers (Compressors)

Lobe blowers are also popularly known as Roots Blower on the name of its inventor.
They consist of 8-shaped rotor inside an oval shaped casing, closed at ends by side plates.
One of the rotors is driven by motor and the other is driven by a pair of equal ratio timing
gears. The two rotors rotate at the same speed but in opposite direction.

Figure 2.30 Lobe blower

As the rotors rotate, air is drawn into inlet side of the cylinder and forced out the
discharge side against the system pressure. With each revolution, four such volumes are
displaced. Because of the very small clearance between the lobes and between the lobes
and the casing the air in the discharge side will not come back to the suction side except a
very small amount called slip.

There is no actual compression inside the machine it merely displaces the air from the
suction end to the discharge end, against the discharge system resistance. Since the lobe
runs with finite clearance, no internal lubrication is required. Only the timing gears are
Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 41

lubricated and they are external to the casing. The gas or air, thus delivered is 100% oil
free. These blowers deliver, practically, a constant flow rate independent of the discharge
pressure conditions. The flow rate is dependent, largely on the operating speed.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between pumps and gas movers?

2. What is the difference between fans, blowers and compressors?

3. Why is artificial cooling is required in compressors, while it is not required in

fans, blowers and pumps?

4. What is the difference between positive displacement fluid machines and

dynamic fluid machines?

5. What are the two types of positive displacement machines, what is their
difference?

6. Discuss the working principle, their characteristic features and applications of

the main types of dynamic fluid machines in the chemical industry?

7. In what situations are diaphragm compressors commonly used? Why?

8. What in the difference between lobe compressors and most rotary positive
displacement compressors.

9. Discuss the main difference between oil free, oil lubricated and oil-flooded
compressors and their application.

10. Explain why there are no positive displacement fans?

Chapter 2 Characteristic Features of Common Fluid Machines 42

REFERENCES
[2.1] Matley,J., Fluid Movers: Pumps, Compressors, Fans and Blowers,
1979,McGraw-Hill
[2.2] Karassik, I.J., Krutzsch,W.C., (etal ), Pump Handbook, 2nd Edition, 1986,
McGraw-Hill.
[2.3] Karassik, I.J., McGuire, T., Centrifugal Pumps, Chapman &Hall, 1998
[2.4] Perry, H.R., Green,D., Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook , 6th
editions,1984, McGraw-Hill.
[2.5] Sheer,W., Turbo Mahinery (AAU Teaching Material), 1976
[2.6] Bloch, H.P., Soarres, C. , Process Plant Machinery, 2ndedition, 1998,
Butterworth-Heinemann
[2.7] Cherkassky: Pumps, Fans and Compressors, Mir Publisher,1977.
[2.8] Hanlon, P.C., Compressor Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 2001
[2.9] Eck, B., FANS : Design and Operation of Centrifugal, Axial-Flow and Cross-
Flow Fans, Pergamon Press, 5th Ed.
[2.10] Bleier,F.P., Fan Handbook, McGraw-Hill,1998
[2.11] Bathie,W.W., Fundamentals of Gas Turbines, John Wiley & Sons,Inc.,2nd
Edition, 1996.
[2.12] Lazarkiewicz, S,Impeller Pumps, Pergamon Press, 1965.
[2.13] Banga,T.R., Sharma,S.C., Hydraulic Machines, Khanna, Publishers, 1972.
[2.14] Rao,N.S.G., Fluid Flow Machines, Tata McGraw-Hill, 9183.