RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE

ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
Hydroelectric Power and Coal-fired Power in China

Catherine Vejrych
Alex Stephens
Oscar Duffy
Elaine How
Ben Cook

Curtin University
ELEN1001: Introduction to Renewable Energy
Table of Contents
1. Background ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Hydroelectric Power ................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Coal-fired Power...................................................................................................... 3
2. Hydroelectric Power ....................................................................................................... 5
2.1. Technical Properties ................................................................................................ 5
2.1.1. Efficiency ......................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2. Feasibility ......................................................................................................... 5
2.1.3. Reliability ......................................................................................................... 5
2.2. Economic Information ............................................................................................. 5
2.2.1. Upfront capital costs......................................................................................... 5
2.2.2. Levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) ............................................................... 6
2.3. Environmental Impacts ............................................................................................ 6
2.3.1. Greenhouse gas emissions................................................................................ 6
2.3.2. Pollution ........................................................................................................... 7
2.3.3. Risks to flora and fauna.................................................................................... 7
2.4. Social Impacts.......................................................................................................... 8
2.4.1. Peoples lifestyle .............................................................................................. 8
2.4.2. Job prospects .................................................................................................... 9
3. Coal-fired Power ............................................................................................................. 9
3.1. Technical Properties ................................................................................................ 9
3.1.1. Efficiency ......................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2. Feasibility ....................................................................................................... 10
3.1.3. Reliability ....................................................................................................... 10
3.2. Economic Information ........................................................................................... 10
3.2.1. Upfront capital costs....................................................................................... 10
3.2.2. Levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) ............................................................. 11
3.3. Environmental Impacts .......................................................................................... 12
3.3.1. Greenhouse gas emissions.............................................................................. 12
3.3.2. Pollution ......................................................................................................... 12
3.3.3. Risks to flora and fauna.................................................................................. 13
3.4. Social Impacts........................................................................................................ 13
3.4.1. Peoples lifestyle ............................................................................................ 13
3.4.2. Job prospects .................................................................................................. 13
4. Comparison Summary .................................................................................................. 14
5. Transitioning to Renewable .......................................................................................... 15
5.1. Roadblocks that are Preventing Hydroelectric from being more readily adopted 15
 5.1.1. Environmental Damage .................................................................................. 15
5.1.2. Availability of Water and Space .................................................................... 15
5.1.3. Cost Efficiency ............................................................................................... 15
5.1.4. Social Impact .................................................................................................. 15
5.1.5. Power output .................................................................................................. 15
5.1.6. Reliability ....................................................................................................... 16
5.2. The Implications for Completely Replacing Coal with Hydroelectric in the Region
16
5.3. New Policies to Hasten the Transitions ................................................................. 16
6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 17
References ............................................................................................................................. 18
1. Background
1.1. Hydroelectric Power
One alternative energy source to coal that is renewable is hydroelectric power. Hydropower
uses the kinetic energy of falling water to turn a turbine and generate electricity (Michaelides
2012). This energy source is considered renewable because of the water cycle. Solar energy
heats up a body of water which causes the water to evaporate. The evaporation of water
significantly increases the potential energy as the evaporated water condenses into clouds.
When the water precipitates as rain, this potential energy is then converted into kinetic energy
as it falls back to the ground into water bodies. This is a continuous cycle which means that
where will be an infinite supply of water and hence is a renewable energy source.
There are two predominant ways to convert water into hydroelectric power, run-of-river and
impoundment. Run-of-river utilises the flow of water from rivers to turn turbines and
generate electricity. This method of producing electricity, however, can be unreliable as
varying amounts of electricity is generated due to fluctuating local flow conditions
(Edenhofer 2012). The more efficient way to produce electricity is by the impoundment
method. This is where water is stored in a reservoir which subsequently builds pressure
creating potential energy. When the water is released this built up potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy which turns the turbines to generate electricity (Breeze 2014).
This method allows for the control over the water flow meaning that water can be saved
during high water flow and used during times of low water flow (Breeze 2014).
China has the richest hydro resource on the planet with southwest China having the most
available hydropower resources. Across China, the total theoretical hydropower energy
production and installed capacity of 6080 TWh/year and 694GW respectively (Huang and
Yan 2009). The first hydropower station that was established in China was in 1912 in
Shilongba with a 500kW installed capacity (Huang and Yan 2009). The use of
hydroelectricity saw a rapid increase after the establishment of the Peoples Republic of
China in 1949. In its initial stages, most hydro facilities were designed for energy production
of base load rather than maximising its generating capacity for rural areas that were not
connected to the grid (Huang and Yan 2009).
Now hydropower China has the largest number of hydropower stations in the world
accounting for approximately 20% of the worlds hydropower stations (Liu et al. 2013). In
2012, there were more than 45,000 small hydropower plants with an installed capacity of
62.12 GW. This provided electricity to approximately 300 million residents in rural areas and
half of the territories that have access to electricity (Pang et al. 2015). The use of
hydroelectricity in China continues to grow. In 2015 the addition of the first two 650 MW
turbines were installed in the Dagangshan hydropower station; and three more 600 MW
turbines were installed in the Jinshu River as part of the Guanyinyan project to build a 3000
MW hydropower facility (China 2016).
1.2. Coal-fired Power
Carbon is the 6th most abundant element on Earth and can be found in the atmosphere,
water and rocks in the form of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). As well as this CO 2 can be found in
plants and animals as plants use CO 2 to convert into energy and oxygen and animals breathe
out CO 2 . When plants and animals die, CO 2 is released into the atmosphere during the
decomposition process. In certain cases, events such as flooding, earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions cause these decaying animals and plants to become buried. This promotes further
decay of the organic matter and after thousands of years, kerogen is formed (Osborne 2013).
Exposure to heat and pressure over a long period then turns this kerogen into peat and then
coal (Osborne 2013).
 The use of coal has played a major role in the production of electricity due to its relatively
low costs and high abundance. The first power plant was built in the 1880s and since then
coal power has evolved and is now the forefront in energy production with 41% of the global
energy being produced from coal (Speight 2012). To produce electricity, the coal is first
pulverised into fine powder before it is fed into a combustion unit. The heat that is produced
during this combustion process generates stream to spin a turbine which creates electricity.
Coal as a resource however, is a non-renewable energy source as there is estimated to be 892
billion tonnes of coal reserves left worldwide (N. Abas 2015). This poses as a problem as
there is only a finite amount of resources and will inevitably run out.
Another problem that has risen from the production of electricity using coal is its
environmental impacts. This comes from the burning of coal which releases a significant
amount of CO 2 into the atmosphere (Speight 2012). CO 2 is a major greenhouse gas which
traps the Earths heat by creating an invisible layer in the Earths atmosphere. This increases
the Earths temperature and is said to contribute to global warming which has become a
growing concern. As a result, clean renewable alternatives to energy production are being
explored.
China is the largest consumer of coal in the world, primarily for electricity production. The
country produces around 3.8 billion tons of coal per year, predominately in its western
regions such as; Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang. China plans to cut back its outdated coal
mining capacity in smaller mines by 800 million tons per year until 2020 but at the same time
adding 500 million tons of advanced coal each year. There is a plan to have an overall
boost of supply of around 100 million tons making the overall output around 3.9 billion tons
of coal per year. (www.mining.com)
In China, the first 200MW coal-fired power plant started operating in 1972 and the fire
300MW plant in 1974. Around 170 300MW plants and seven 600MW plants were built by
the end of 2000. In 2014, Chinas coal-fired power plants had a capacity of around 907GW
which made up for around 71.6% of the total energy produced by the country. (National
Bureau of Statistics of China) There are currently three types of coal power plants used
around the world. The dominant technology in China is pulverised coal-fired (PCF). In PCF
plants, the coal is pulverised or ground into powder which is then blown into a boiler. The
coal burns at around 1500C which creates steam that turns a turbine to generate electricity
(www.greenpeace.org).
Since the efficiency of the PCF plants are quite low and produce many toxic pollutants into
the atmosphere, China began its desulphurisation clean-up period from the early 2000s
onward (www.technologyreview.com). This involves absorbing sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) from
the flue gas, this is known as flue gas desulphurisation (FGD). This is done by using calcium
based materials such as limestone dolomite to absorb the gas. (Jinsheng, 2009)
Recently there has been a global move to integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
plants. This is what is known as turning solid coal into a synthetic natural gas or syngas
(SNG) by oxidising it with water and/or oxygen (O 2 ). Coal syngas is primarily made up of
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH4 ), and water
vapor (H2 O). Other pollutants can exist such as nitrous oxides (NO X ) and sulphur dioxide
(SO 2 ) (Christiansen, Rostrup-Nielsen, 2011). These are filtered out, hence the term
desulphurisation. This allows for a cleaner more efficient burning of the coal to generate
power. (Jinsheng, 2009)
Currently the only IGCC plant in China is the GreenGen Plant. The plan is to have a
400MW plant by 2020 with an efficiency between 55-60% with an 80% capture of CO 2 .
2. Hydroelectric Power
2.1. Technical Properties
2.1.1. Efficiency
The need for a sustainable development strategy in China is made evident by its large
population and insufficient resources. The development of hydropower would mean that not
only sufficient electrical energy can be provided but it would be a sustainable development
(Chang, Liu and Zhou 2009, 4400-4406). For remote areas, hydropower can also be an
effective energy resource; the transferring of stored water to electrical energy being able to
reach an efficiency of up to 80%. China already sits as one of the largest hydroelectricity
producers in the world, producing 721 terawatt-hours in 2010, making up 17% of electricity
used domestically (Coyle and Simmons 2014).
However economic efficiency is greatly affected by the seasons and flow of rivers; the
flooding seasons resulting in a high quantity of spillage with no benefit, and an energy deficit
is produced in dry seasons, requiring support from other power sources (Chang, Liu and Zhou
2009, 4400-4406). As a result of the problem of peak energy load, some areas have built
thermal power to negate the issue though in south-west areas, a coal-fired power plant is built
as back up, in conjunction with every new hydropower plant. On average and in relation to
the rest of the world, Chinas hydropower is notably inefficient, resulting from rushed
construction. In comparison to the installed capacity of the dam, the electricity produced is
only around 31% - roughly two thirds the worlds average capacity factor (Walker and Qin
2015)
2.1.2. Feasibility
Demand in China for sustainable development, protection of the environment and pollution
control means the development of hydropower is a favourable one, comprehensively
benefitting the economy and increasing the utilization rate of local resources (Chang, Liu and
Zhou 2009, 4400-4406). There are a number of rivers running through areas with high
mountains and deep valleys that are sparsely populated in China. As such, five locations have
been chosen for priority large-scale hydropower development requiring minimal relocation of
residents (Zou 2012, 456-467).
2.1.3. Reliability
Hydropower proves to be reliable as it has a long life-span, produces a large amount of
power and has significantly low maintenance costs; a wind facility in comparison, would
need its turbines to be replaced four times in the life-time of the hydro plant (Christensen and
Alta 2016). Hydropower is characterized by its convenient start and stop of power generation,
giving it the ability to produce quick electricity at peak times and to fill gaps when there is a
shortage (Delucci and Jacobson 2010, 1170-1190).
There are a number of ways to design and operate hydropower in order for energy demands
to be met. However, there will be times when there is not enough or too much power
produced. The difference of flow between Chinas dry and rainy season is notably significant
and the rivers have uneven runoff distribution, resulting in inconsistencies within one and
between years (Chang, Liu and Zhou 2009, 4400-4406).
2.2. Economic Information
2.2.1. Upfront capital costs
Hydropower is one of the low-cost power technologies, units running from between 50 and
100 years with no fuel cost. This has resulted in attracting the fastest investment initiatives
and contributed to their development greatly. (Research and Markets: Analyzing Hydropower
Energy 2010). However, development of hydropower projects requires a huge investment.
There are significant civil works involved with labour and materials making up a significant
percentage of the overall cost. Capital cost of Chinas large hydropower, more than 300 MW,
is around 1538 US$/kW. For small hydropower, up to 50 MW, capital cost sits around 923.07
US$/kW. Larger hydropower comes with additional, indirect costs associated with relocation
of communities and ecological impacts. These costs however, are not easily quantified (Li,
Amorelli and Liu 2016).
2.2.2. Levelised cost of electricity (LCOE)
The levelised cost of energy associated with hydropower is typically low, though is site
dependent. The LCOE of Chinas large hydropower is between 0.031 0.038 US$/kWh
whereas the LCOE of Chinas small hydropower is between 0.038 0.043 US$/kWh (Li,
Amorelli and Liu 2016, 74).
2.3. Environmental Impacts
China has many laws, rules and regulations in regard to environmental conservation.
However, many of these are being disregarded when attempting to meet the countries high
energy demand through the use of hydroelectric power plants (HPPs). HPPs are considered a
sustainable and clean source of energy, however is not flawless, most of these flaws are at the
cost of the environment and ecosystems in surrounding areas.
2.3.1. Greenhouse gas emissions
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the main cause of global air pollution. GHGs have a wide
range of effects on the environment from heat-trapping to reduction of the ozone in the
atmosphere.
China is the worlds second largest producer of carbon dioxide emissions (CO 2 ) and some
studies show that without change the country will overtake the united states and become the
worlds foremost producer of CO 2 as a greenhouse gas (GHG). Although hydroelectric power
plants produce minimal CO 2 emissions when operational, they still produce a substantial
amount during the construction of the reservoir and power plant
All resources for the creation of the power plant is reliant on coal power. With this
considered, CO 2 emissions are, on average, significantly less than coal power stations. For a
small power plants lifetime, there can be between 0.0045 and 0.01kg per kWh of CO2
emitted. Large scale power plants emit nearly four times this weight at an average of 0.027kg.
Methane (CH4 ) is a GHG that can trap heat thirty times more efficiently than carbon
dioxide Methane is produced in the reservoir of HPPs. Decomposing biomaterial of plants
and animals collects in the stagnant water and emits large amounts of CO 2 and CH4 . When
this biomaterial passes through hydropower turbines it aerates more methane to be released
into the atmosphere. This can lead to an increase in methane of up to 8% in the areas the
HPPs are installed. The HPPs emission of methane depends greatly on the location of the
power plant. The higher emissions have found to be in shallow tropical reservoirs, however
Chinas weather is more temperate and damns are quite deep, reducing emissions. The
climate predicts the natural amount of biomaterial in the reservoir but sewage runoff must
also be taken into account. Chinas rivers have quite a large waste density in the water which
increases methane emissions through the turbine. Methane emissions can be mitigated, with
proper design of dams, methane can be captured before it reaches the atmosphere. A
predicted 2.6 million tonnes could be captured and be used for future power generation.
 Table 1. GHG Emission per Energy Unit Produced at Representative Reservoirs in Different
Latitudes. Source from, IRENA http://www.se4all.org
Nation Reservoirs Age (years) Total GHG Annual Plant GHG
Emission ( Energy Emission
Tg CO2eq Generation Factor (g
yr1) (GWh yr1) CO2eq
kWh1)
China Wudongde 0 0.20.3 39,460 6.28.4
China Baihetan 0 0.30.4 60,240 4.66.3
China Ertan 10 0.031.0 17,000 1.8258.8
China Xiluodu 0 0.10.2 51,720 3.34.5
China Xiangjiaba 0 0.10.2 30,747 4.05.4
China Xinanjiang 54 0.71.0 1,861 397.7
539.7
China Three 7 1.41.9 84,700 16.422.6
Gorges

2.3.2. Pollution
HPPs require reservoirs to collect water for use in the production of energy, this modifies
the rivers flow causing the water to be more stagnant then the unaltered river water. As a
result, the reservoir usually has higher amounts of sediments and nutrients, which gives
growth to excess algae and aquatic weeds. These weeds can overcrowd the other plant and
aquatic life and must be controlled by harvesting or introduction of non-native species to eat
the plants/algae. The stagnant water is also colder and has less dissolved oxygen than flowing
river water. This can affect the native flora and fauna both in the reservoir and downstream.
To counter this, aerating turbines can be installed to dissolve oxygen into the water.
2.3.3. Risks to flora and fauna
Most hydroelectric operators are required to release water at certain times of year. If not
released appropriately, water levels can be affected and flora and fauna harmed.
China has a total area of 9.6 million square kilometres of land, and is home to 10% of the
worlds vascular plants (with stems, roots and leaves). Biologists estimate that half of Chinas
animal and plant species are found nowhere else in the world. The area surrounding The
Three Gorges power plant alone accounts for 20% of Chinas seed plants (over 6000 species).
This flora and fauna is threatened as the reservoirs flood some habitats, reduces the flow of
water to others, modify water levels and affects weather patterns of the ecosystem.
The reservoirs decrease flooding downstream in some areas while increasing it in others,
this destroys networks of lakes in the area as well as lowing the water levels along the
Yangtze river. This makes it harder for fish and plant life to survive. The Three Gorges
project has already contributed to the decline of fauna including the Baijiu dolphin which is
currently considered functionally extinct.
The reservoir breaks up land bridges into small islands, isolating animals and plants and
preventing migratory activity. The effects of the dam can be seen through the research of
G.W.s Davis research into the disease schistosomiasis (swimmers itch/snail fever), a blood
parasite transmitted to humans through contaminated water. The water becomes
contaminated when infected snails lay their larvae into the water, the larvae then penetrate the
hosts skin infecting them. The snails use to breed on small flood plains, the disease was
controlled through annual flooding, washing away infected larvae. Due to the altered
ecosystem, the snails have been able to bread unchecked which has led to a spike in
schistosomiasis in surrounding areas.
2.4. Social Impacts
HPPs may be a cleaner source of energy but they tend to have a lot of social impacts in the
areas which they are installed. Issues such as land damage and evacuation of people, to
landslides and earthquakes are just some of the issues involved with the installation and
maintenance of HPPs.
2.4.1. Peoples lifestyle
HPPs dramatically affect the lifestyles of residents in the area HPPs are installed.
Relocation of residents in the area the plants installation is inevitable, this is no different in
China. As well as relocation, the power plants also effect the surrounding environment to
such a degree, that more people are often relocated to avoid damage to properties and harm to
themselves.
2.4.1.1. Relocation
To date the Chinese government has ordered the evacuation of over 1.2 million people in
two cities and 116 towns along the banks of the Yangtze river alone prior to construction
(Hvistendahl, 2008). These evacuated people were promised plots of land and small
compensation, some as miniscule as 50 yuan ($7) a month.

2.4.1.2. Damage to property and wellbeing

The main cause of property damage and casualties in relation to HPPs, in China, is due to
rock slides. Rock slides are directly linked to the installation of HPPs, more specifically the
reservoirs. When the reservoirs are filled, the water seeps into the loose soil at the base of
rocky cliffs, weakening the cliffs and making all surrounding land prone to rockslides
(Hvistendahl, 2008). Scholars at Guangzhous South China Normal University predicted that
modifying the water levels could trigger activity in 283 landslide-prone areas along the
Yangtze river alone (Hvistendahl, 2008).
There have already been reports of damage to residential land due to the installation of the
HPPs. One such incident was to 99 villagers in Miaohe, 17 km upstream of the Yangtze river.
These residents saw their homes split in two by 200-metre-wide cracks in their land
(Hvistendahl, 2008).
Soon after the reservoirs were lowered to account for summer floods the cracks started to
appear. The villagers were evacuated to a mountain tunnel. The villagers stated that they
were eager to move due to seeing landslides, mudslides and cracks appear behind their
homes. Three months later, they were relocated again due to landslides and tremors. Most
villages received only half of the acreage promised to them when moved.
Evidence supports the idea that the introduction of HPPs causes fault-line activity. They
may also increase intensity and frequency of quakes in the surrounding areas. The Three
Gorges reservoir sits on two major faults lines; the Jiuwanxi and the ZiguiBadong.
Changing the water level adds strain to the faults. "When you alter the fault line's mechanical
state, it can cause fault activity to intensify and induce earthquakes. (Hvistendahl, 2008).
In addition, landslides can raise the water level, even further increasing the pressure on the
faults.
2.4.1.3. Casualties
Prior to the construction of HPPs in China, local and foreign scientists, warned of the
dangers to residents and the surrounding areas due to HPPs. These warnings were ignored. To
date, there have been many instances where people have been injured and killed, due to
circumstances directly related to the creation of the HPPs and reservoirs in the area.
 During the installation of the Three Gorges hydroelectric power plant the shore of the
reservoir collapsed in 91 places. Many of these collapses caused landslides. One of these
landslides was on the Qinggan river, just three kilometres from the Yangtze river. 20 million
cubic metres of rock slid into the river causing 20 metre waves which claimed the lives of 14
people.
On another occasion 3050 cubic metres of rock slid onto a highway, burying a bus and
killing at least 30 people (Hvistendahl, 2008).
2.4.2. Job prospects
HPPs provide a lot of jobs during the construction of the power plants. These jobs include
land clearing, road creation, manufacturing and legal work related to the installation.
Figure 1: Jobs in renewable energy: Source from, IRENA http://www.se4all.org

As shown in Figure 1, there is an estimated 204,000 jobs in small hydropower plants alone.
The amount jobs shown is estimated for after the construction of the power plant. This
estimation does not take into account the job opportunities during the construction of the
power plant which is a substantial amount. Most of these jobs above are in the operation and
maintenance of the HPPs.

3. Coal-fired Power
3.1. Technical Properties
3.1.1. Efficiency
In PCF power plants, the efficiency on a world average is around 32%. If the coal is of poor
quality and/or the plant is of low efficiency then the amount of coal that needs to be burnt
increases to produce the same amount of power. This results in a higher amount of by-
product and waste produced by the plant (www.greenpeace.org).
Moving toward IGCC power plants is still relatively inefficient at 40-50%
(www.greenpeace.org). This technology is still relatively new and experimental, with China
only having one IGCC plant operational, the Huaneng GreenGen plant in Tianjin, near
Beijing. (www.globalccsinstitute.com)
3.1.2. Feasibility
Although coal-fired power plants are relatively inefficient, the cost to run them is relatively
low. Coal is a cheap commodity, despite a recent spike in coal prices. This allows for a cheap
source of power. Coal is highly abundant and relatively cheap to mine which allows for low
running costs. China has its own supply of coal, which makes this viable for the country to
continue using this method of generating power. The lower the efficiency of the power plant
the costlier it will be to run, as this would demand more coal for the energy output.
3.1.3. Reliability
The greatest advantage coal-fired power plants have is that is reliable. Coal can supply
power during peak periods as base power or as off-peak power, which makes it highly valued
as power plant fuel. Advanced PCF power plants are designed to support the grid system in
avoiding blackouts.
3.2. Economic Information
3.2.1. Upfront capital costs
The unit investment cost of a new ultra-supercritical (USC) coal-fired power plant in China,
in Chinese Yuan, is around is 3590 per kW. This figure is based on the fact that any new
power plants in China have a capacity of 600MW, that puts the investment price of a 600MW
power plant at about 2.15 million. This is no longer one of the cheaper upfront costs for a
power plant when compared with other technologies in the finite fuel and renewable
technologies, with most renewable technologies starting to surpass the cost of finite fuel
technologies. Figures below are based on US prices but are a guide as to the price variation.
(Eliasson and Lee, 2003)

Technology US$/kW
Domestic small coal plant 676
Domestic 100-200MW coal plant 650
Domestic 300MW coal plant with ESP 600
Domestic 300MW coal plant with ESP and SCR 790
Supercritical 600 MW coal with ESP and SCR 950
Foreign AFBC coal plant 900
Foreign IGCC coal plant 1100
Foreign PFBC coal plant 1100
Traditional oil-fired plant 530
Combined-cycle oil-fired plant 500
Combined-cycle gas-fired plant 530
Advanced gas-turbine CC plant 550
Nuclear plant 1500
Hydroelectric plant 1200
Wind plant 1200
Solar photovoltaic plant 6000
Geothermal plant 2000
3.2.2. Levelised cost of electricity (LCOE)
The levelised cost of electricity in China varies depending on the province, there is a
variation in plants across the country as well. Any new plant that is constructed is likely to be
a 600MW ultra-supercritical (USC) unit. Based on a 600MW coal-fired power plant a model
for the LCOE can be calculated. The table below indicated the usage as in 2015 and a
projected usage in 2020, also the cost of coal per ton and the LCOE in /kWh (Zhao, Zhang,
Wang, Liu, Guo, Xiong, Yuan, 2017).

On-grid
Utilisation Hour Coal Price
tariff
2015 2020 /ton /kWh
Beijing 4158 NA 337 0.35
Tianjin 4519 4409 312 0.35
Hebei 4846 4449 286 0.36
Shandong 4924 4172 375 0.37
Shanxi 4100 3350 194 0.30
Inner Mongolia 4979 4403 215 0.29
Shanghai 3716 3700 374 0.40
Zhejiang 3950 3700 405 0.42
Jiangsu 5125 4755 363 0.38
Anhui 4541 4000 387 0.37
Fujian 3872 3872 366 0.37
Hubei 4024 3641 371 0.40
Henan 4025 3950 336 0.36
Hunan 3452 3355 401 0.45
Jiangxi 4927 4733 431 0.40
Sichuan 2682 2603 360 0.40
Chongqing 3708 3504 391 0.38
Liaoning 4343 4054 371 0.37
Jilin 3326 3226 344 0.37
Heilongjiang 4081 3835 352 0.37
Shaanxi 4690 4422 259 0.33
Gansu 3778 3700 257 0.30
Qinghai 4958 4550 399 0.32
Ningxia 5422 4900 214 0.32
Xinjiang 4730 3750 167 0.26
Guangdong 4028 3467 399 0.45
Guangxi 3193 2937 524 0.41
Yunnan 1879 1879 395 0.34
Guizhou 4304 4000 322 0.34
Hainan 5586 5500 417 0.42

As the table shows, the cost of coal per ton ranges from 167 to 524 per ton with the
average cost around 344 per ton. The LCOE ranges from 0.26 to 0.45 per kWh with an
average of about 0.40 per kWh.
3.3. Environmental Impacts
3.3.1. Greenhouse gas emissions
Burning of fossil fuels gives off an array of gases whether they are inert, toxic or corrosive
with most being categorised as greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gases (GHG) are gases
that absorb and emit thermal infrared radiation. This radiation originates from the sun and
enters Earths atmosphere which is then absorbed and emitted by the Earths surface, the
atmosphere and clouds. This causes the radiation to remain within the atmosphere causing it
to warm and this is known as the greenhouse gas effect.
The primary contributor of greenhouse gases, from the burning of fossil fuels, is carbon
dioxide (CO 2 ) with some being given off as the more toxic form, carbon monoxide (CO).
Other primary greenhouse gases that are released are; nitrous oxides (NO X ) and methane
(CH4 ). The table below indicates the amount of gas emissions in kilograms per kilowatt-hour
and the total amount in kilograms based on the energy production in China in 2002 from
thermal power stations of which coal-fired contributed 71.2% of the power (Di, Nie, Yuan,
Zuo, 2007).

GHG CO 2 NO X CO CH4
kg/kWh 7.61x10-1 5.50x10-3 1.09x10-3 2.30x10-3
kg 1.12x109 8.00x106 1.46x106 1.08x104

The total energy available for consumption of thermal power stations has increased by
322% from 2002 to 2014 which could potentially mean that the figures above theoretically
could have increased by the same amount. This puts China as one of the major contributors
for greenhouse gases in the world (National Bureau of Statistics of China. 2017).
3.3.2. Pollution
The greenhouse gases only some of the air pollutants that are released into the atmosphere
there are many other air pollutants. These are toxic gases and heavy metals, such as; sulphur
dioxide (SO 2 ), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), dust and the heavy
metals; As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, V and Zn. The quantities that where emitted in 2002 are in the
table below and again these could potentially be 322% greater in 2014 due to the increased
energy output (Di, Nie, Yuan, Zuo, 2007).

Emission SO 2 NMVOC Dust As Cd Cr

kg/kWh 6.98x10-3 3.43x10-4 1.42x10-2 1.41x10-6 8.94x10-9 1.19x10-7
kg 1.10x107 1.08x104 2.32x107 3.86x102 6.95x100 1.93x102
Emission Hg Ni Pb V Zn
kg/kWh 6.98x10-3 3.43x10-4 1.42x10-2 1.41x10-6 8.94x10-9
kg 1.01x102 2.45x102 2.03x103 3.28x103 2.74x103

Aside from air pollution there is also the solid wastes; coal fly ash and slag. During 2002,
the production of coal fly ash and slag was 7.24x10-2kg/kWh and 1.62x10-2kg/kWh
respectively. Bearing in mind the total consumption of primary coal in China in 2014 was
3.96 billion tons of which 81.0EJ or 22.5PWh of electricity was produced. Based on these
values, 1.63 billion tons of fly ash and 365 million tons of slag would have been produced.
These solid wastes would then need to be disposed of or recycled into places such as;
concrete, embankments, asphalt and road subbase.
Not only is there the pollution due to the burning of the coal in these power plants but also
in the mining of the coal. As coal refining requires water, there is a risk of pollutants
contaminating freshwater sources, even though mining water is collected and treated. The
treated water is usually recycled can be used for electricity generation and coal preparation.
The potential pollutants that can contaminate the water supplies are; phenols, cyanide (CN-),
ammonia (NH3 ), sulphides (S2-), and the heavy metals; As, Cd, Cr6+, Hg, Pb, Zn and Cu (Di,
Nie, Yuan, Zuo, 2007).
3.3.3. Risks to flora and fauna
Chinas dominant energy source is coal. Therefore, this stands out as the number one
contributor to environmental issues and health problems. It causes most of the air pollution
and acidification throughout China.
The mining of coal is a massive land altering endeavour, whether the mine be underground
or open-cut pits. There is a great amount of land clearing that needs to occur for the mines to
be constructed. This has a huge impact on native flora and fauna, as this destroys the flora
and consequently the faunas habitat.
As mentioned previously, there is the array of pollutants and the different medians in which
they contaminate. All these can influence the health of both the flora and fauna that are
exposed to these pollutants.
The solid wastes created by the burning of the coal needs to be disposed of. This will likely
be some form of landfill or stockpile area, which again requires clearing of land to allow for
the tons of fly ash and slag. This in turn destroys the habitat of the local flora and fauna.
3.4. Social Impacts
3.4.1. Peoples lifestyle
Although the dust from mining is not released into the open air it does have its health
implications on miners. Miners can develop serious health problems due to this as the dust
contains harmful elements as mentioned previously. (Eliasson and Lee, 2003)
In 2008, the national mercury (Hg) emissions from coal-fired power plants was found to be
113.3t, 72% was elemental Hg and 27% was oxidised Hg. This alone can cause serious health
risks to people which ultimately can have an impact on the lifestyle of the Chinese society.
(Zhang, Shuxiao, Meng, Hoa, 2012)
3.4.2. Job prospects
Despite being over capacity by around 250GW in 2015, China is still planning on
constructing around 210 new coal-fired power plants. This is will create jobs in the
construction industry. However, Beijing planned to close 1000 coal mines in 2016, this is due
to an oversupply of cheap coal. It appears there is quite a bit of give and take with respect to
associated jobs surrounding the coal-energy industry (energydesk.greenpeace.org).
4. Comparison Summary
Hydroelectric Power
Technical Properties Higher efficiency of up to
80%
Less reliable, inconsistent as
occasionally insufficient
power is produced and rivers
have uneven distribution
Increasing utilisation rate of
local resources
Economic Impacts Higher upfront capital costs,
10607kW for large
hydropower and
6365.49/kW for small
hydropower
Lower LCOE, 0.24/kWh
(large hydropower) and
0.28/kWh (small
hydropower)
Environmental Produces significantly less
Impacts CO 2
Produces more CH4
Less pollution, pollutes
water systems
More risk to flora and fauna,
destroying habitat,
preventing migration and
altering ecosystems
Social Impacts No direct health risks
Damage to property after
construction
Creating more jobs,
approximately 204, 000 jobs
created from small
hydropower plants.
Coal-fired Power
Lower efficiency at 40-50%
More reliable, can supply
power during on- and off-
peak power
High abundance of resources
within country
Lower upfront capital cost,
3590/kW
Higher LCOE, 0.40/kWh
Produces significantly more
CO 2
Produces less CH4
More pollution, contributing
to air and water pollution
and producing solid waste
Less risk to flora and fauna,
destroys habitat and can
affect their health
Pose risk to health
No property damage after
construction
Less job prospects, removing
more jobs than creating
5. Transitioning to Renewable
5.1. Roadblocks that are Preventing Hydroelectric from being more readily
adopted
5.1.1. Environmental Damage
The construction of a hydroelectric power plant and the reservoir has significant
environmental impacts on the surrounding biological systems. The habitats of several species
that rely on the immediacy of water sources and the surrounding vegetation have to be
completely altered. In the construction stage the surrounding vegetation of the site has to be
cleared and the water sources width widened. The impact on wildlife such as fish and
Anseriformes is highly significant. These faunas all depend on the water density for food
availability. The Anseriformes depend on the surrounding vegetation for resting, nesting and
foraging. When the habitat is changed, these species have to relocate if possible. Human
disturbances also affect the local wildlife with the construction of roads and lights. The lights
and noise confuse the birds on time of day, which can alter breeding cycles and sleeping
patterns, (Science of the Total Environment, 1 July 2016, Vol.557-558, pp.296-306 [Peer
Reviewed Journal]). The construction of a hydroelectric plant has a significant impact on the
surrounding environment impacting the fauna and flora.
5.1.2. Availability of Water and Space
Due to Chinas physical water shortage with the limited space around and in the water
body, the hydroelectric power plants reservoir becomes a complicated development, in which
the dam walls and reservoir must be able fit in the available space. Not only that, but it must
also be able to hold a substantial amount of water to power the plant. Therefore, the designing
and manufacturing of these reservoirs and hydroelectric plant technology is crucial to
overcoming the space and availability challenge.
5.1.3. Cost Efficiency
The cost efficiency of a hydroelectric power plant isnt as appealing as a Coal power plant
in terms of upfront cost. As mentioned previously in section 2.2.1 Upfront Capital costs, that
for a hydroelectric plant is 1538 US$ per kW, which in comparison to the upfront cost of a
coal plant, as discussed in section 3.2.1 Upfront Capital Cost, being 3590 per kW. This
deters investment for a hydroelectric plant to being built as it is cheaper and more capital
profit to be made from a coal plant.
5.1.4. Social Impact
Socially the construction of a hydroelectric power plant proposes a difficult problem to
solve. When the construction site is decided, the surrounding community has to be relocated
as the reservoir requires a large quantity of land space. This requires a large amount of money
and time to relocate these people so another location which is included in a series of policies.
From the statistics available, about 5.7 million people have had to be relocated from their
original homes. The government still compensates for housing, transport, education and also
helps find new jobs for the relocated community. (IEEE Power and Energy Magazine
(Volume: 6, Issue: 4, July-Aug. 2008) citated from paragraph 16 - Displacement of settlers).
5.1.5. Power output
Power output is also another significant roadblock in the development of hydroelectric
movement. In comparison, it is clear why that coal is dominant for the region in question. As
previously mentioned in section 3.2.1 Upfront Capital Cost, a coal plant can have 600MW
capacity which is far more appealing in comparison the figures for a hydroelectric plant.
This is discussed in section 2.2.1 Upfront Capital costs, that a large hydroelectric plant has
300MW capacity, which is half the capacity of a coal power plant. This is a main deterrent
in the hydroelectric power plant transition.
5.1.6. Reliability
The reliability of a hydroelectric power plant is also mentioned and discussed in the section
2.1.3 Reliability. One reason that is preventing the construction of more Hydroelectric plants
is The difference between the runoff distribution in the wet and dry season which leads to
inconstancies. These inconstancies effect power generation which in turn coal is a stable
power source, which is also previously mentioned in section 3.1.3 Reliability; Coal can
supply power during peak and down periods and acts as a base power. Another valid reason
why coal is dominant is because as mentioned before in the same section coal is designed to
support the grid systems avoid blackouts. This increases coals reliability all year around
where hydroelectric is unreliable as it is dependent on water levels or rainfall.
5.2. The Implications for Completely Replacing Coal with Hydroelectric in
the Region
With more than 220 large- and medium-scale (>50 MW) and over 40,000 smaller-scale
hydropower plants, China is already the worlds largest producer of hydroelectricity. With
more plans on building hydropower stations and expanding current facilities, this suggests
that China plans on making hydropower a key source in providing electricity for the country.
Currently, hydropower contributes to 15% of Chinas electricity production with an installed
capacity of 117GW but by 2020 the targeted installed capacity of 300GW. ("China Offers
Detailed Targets for Generating Nation's Power from Renewables by 2020" 2006) This is to
be done with the emphasis of hydropower development in areas such as Jinsham Yalong,
Lancang and Nujiang Rivers. China has however, thermal power accounts for 69.9% of the
total countries power supply with 91.4% of this power coming from coal-fired power
stations. (Li 2016) This, along with the problems that come with hydropower itself, suggest
that China still has a long way till hydropower can completely replace coal plants. To achieve
the complete replacement of coal plants with hydropower there is needed solutions to some
problems. These some problems include the inconsistencies of electricity generation with
run-of-river hydro stations and environmental setbacks.
5.3. New Policies to Hasten the Transitions
Some policies that could be put into place should consist of environmental, economic and
social aspects that are more demanding and push for more hydroelectric plants to be built.
One valid point is to allow an acceptable area to be built either side of river for environmental
purposes. This would allow a place for wildlife and plant regrowth and reduce the amount of
deforestation or clearing in the construction process. Also, having the construction of the
power plant cost lowered, it would drive for more funding and investments, therefore driving
for more to be built.
For the social aspect of the relocation, policies can be in place that makes the relocation
more appealing. If they could relocate them onto a larger block of land or having a larger
house would lower the social rejection of the construction of these power plants. The average
person would find this a more acceptable deal and would also help drive the movement for
renewable energy.
Policies that help the movement for renewable are needed desperately in this region as the
pollution and health risks are extreme. If some of these suggestions were taken into
consideration then Hydroelectric power would start dominating over coal.
6. Conclusion
The coal industry is deeply ingrained into the Chinese society, creating jobs both in the
mining and power industries. This is probably one major issue that would need to be
addressed as a shift to alternate power sources such as hydroelectricity would reduce the need
for these jobs in the coal industry. It would have significant impact on the economy, aside
from that the cost to run hydroelectricity power plants is greatly reduced and the cost of
electricity would be substantially less if this transition to was implemented. However, the
upfront costs are not appealing when cheap coal plants and be can constructed in short
periods of time.
Hydroelectricity is a much more efficient means of generating power than coal is, but is
dependent on a fluctuating water supply from rivers into the hydro dam. Coal is then more
reliable at the cost of efficiency. However, the hydro dam can produce quick power at peak
times.
Although hydroelectricity has much less emissions during its lifetime than coal power,
hydroelectricity effects a massive area in terms of habitat for flora and fauna, and people as
well. This is a major downfall will hydroelectricity but the argument of what is beneficial for
the environment is not as simple as comparing emissions.
Hydroelectric dams will not be the answer in China but they can certainly be part of the
answer. Coal doesnt appear to be phased out anytime soon in China but in the future perhaps
it will be only one of many sources of power within China.
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