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SoilFormationandClassification
SoilEducation
TheNationalCooperativeSoilSurveyidentifiesandmapsover20,000differentkindsofsoilintheUnitedStates.
GradesKthru6 Mostsoilsaregivenaname,whichgenerallycomesfromthelocalewherethesoilwasfirstmapped.Namedsoilsare
referredtoassoilseries.
Grades7thru12
CollegeLevel Soilsurveyreportsincludethesoilsurveymapsandthenamesanddescriptionsofthesoilsinareportarea.These
NCSSMembers soilsurveyreportsarepublishedbytheNationalCooperativeSoilSurveyandareavailabletoeveryone.

Soilsarenamedandclassifiedonthebasisofphysicalandchemicalpropertiesintheirhorizons(layers).Soil
Taxonomyusescolor,texture,structure,andotherpropertiesofthesurfacetwometersdeeptokeythesoilintoa
classificationsystemtohelppeopleusesoilinformation.Thissystemalsoprovidesacommonlanguageforscientists.

Soilsandtheirhorizonsdifferfromoneanother,dependingonhowandwhentheyformed.Soilscientistsusefive
soilfactorstoexplainhowsoilsformandtohelpthempredictwheredifferentsoilsmayoccur.Thescientistsalso
allowforadditionsandremovalofsoilmaterialandforactivitiesandchangeswithinthesoilthatcontinueeachday.

SoilFormingFactors

Parentmaterial.Fewsoilsweatherdirectlyfromtheunderlyingrocks.Theseresidualsoilshavethesame
generalchemistryastheoriginalrocks.Morecommonly,soilsforminmaterialsthathavemovedinfromelsewhere.
Materialsmayhavemovedmanymilesoronlyafewfeet.WindblownloessiscommonintheMidwest.Itburies
glacialtillinmanyareas.Glacialtillismaterialgroundupandmovedbyaglacier.Thematerialinwhichsoilsform
iscalledparentmaterial.Inthelowerpartofthesoils,thesematerialsmayberelativelyunchangedfromwhen
theyweredepositedbymovingwater,ice,orwind.

Sedimentsalongrivershavedifferenttextures,dependingonwhetherthestreammovesquicklyorslowly.Fast
movingwaterleavesgravel,rocks,andsand.Slowmovingwaterandlakesleavefinetexturedmaterial(clayand
silt)whensedimentsinthewatersettleout.

Climate.Soilsvary,dependingontheclimate.Temperatureandmoistureamountscausedifferentpatternsof
weatheringandleaching.Windredistributessandandotherparticlesespeciallyinaridregions.Theamount,
intensity,timing,andkindofprecipitationinfluencesoilformation.Seasonalanddailychangesintemperatureaffect
moistureeffectiveness,biologicalactivity,ratesofchemicalreactions,andkindsofvegetation.

Topography.Slopeandaspectaffectthemoistureandtemperatureofsoil.Steepslopesfacingthesunarewarmer,
justlikethesouthfacingsideofahouse.Steepsoilsmaybeerodedandlosetheirtopsoilastheyform.Thus,they
maybethinnerthanthemorenearlylevelsoilsthatreceivedepositsfromareasupslope.Deeper,darkercoloredsoils
maybeexpectedonthebottomland.

Biologicalfactors.Plants,animals,microorganisms,andhumansaffectsoilformation.Animalsandmicro
organismsmixsoilsandformburrowsandpores.Plantrootsopenchannelsinthesoils.Differenttypesofrootshave
differenteffectsonsoils.Grassrootsarefibrousnearthesoilsurfaceandeasilydecompose,addingorganicmatter.
Taprootsopenpathwaysthroughdenselayers.Microorganismsaffectchemicalexchangesbetweenrootsandsoil.
Humanscanmixthesoilsoextensivelythatthesoilmaterialisagainconsideredparentmaterial.

Thenativevegetationdependsonclimate,topography,andbiologicalfactorsplusmanysoilfactorssuchassoil
density,depth,chemistry,temperature,andmoisture.Leavesfromplantsfalltothesurfaceanddecomposeonthe
soil.Organismsdecomposetheseleavesandmixthemwiththeupperpartofthesoil.Treesandshrubshavelarge
rootsthatmaygrowtoconsiderabledepths.

Time.Timeforallthesefactorstointeractwiththesoilisalsoafactor.Overtime,soilsexhibitfeaturesthatreflect
theotherformingfactors.Soilformationprocessesarecontinuous.Recentlydepositedmaterial,suchasthe
depositionfromaflood,exhibitsnofeaturesfromsoildevelopmentactivities.Theprevioussoilsurfaceand
underlyinghorizonsbecomeburied.Thetimeclockresetsforthesesoils.Terracesabovetheactivefloodplain,while
geneticallysimilartothefloodplain,areolderlandsurfacesandexhibitmoredevelopmentfeatures.

Thesesoilformingfactorscontinuetoaffectsoilsevenonstablelandscapes.Materialsaredepositedontheir
surface,andmaterialsareblownorwashedawayfromthesurface.Additions,removals,andalterationsareslowor
rapid,dependingonclimate,landscapeposition,andbiologicalactivity.
Whenmappingsoils,asoilscientistlooksforareaswithsimilarsoilformingfactorstofindsimilarsoils.Thecolors,
texture,structure,andotherpropertiesaredescribed.Soilswiththesamekindofpropertiesaregiventaxonomic
names.AcommonsoilintheMidwestreflectsthetemperate,humidclimateandnativeprairievegetationwitha
thick,nearlyblacksurfacelayer.Thislayerishighinorganicmatterfromdecomposinggrass.Itiscalledamollic
epipedon.Itisoneofseveraltypesofsurfacehorizonsthatwecallepipedons.Soilsinthedesertcommonlyhave
anochricepipedonthatislightcoloredandlowinorganicmatter.Subsurfacehorizonsalsoareusedinsoil
classification.Manyforestedareashaveasubsurfacehorizonwithanaccumulationofclaycalledanargillichorizon.

SoilOrders

Soiltaxonomyatthehighesthierarchicallevelidentifies12soilorders.Thenamesfortheordersandtaxonomicsoil
propertiesrelatetoGreek,Latin,orotherrootwordsthatrevealsomethingaboutthesoil.Sixtyfoursubordersare
recognizedatthenextlevelofclassification.Thereareabout300greatgroupsandmorethan2,400subgroups.
Soilswithinasubgroupthathavesimilarphysicalandchemicalpropertiesthataffecttheirresponsesto
managementandmanipulationarefamilies.Thesoilseriesisthelowestcategoryinthesoilclassificationsystem.

SoilOrder FormativeTerms Pronunciation

Alfisols Alf,meaninglesssyllable Pedalfer

Andisols Modifiedfromando Ando

Aridisols Latin,aridies,dry Arid

Entisols Ent,meaningless Recent

Gelisols Latingelare,tofreeze Jell

Histosols Greek,histos,tissue Histology

Inceptisols Latin,incepum,beginning Inception

Mollisols Latin,mollis,soft Mollify

Oxisols Frenchoxide Oxide

Spodosols Greekspodos,woodash Odd

Ultisols Latinultimus,last Ultimate

Vertisols Latinverto,turn Invert

Maps

ThedistributionofthesesoilordersintheUnitedStatescorrespondswiththegeneralpatternsofthesoilforming
factorsacrossthecountry.Amapofsoilordersisusefulinunderstandingbroadareasofsoils.Detailedsoilmaps
foundinsoilsurveyreports,however,shouldbeusedforlocaldecisionmaking.Soilmapsarelikeroadmaps,for
verygeneraloverview,asmallscalemapinanatlasishelpful,butforfindingalocationofahouseinacity,alarge
scaledetailedmapshouldbeused.

MoredetailedinformationonsoilordersisavailableinSoilTaxonomypp.837850,Chapter22.

FormativeElementsinNamesofSoilSuborders

Formative Sounds
Derivation Connotation
Element Like

Alb L,albus,white Albino Presenceofalbichorizon

Anthr ModifiedfromGr.anthropes,human Anthropology Modifiedbyhumans

Aqu L.aqua,water Aquifer Aquicconditions

Ar L.Arare,toplow Arable Mixedhorizons

Arg ModifiedfromargillichorizonL.argilla, Argillite Presenceofargillichorizon

whiteclay

Calc L.calcis,lime Calcium Presenceofacalcichorizons

Camb L.cambiare,toexchange Am Presenceofacambichorizon

Cry G.kryos,icycold Cry Cold

Dur L.durus,hard Durable Presenceofaduripan

Fibr L.fibra,fiber Fibrous Leastdecomposedstage

Fluv L.fluvius,river Fluvial Floodplain

Fol L.folia,leaf Foliage Massofleaves

Gyps L.gypsum,gypsum Gypsum Presenceofagypsichorizon

Hem Grhemi,half Hemisphere Intermediatestageof

decomposition

Hist Gr.histos,tissue Histology Presenceoforganicmaterials

Hum L.humus,earth Humus Presenceoforganicmatter

Orth Gr.orthos,true Orthodox Thecommonones

Per L.Per,throughoutintime Perennial Perudicmoistureregime

Psamm Gr.psammos,sand Sam Sandytexture

Rend ModifiedfromRendzina End Highcarbonatecontent

Sal L.baseofsal,salt Saline Presenceofasalichorizon

Sapr Gr.sapros,rotten Sap Mostdecomposedstage

Torr L.torridus,hotanddry Or Torricmoistureregime

Turb L.Turbidis,disturbed Turbulent Presenceofcryoturbation

Ud L.udus,Humid You Udicmoistureregime

Vitr L.vitrum,glass It Presenceofglass

Ust L.ustus,burnt Combustion Usticmoistureregime

Xer Gr.xeros,dry Zero Xericmoistureregime

FormativeElementsinNamesofSoilGreatGroups

Formative Sounds
Derivation Connotation
Element Like

Acr ModifiedfromGr.Akros,attheend Act Extremeweathering

Al Modifiedfromaluminum Algebra Highaluminum,lowiron

Alb L.Albus,white Albino Analbichorizon

Anhy Gr.anydros,waterless Anhydrous Verydry

Anthr ModifiedfromGr.anthropos,human Anthropology Ananthropicepipedon

Aqu L.aqua,water Aquifer Aquicconditions

Argi ModifiedfromargillichorizonL.argilla, Argillite Presenceofanargillichorizon

whiteclay

Calci,calc L.calcis,lime Calcium Acalcichorizon

Cry Gr.kryos,icycold Cry Cold

Dur L.durus,hard Durable Aduripan

Dystr,dys ModifiedfromGr.dys,illdystrophic Distant Lowbasesaturation

infertile

Endo Gr.endon,endo,within Endothermic Implyingagroundwatertable

Epi Gr.epi,on,above Epidermis Implyingaperchedwatertable

Eutr ModifiedfromGr.eu,goodeuthrophic, You Highbasesaturation

fertile

Ferr L.ferrum,iron Fair Presenceofiron

Fibr L.fibra,fiber Fibrous Leastdecomposedstage

Fluv L.fluvius,river Fluvial Floodplain

Fol L.folia,leaf Foliage Massofleaves

Fragi ModifiedfromL.fragilis,brittle Fragile Presenceoffragipan

Fragloss Compoundoffra(g)andgloss Seetheformativeelements"frag"

and"gloss"
 Fulv L.fulvus,dullbrownishyellow Full Darkbrowncolor,presenceof
organiccarbon

Glac L.glacialis,icy Glacier Icelensesorwedges

Gyps L.gypsum,gypsum Gypsum Presenceofgypsichorizon

Gloss Gr.glossa,tongue Glossary Presenceofaglossichorizon

Hal Gr.hals,salt Halibut Salty

Hapl Gr.haplous,simple Haploid Minimumhorizondevelopment

Hem G.hemi,half Hemisphere Intermediatestageofdecomposition

Hist Gr.histos,tissue History Presenceoforganicmaterials

Hum L.humus,earth Humus Presenceoforganicmatter

Hydr Gr.hydo,water Hydrophobia Presenceofwater

Kand,kan Modifiedfromkandite Can 1:1layersilicateclays

Luv Gr.louo,towash Ablution Illuvial

Melan Gr.melasanos,black Me+Land Black,presenceoforganiccarbon

Moll L.mollis,soft Mollusk Presenceofamollicepipedon

Natr Modifiedfromnatrium,sodium Date Presenceofnatrichorizon

Pale Gr.paleos,old Paleontology Excessivedevelopment

Petr Gr.comb.formofpetra,rock Petrified Acementedhorizon

Plac Gr.baseofplax,flatstone Placard Presenceofthinpan

Plagg ModifiedfromGer.plaggen,sod Awe Presenceofplaggenepipedon

Plinth Gr.plinthos,brick In Presenceofplinthite

Psamm Gr.psammos,sand Sam Sandytexture

Quartz Ger.quarz,quartz Quarter Highquartzcontent

Rhod Gr.baseofrhodon,rose Rhododendron Darkredcolor

Sal L.baseofsal,salt Saline Presenceofsalichorizon

Sapr Gr.saprose,rotten Sap Mostdecomposedstage

Somb F.sombre,dark Somber Presenceofsombrichorizon

Sphagn Gr.sphagnos,bog Sphagnum PresenceofSphagnum

Sulf L.sulfur,sulfur Sulfur Presenceofsulfidesortheir

oxidationproducts

Torr L.torridus,hotanddry Torrid Torricmoistureregime

Ud L.udus,humid You Udicmoistureregime

Umbr L.umbra,shade Umbrella Presenceofumbricepipedon

Ust L.ustus,burnt Combustion Usticmoistureregime

Verm L.baseofvermes,worm Vermilion Wormy,ormixedbyanimals

Vitr L.vitrum,glass It Presenceofglass

Xer Gr.xeros,dry Zero Xericmoistureregime

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