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Assignment 4

Genevieve Cox

EDID 6501 Learning Theory and Instructional Design

Professor: Deanne Ford

Date: December, 2015

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Identify one or more theories learned in this course and present evidence of how the
theories can be used to design instruction.
Introduction
Theories of human learning with their relevant positions on the learning process provide
different perspectives for structuring the foundations of instructional design. The theoretical
concepts of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, developmental learning and instructional
theory all serve as conceptual frameworks for instructional design. Each theoretical perspective
has specific guidelines for interpreting the learning process, and all have implications when they
are translated into practical applications to facilitate unique instructional situations. Ertmer &
Newby (1993) discusses the need for a bridge between basic learning research and educational
practice, and cites Smith & Ragan (1993), stating that instructional designers have been charged
with translating principles of learning and instruction into specifications for instructional
materials and activities.

The learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism seek to describe

the phenomena of learning, and according to Snelbecker (1983), individuals addressing
practical learning problems cannot afford the luxury of restricting themselves to only one
theoretical position they are urged to examine each theory to select principles and conceptions
which seem to be of value for particular educational situations. The positions on learning of
behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism all have implications for instruction, as briefly
outlined below.

Behaviorism considers that learning has occurred when changes in observable

performance are observed. In behaviorism the learner is a passive processor of information,
whereas, in cognitivism and constructivism the learner plays an active role in the mental
activity of learning. Cognitivists and behaviorists believe knowledge is mind-independent and
can be mapped onto the learner. But for constructivist, the learner does more than just process
information. Constructivism sees the environment and learner as critical factors in creating
meaning from experience (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).Constructivist viewpoints including notable
theorists, and how the theories present evidence of their implications in the design of instruction
is the topic that will be developed in this paper. Bruner (1986) claims that Immanuel Kant, in his
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Critique of Pure Reason argued that the human mind is an originator of experienceand the
physical world is known only through sensations, this infers that Kant observed that reality was
constructed through mental activities.

Perkins (1991) notes that constructivism has its genesis in the emerging philosophical and
psychological viewpoints of the 20th century. Bruners emphasis on culture and interaction,
Piagets cognitive and development perspectives, Dewey and Goodmans philosophical
contributions, and Gibsons ecological psychology, have influenced constructivist thought.
Constructivism, then, is not a single theory of instruction, but evolved from the works of notable
cognitive theorists who raised questions about the validity of the objectivistic assumption that the
goal of instruction was to map the structure of the world onto the learner (Jonassen, 1991b).

Constructivist do not view knowledge as being something outside of the learner to be

transferred onto the learner, but placed the learner at the centre of the learning environment as an
active involved participant in the learning process. Constructivist theorists adopted a classical
approach to explain the phenomena of learning, and viewed knowledge as a function of how
individuals create meaning from experiences. Learning takes place as the learner individually
constructs knowledge and constructivists assert that knowledge construction does not have to
reflect the world, or correspond to external reality to be used by the learner (Driscoll, 2015).

We all experience the world differently, and construct our own universe between our
ears to create meaning from experiences. (Jonassen, 1991b). Humans learn by interacting with
the real world, and each individual takes away different meanings from their encounters in varied
environments. Knowledge is in a constant state of change, and construction as it is interpreted
and re-interpreted (Bednar et al., 1991). Knowledge gleaned from relevant context is created and
understood from actual experiences, meaningful interpretation and reflections of encounters in
the environment, as opposed to being acquired. Prominent constructivist theorists include J.
Bruner, J. Dewey, J. Piaget, and L. Vygotsky. Major contributors to constructivist thought
include D. Ausubel, D.J.Cunningham, D. Jonassen, D. Perkins an, E. von Glaserfeld, and S.
Papert.

Major Constructivist theories and theorists

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Jerome Bruner, an American psychologist, is considered as one of the founding fathers

of constructivism, and like Piaget, was a cognitive constructivist. Bruner (1961) noted that
learners rearrange and transform knowledge to enable going beyond evidence to additional new
insights (Driscoll, 2015). His discovery learning theory is inquiry based and concerned with
manipulating objects in the environment to solve problems by discovering concepts, facts and
relationships. For example, students interact online by exploring questions, ideas and
controversies to make meaning in this course. Bruner defined discovery learning as all forms of
obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of ones own mind Bruner (1961).

Bruners ideas on the readiness for learning asserted that students could be taught at any
stage of development to build knowledge and elaborate on existing knowledge to attain a level of
understanding, mastery of the subject, and full intellectual development. Bruner posited that
humans structure their understanding of the world through responding to actions, patterned
motor acts, language, reason, conventionalized imagery and perception(Bruner,1964). Humans
are able to represent recurrent order in the environment by organizational representation. Bruner
called this systematic representative structuring: enactive representation, iconic representation,
and symbolic representation.

Enactive representation is a way of representing past events through appropriate motor

responses, and is action oriented. This can be illustrated by my present action of typing this
paper. I learned to touch type as a teenager, if I let my fingers control my actions, I automatically
rely on motor skills. Iconic representation enables summarizing of events by selective
organization of percepts and images, and is image oriented. In my minds eye I can see the
arrangement of the keyboard, if I look; I can no longer type automatically. Symbolic
representation enables acquiring a symbol system which represents things by design features
that include remoteness and arbitrariness, and is oriented through codes or symbols such as
language which is flexible, and in which words can be used to build knowledge (Bruner, 1964).
For example, in writing this paper, I am refining my understanding of the theoretical concepts
learned, and words convey connections that actively construct my knowledge and understanding
of the theories. Bruners theory suggests that learners construct their own knowledge by
classification and organization of learning into codes of representation that enables discovery in
the environment.
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Bruner (1966) in his theory of instruction emphasized social factors that interacted in
influencing learning, and his theory of constructivism had four main principles. He suggested
that, an adequate theory of instruction must bring together the nature of knowledge, the nature
of the knower, and the nature of the knowledge-getting process. In achieving comprehension in
this course student must display a predisposition to learn by reading all of the course material.
The course was structured to enable students to grasp the information presented, visually through
words in the readings, symbols, and YouTube videos, and in sequenced form allowing for
comprehension of concepts and principles.

Bruner suggested that strategies implemented to promote discovery in problem solving

are influenced by the culture in which the problem solving takes place. In this respect,
instructors should foster cognitive strategies that will have the greatest likelihood of solving
particular problems faced by the culture (Bruner, 1961) To aid students in making connections
to apply and relate theories in instructional design, they engage in group activities to foster
cognitive strategies. Bruner was of the view that instruction should be challenging and provide
problems to fit the cognitive structure of the learner and that material presented should be
appropriate to the dominant mode of the learners thinking (Bruner, 1960). Knowledge of the
theories learned each week enabled relating symbolically to concepts in the subject matter, and in
generating connections to the fundamentals of the instructional design process in EDID 6503.

John Dewey considered one of the philosophical founders of constructivist thought was
of the view that students should not be involved in rote and repetitive memorization. He
advocated a directed method of learning to engage students in real world practical workshops in
which they can demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and collaboration. He thought
that students should be afforded opportunities to think for themselves, and that education should
be grounded in real experiences of study and sustained inquiry.

Jean Piaget worked in, and contributed to the fields of biology, philosophy, and
psychology and his theories evolved from cognitivist underpinnings, he is viewed as a cognitive
constructivist. Piagets work was concerned with how children come to know the world (Gruber
&Voneche, 1995). In his genetic epistemology theory, he suggested that knowledge is not out
there, external to the child, waiting to be discovered, nor was the knowledge process performed
within the child, ready to emerge as the child developed, but was rather invented and reinvented
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as the child developed and interacted within the surrounding world (Driscoll, 2015). Piaget
viewed childrens activity of acquiring knowledge in the environment as taking place through
goal directed schemes that evolved as the child attained different stages of logical development
(Leahey & Harris,1997), and he viewed the processes of assimilation, accommodation, and
equilibration to be of critical importance in childrens development processes.

In Piagets view, children transitioned through four stages: the sensorimotor,

preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages, and acquired three types of
knowledge. (1) physical knowledge or knowledge about objects in the world is gained through
perceptual properties relating to how operations on, and in, the environment are experienced. For
example, children connect and relate schemes internally to produce rudimentary knowledge of
their explorations in the environment. (2) Logical-mathematical knowledge is abstract and
invented through thought processes for recognizing comparisons and differences, as when
children fit shapes into appropriate slots. (3) Social knowledge is culture specific and is learned
from interactions with other people within the childs cultural group. Piaget believed that
cognitive abilities were acquired through assimilation by making association with new
information to information already known, and accommodation, where current knowledge is
inadequate to solve a problem and the knowledge structure is changed to make sense of new
incoming information, enabling enhanced problem solving abilities and skills (Driscoll, 2015).

Lev Vygotskys work, like many other thinkers and theorists of his time focused on
understanding how intellect was formed. His studies included law, literature, philosophy and
psychology. His work formed a foundation for constructivist theories, and he is viewed as a
social constructivist. Like Bruner, he believed that individual development could not be
understood without referring to the cultural and social context in which the development is
embedded. (Tudge& Rogoff, 1989). However, unlike Bruner or, Piaget who focused on stages of
development, Vygotsky suggested that development is a complex process that cannot be defined
in any of its stagesthat its very nature changes as it unfolds (Vygotsky, 1978). He believed
language and thought were woven in a complex relationship in which thought and speech were
intricately interdependent in the childs development. Vygotskys views about development in
children were similar to Piagets, but, his work focused more on the social aspects of learning,
and differs from the concept of discovery learning put forward by Piaget, or Bruners discovery
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learning theory. Vygotsky suggested that play is important for learning and development in
children (Vygotsky, 1962).

Vygotsky (1978) put forward evidence in his meditational view of development to

explain the transformation from child to adult, and the acquisition of knowledge and higher
mental processes. He examined how ability or skills were gained and stated that development
does not proceed towards socializationit is the conversion of social relations into mental
functions (Vygotsky, 1981). (Cole & Scribner, 1978) noted that by mediation, Vygotsky meant
that in higher forms of human behavior, the individual actively modifies the stimulus situation
as part of the process of responding to it. He believed that higher order mental functions were
socially developed externally to create meaning before the meanings were internalized.
(Vygotsky, 1981). He referred to functions in the developmental process that were in the
embryonic state, and would later develop in the child, and referred to this latent gap as the zone
of proximal development.(Vygotsky, 1978). Adult learners may also be in the zone of proximal
development, and are aided by more knowledgeable individuals to attain their learning potential.

A child or adult in the zone of proximal development is not able to engage in problem
solving at a level above their actual development. However, under the guidance of capable peers
or knowledgeable adults in the subject matter, when tasks are assigned that goes beyond current
capabilities, they can be performed if scaffolding is provided to bridge the knowledge gap. The
potential for development is aided by interaction with capable others. (Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky (1962) noted that the only good kind of instruction is that which marches ahead of
development and leads it. He also stated that the only good learning is that which is in
advance of development (Vygotsky, 1978). It can be seen that Vygotsky differentiated between
learning and development, but saw them as being linked to each other. This presents instructional
implications for the learner. The learner is seen as actively processing, elaborating upon and
interpreting information (Duffy &Jonassen, 1991). Guidance allows learners to bridge the gap
between current skills and expected desired skills as was demonstrated by the linking of tasks in
EDID 6501 and EDID 6503. Scaffolding through gaining knowledge of learning theories
enabled students to become more proficient in relating theoretical knowledge to instructional
design concepts and processes. New knowledge aided in completing assigned tasks as insights
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were gleaned from the units of instruction presented online, and working with respective
knowledgeable peers under the direction of the instructor.

Major Contributors to Constructivist Thought

David Ausubel was an American psychologist whose meaningful verbal learning theory
viewed meaning as being created from some form of representation through the processes of
reception and discovery. He believed that the external world acquired meaning only when it was
consciously converted by the perception of the learner. Ausubels subsumption theory viewed
new learning as having a relationship to what was already known. Ausubels advance organizer
can be used to help students integrate prior knowledge with new information to promote
meaningful learning. For example, a teacher can introduce a subject matter by providing students
with pictures, exploration of vocabulary and concept maps to help them to later link concepts
with new ideas and content learned to their existing concepts, prior learning or schema.

Cunningham (1988) used Ecos rhizome metaphor to explain the generative nature of learning.
He presumed that neither knowledge nor the ways in which we use to describe it are stable, and
suggests that the rhizome concept alerts us to the constructed nature of our environmental
understanding, and the possibilities of different meaning, different truths, and different worlds.
Eco (1984) notes that if the rhizome has limitless possibilities and is indescribable at the
global level, then cognition at the local level is considered as transitory systems of knowledge.
Slices of the rhizomes reveal a persons knowledge at that time in the context, with no
assumption of invariability over time or across contexts. (Bereiter, 1991). For example, in this
course, students were presented with tasks to research, and elaborated on specific theories.
Learning was largely student centric and each student constructed meaning to form relationships
from theoretical concepts and insights to explain how we come to know. von Glaserfeld, a
radical constructivist, saw the importance of the social interaction process in creating meaning in
the subjective construction of knowing. In addition, Perkins noted that unlike an information
processor taking in and storing information, learners make tentative interpretations of
experience and elaborate on their interpretations (Perkins, 1992). At various points in time,
students understanding of the subject matter was limited and later branched into many directions.
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Jonassen (1999) in Carr-Chellman notes that knowledge is individually and socially

constructed by learners based on interpretations of experiences in the world. Jonassen (1994)
proposed eight characteristics that are applicable to constructivist learning environments to
promote learning. The characteristics include providing multiple representations of reality to
represent the complexity of the real world emphasizing knowledge construction, instead of
reproduction. Authentic tasks in a meaningful context, such as case based learning and not
abstract instruction that is out of context, or a predetermined sequencing of instruction is needed,
with reflection on the learning experience. Collaborative knowledge construction through social
negotiation in an environment where context and content knowledge construction takes place
among learners who do not compete with each other is needed, and recognizing individual effort
and contribution to group work. Seymour Papert, a visionary, and one of the foremost experts on
how technology provides innovative ways for people to learn, conducted research in how
computers can enhance creativity in learning in authentic situations. He predicted that the
availability of microcomputation offered the potential for radically different learning
environments to be created and adopted throughout schools" (Papert, 1980).

Implications for Instruction

The task of the instructional designer lies in developing methods for constructing a bridge
in translating principles to identify the theoretical position of the practitioner, and understanding
the learners needs. The practitioners position in terms of contextual constraints, conditions,
and situations in applying the instruction will inform what strategies, tactics, and techniques will
be integrated to suit specific learner needs, (Keller, 1979).Warries (1990) suggests that
instruction based on strong research is much more reliable than one based on instructional
phenomena.The preceding paragraphs outlined the theoretical foundations of constructivist
thought on how we come to know. Knowledge in and of itself is not abstract, but is linked to the
experiences participants bring to the context of what is being studied, investigated, or observed.

In the coursework done in this semester, students constructed their own understanding of
the subject matter, and validated through social interaction and negotiation the perspectives
gleaned from readings from many sources (Ertmer& Newby, 1993). For example, students were
coached in a cognitive apprenticeship with instructors and completed instructional design tasks
relating to their work situations, and applicable in the real world environment. Students
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collaborated with group members to research multiple perspectives of theoretical building blocks
to develop and share alternative viewpoints on learning theories.

Students were evaluated and monitored in an online apprenticeship experience of social

negotiation, and were required to reflect on how their learning experience was guided in the
knowledge construction process. Students elaborated upon and interpreted the information
given to create their own meaning. (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). They were encouraged to chose
positions to which to commit themselves, while realizing the basis of other views with which
they may disagree (Cunningham, 1991), as they functioned in their zones of proximal
development in the situated online community of learners.

The constructivist student actively learns in all environments where they experience
learning situations to which theoretical knowledge gained can be applied and related. In this
respect, learning should be anchored in meaningful contexts where the student controls and
manipulates the information by actively using it in different conceptual perspectives. This
enables students to use problem solving, and critical skills allowing them to reach beyond their
zone of proximal development. This encourages developing and recognizing patterns to aid in
honing their skills in presenting and representing problems in varied ways while creating
knowledge. Constructivist learning opportunities engages learners in novel problems and
situations that build upon the initial instruction but is different from it, assessments focus on
transferring knowledge and skills in order for students to reframe their concepts and expand their
horizons to move from being novices to budding experts (Ertmer & Newby, 1993), was my
experience.

Constructivist instruction promotes critical thinking, reasoning in students and involves

them in inquiry, cultural, social, and problem solving activities. Students gain knowledge and use
their understanding in relevant learning situations of self awareness in which goal based and
problem based learning are featured. Collaborative learning and problem scaffolding provide
opportunities for connecting and constructing knowledge. Moreover the use of microworlds and
hypermedia designs in addition to open software and course management tools provide methods
of instruction that fosters ways and means of knowing that would not be possible without
technology (Driscoll, 2015).
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References
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Newby, T.J. In Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features
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Bruner, J. S. (1960). In Driscoll, M.P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson
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Cole, M. & Scribner, S. (1978). In Driscoll, M.P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction
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Eco, U. (1984). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson
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