(How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown)

FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNING

Subtractive bilingualism: partially or completely losing the first language as a second language is
acquired
Additive bilingualism: learning a second language without losing the first

2. Truths vs. myths of early childhood bilingualism

Truths
- Jim Cummins (1984, 2000) and others
pointed out: it was a myth
- There is little support for the myth that
learning more than one language in
early childhood is a problem for
children (Genesee, Crago, and Pradis,
2004)
- Some studies show minor early delays
for simultaneous bilinguals
- Many simultaneous bilinguals achieve
high levels of proficiency in both
languages
Myths
- One particular group of children who
arrive at their first day of school
without an age-appropriate knowledge
of the language of the school have often
been misdiagnosed as having language
delays or disorders
These childrens knowledge of a
different language or language variety
is interpreted as a lack of knowledge of
language in general
- It is too difficult for children to cope
with two languages. People fear that the
children will be confused or will not
learn either language well.
- Learning two languages substantially
slows down their linguistic
development or interferes with
cognitive and academic development

3. Definitions of some terms

- Child directed speech: the language that caretakers address to children. In some cases, this
language is simpler than that which is addressed to adults. In some cultures, it is also slower,
higher pitched, more repetitive, and includes a large number of questions.
- Language acquisition devices (LAD): all children are biologically programmed for language and
that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop.
The Language Acquisition Device, or LAD, is part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis. The LAD is a system of
principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn
 (How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown)

structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn. Second language learning theory proposes that acquisition is possible in
second and subsequent languages, and that learning programmes have to create the conditions for it.
4. Researchers the theoretical approaches to language acquisition
B. F. Skinner (1940s-1950s) Behaviorism
Noam Chomsky (1959): all human languages are fundamentally innate and the same universal
principles underlie all of them
Innatism:
o LAD
o UG
o CPH
Jean Piaget (1951/1946): childrens language is built on their cognitive development. The
developing cognitive understanding is built on the interaction between the child and the things that
can be observed or manipulated. Language was one of a number of symbols systems that are
developed in childhood. Language can be used to represent knowledge that children have acquired
through physical interaction with the environment. => saw language as a symbol system that could
be used to express knowledge acquired through interaction with the physical world
Lev Vygosky (1978): language develops primarily from social interaction. In a supportive
interactive environment, children are able to advance to a higher level of knowledge and
performance. => thought was essentially internalized speech, and speech emerged in social
interaction

5. Three main theories

Behaviorism: A psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, takes place
through the establishment of habits. According to this view, when learners imitate and repeat the
language they hear in their surrounding environment and are positively reinforced for doing so,
habit formation (or learning) occurs.
Innatism: A theory that human beings are born with mental structures that are designed
specifically for the acquisition of language
o LAD
o UG
o CPH
Interactionism: The hypothesis that language acquisition is based both on learners innate
abilities and on opportunities to engage in conversations, often those in which other speakers
modify their speech and their interaction patterns to match learners communication requirements.
The innate abilities are not seen as being specific to language or language acquisition
 (How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown)

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

1. Four main Theories

Behaviorism: .... => development of audiolingual teaching materials and teacher training
(classroom activities emphasized mimicry and memorization, students learned dialogues and
sentence patterns by heart)
Because language development was viewed as the formation of habits, it was assumed that a
person learning a second language would start off with the habits formed in the first language and
that these habits would interfere with the new ones needed for the second language. => link to
CAH Robert Lado (1964)
Innatism
o UG
o Krashens monitor model: five hypotheses
Connectionism: a theory of knowledge (including language) as a complex system of units that
become interconnected in the mind as they are encountered together. The more often units are
heard or seen together, the more likely it is that the presence of one will lead to the activation of
the other.
Connectionism attributes greater importance to the role of the environment than to any specific
innate knowledge in the learner. Connectionist argue that what is innate is simply the ability to
learn, not any specifically linguistic principles
learners gradually build up their knowledge of language through exposure to the thousands of
instances of the linguistic features they eventually hear. After hearing language feature in specific
situational or linguistic contexts over and over again, learners develop a stronger and stronger
network of connections between these elements. Eventually, the presence of one situational or
linguistic element will activate the other(s) in the learners mind.
Interactionism: conversational interaction is an essential, if not sufficient, condition for L2
language acquisition. studied the ways in which speakers modify their speech and interaction
patterns in order to help learners participate in a conversation or understand some information.
Comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition. Focus on how input could be made
comprehensible => Modified interaction. What learners need is not necessarily simplification of
the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers, working together to
reach mutual comprehension. Through these interactions, interlocutors figure out what they need
to do to keep the conversation going and make the input comprehensible.
Michael Long (1983) Interactional modification makes input comprehensible + Comprehensible
input promotes acquisition => Interactional modification promotes acquisition

2. Krashens monitor model

 (How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown)

Acquisition learning hypothesis: we acquire as we are exposed to samples of the second

language we understand in much the same way that children pick up their first language with no
conscious attention to language form (let the tuition do it). We learn on the other hand through
conscious attention to form and rule learning
Monitor hypothesis: the acquired system initiates a speakers utterances and is responsible for
spontaneous language use. The learned system acts as an editor or monitor, making minor changes
and polishing what the acquired system has produced. Such monitoring takes place only when the
speaker/writer has plenty of time , is concerned about producing correct language, and has learned
the relevant rules => the amount of language we have can control what we say/ Our knowledge
influences the way we learn new things
Natural order hypothesis: was based on the findings that, as in L1 acquisition, L2 acquisition
unfolds in predictable sequences. The language features that are easiest to state (and thus to learn)
are not necessarily the first to be acquired. Eg. the rule for adding an s to third person singular
verbs in the present tense is easy to state but even some advanced L2 speakers fail to apply it in
spontaneous conversations
Input hypothesis: acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and
that contains i+1. The i represents the level of language already acquired, and the +1 is a metaphor
for language (words, grammatical forms, aspects of pronunciation) that is just a step beyond that
level.
Affective filter hypothesis: some people who are exposed to large quantities of comprehensible
input do not necessarily acquire a language successfully. The AF is a metaphorical barrier that
prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is available. Affect refers
to feelings, motives, needs, attitudes, and emotional states. A learner who is tense, anxious, or
bored may filter out input, making it unavailable for acquisition.
 (How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown)

3. Terms
Contrastive analysis hypothesis: the expectation that learners will have less difficulty acquiring
target language patterns that are similar to those of the first language than those that are different
Modified interaction: adapted conversation patterns that proficient speakers use in addressing
language learners so that the learner will be able to understand. Examples of interactional
modifications include comprehension checks, clarification requests and self-repetitions.
Competence: Linguist Noam Chomsky used this term to refer to knowledge of language. This is
contrast with performance, which is the way a person actually uses language whether for
speaking, listening, reading or writing. Because we cannot observe competence directly, we have
to infer its nature from performance
UG: innate knowledge of the principles of UG permits all children to acquire the language of their
environment during a critical period of their development
Comprehensible output hypothesis: the hypothesis that successful L2 acquisition depends on
learners producing language (oral or written). Swan (1985) proposed this hypothesis in response to
Krashens (1985) comprehensible input hypothesis
Comprehensible input: a term introduced by Krashen to refer to language that a learner can
understand. It may be comprehensible in part because of gestures, situations, or prior information
Input: the language that the learner is exposed to (either written or spoken) in the environment
Uptake: this term is sometimes used generally to refer to what a learner notices and/or retains in
L2 input or instruction. Lyster and Rantas (1997) definition refers to a learners observable
immediate response to corrective feedback on his/her utterances