Go (game)

This article is about the board game. For other things by resignation.
named Go, see Go (disambiguation). As of mid-2008, there were well over 40 million Go
players worldwide, the overwhelming majority of them
Go (traditional Chinese: ; simplied Chinese: living in East Asia.* [13] As of December 2015, the
; pinyin: wiq; Japanese: ; rmaji: igo* [nb 2]; International Go Federation has a total of 75 member
Korean: ; romaja: baduk* [nb 3]; literally: encir- countries and four Association Membership organiza-
cling game) is an abstract strategy board game for two tions in multiple countries.* [14]
players, in which the aim is to surround more territory
than the opponent.
The game was invented in ancient China more than 2,500 1 Overview
years ago, and is therefore believed to be the oldest
board game continuously played today.* [2]* [3] It was
considered one of the four essential arts of the cultured
aristocratic Chinese scholar caste in antiquity. The earli-
est written reference to the game is generally recognized
as the historical annal Zuo Zhuan* [4]* [5] (c. 4th century
BCE).* [6] The modern game of Go as we know it was
formalized in Japan in the 15th century CE.
Despite its relatively simple rules, Go is very complex,
even more so than chess, and possesses more possibilities
than the total number of atoms in the visible universe.
Compared to chess, Go has both a larger board with more
scope for play and longer games, and, on average, many
more alternatives to consider per move.* [7]
The playing pieces are called "stones". One player uses
the white stones and the other, black. The players take
turns placing the stones on the vacant intersections (
points) of a board with a 1919 grid of lines. Begin-
ners often play on smaller 99 and 1313 boards,* [8] and
archaeological evidence shows that the game was played
The rst 60 moves of a Go game animated. This particular game
in earlier centuries on a board with a 1717 grid. How- quickly developed into a complicated ght in the lower left and
ever, boards with a 1919 grid had become standard by bottom.(Click on the board to restart the play in a larger window.)
the time the game had reached Korea in the 5th century
CE and later Japan in the 7th century CE.* [9]
Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surround-
The objective of Goas the translation of its name im- ing a larger total area of the board with one's stones than
pliesis to fully surround a larger total area of the board the opponent. As the game progresses, the players posi-
than the opponent.* [10] tion stones on the board to map out formations and po-
Once placed on the board, stones may not be moved, but tential territories. Contests between opposing formations
stones are removed from the board when captured are often extremely complex and may result in the expan-
. Capture happens when a stone or group of stones sion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of forma-
is surrounded by opposing stones on all orthogonally- tion stones.
adjacent points.* [11] The game proceeds until neither A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have
player wishes to make another move; the game has no set at least one "liberty" to remain on the board. Aliberty
ending conditions beyond this. When a game concludes, is an open point(intersection) bordering the group.
the territory is counted along with captured stones and An enclosed liberty (or liberties) is called an "eye", and a
komi (points added to the score of the player with the group of stones with two or more eyes is said to be uncon-
white stones as compensation for playing second) to de- ditionallyalive.* [16] Such groups cannot be captured,
termine the winner.* [12] Games may also be terminated even if surrounded.* [17] A group with one eye or no eyes

1
2 1 OVERVIEW

and are often studied independently.* [27]

"Dame" are points that lie in-between the boundary walls
of black and white, and as such are considered to be of
no value to either side. "Seki" are mutually alive pairs of
white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A
ko(Chinese and Japanese: ) is a repeated-position
shape that may be contested by making forcing moves
elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may
betaken backand returned to its original position.* [28]
Some ko ghtsmay be important and decide the life
of a large group, while others may be worth just one or
two points. Some ko ghts are referred to aspicnic kos
when only one side has a lot to lose.* [29] The Japanese
call it a hanami (ower-viewing) ko.* [30]
Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of
each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank
(30kyu1kyu|1dan6dan|1dan pro9dan pro). A dif-
ference in rank may be compensated by a handicap
The four liberties (adjacent empty points) of a single black stone
Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board
(A), as White reduces those liberties by one (B, C, and D). When
Black has only one liberty left (D), that stone isin atari.* [15]
to compensate for White's greater strength.* [31]* [32]
White may capture that stone (remove from board) with a play There are dierent rule-sets (Japanese, Chinese, AGA,
on its last liberty (at D-1). etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for cer-
tain special-case positions.
Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black
is deadand cannot resist eventual capture.* [18]
moves rst or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there
The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack are essentially only two rules in Go:
the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed),
and always stay mindful of the "life status" of one's Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone
own groups.* [19]* [20] The liberties of groups are count- remaining on the board must have at least one open
able. Situations where mutually opposing groups must point(an intersection, called aliberty) directly
capture each other or die are called capturing races, or orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or
semeai.* [21] In a capturing race, the group with more lib- must be part of a connected group that has at least
erties (and/or better shape) will ultimately be able to one such open point (liberty) next to it. Stones
capture the opponent's stones.* [21]* [22] Capturing races or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are
and the elements of life or death are the primary chal- removed from the board.
lenges of Go.
Rule 2 (the ko rule) states that the stones on
A player may pass on determining that the game oers the board must never repeat a previous position of
no further opportunities for protable play. The game stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and
ends when both players pass,* [23] and is then scored. thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted
For each player, the number of captured stones komi is that turn.
subtracted from the number of controlled (surrounded)
points in libertiesor eyes, and the player with Almost all other information about how the game is
the greater score wins the game.* [24] Games may also played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information
be won by resignation of the opponent. about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other
rules are specialized, as they come about through dier-
ent rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of
1.1 Finer points any played game.

In the opening stages of the game, players typically estab-
lish positions (orbases) in the corners and around the
sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop
strong shapes which have many options for life (self-
viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and
establish formations for potential territory.* [25] Players
usually start in the corners because establishing territory
is easier with the aid of two edges of the board.* [26] Es-
tablished corner opening sequences are called "joseki"
Although there are some minor dierences between rule
sets used in dierent countries,* [33] most notably in Chi-
nese and Japanese scoring rules,* [34] these dierences
do not greatly aect the tactics and strategy of the game.
Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are
valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring
rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there
are no ready English equivalent are commonly called by
their Japanese names.
2.2 Ko rule 3

2 Rules
Main article: Rules of Go

2.1 Basic rules

If White plays at A, the black chain loses its last liberty. It is

captured and removed from the board.

2.2 Ko rule

Main article: Ko ght

An example of a situation in which the ko rule applies

Players are not allowed to make a move that returns the
game to the previous position. This rule, called the ko
rule, prevents unending repetition.* [39] As shown in the
example pictured: Black has just played the stone marked
1, capturing a white stone at the intersection marked with
One black chain and two white chains, with their liberties marked the red circle. If White were now allowed to play on the
with dots. Liberties are shared among all stones of a chain and marked intersection, that move would capture the black
can be counted. Here the black group has 5 liberties, while the stone marked 1 and recreate the situation before Black
two white chains have 4 liberties each. made the move marked 1. Allowing this could result in
an unending cycle of captures by both players. The ko
Two players, Black and White, take turns placing a stone rule therefore prohibits White from playing at the marked
(game piece) of their own color on a vacant point (in- intersection immediately. Instead White must play else-
tersection) of the grid on a Go board. Black plays rst. where, or pass; Black can then end the ko by lling at the
If there is a large dierence in skill between the play- marked intersection, creating a ve-stone black chain. If
ers, the weaker player typically uses Black and is al- White wants to continue the ko (that specic repeating
lowed to place two or more stones on the board to com- position), White tries to nd a play elsewhere on the board
pensate for the dierence (see Go handicaps). The of- that Black must answer; if Black answers, then White can
cial grid comprises 1919 lines, though the rules can retake the ko. A repetition of such exchanges is called a
be applied to any grid size. 1313 and 99 boards are ko ght.* [40]
popular choices to teach beginners, or for playing quick
While the various rule-sets agree on the ko rule prohibit-
games.* [35] Once placed, a stone may not be moved to a
ing returning the board to an immediately previous po-
dierent point.* [36]
sition, they deal in dierent ways with the relatively un-
Vertically and horizontally adjacent stones of the same common situation in which a player might recreate a past
color form a chain (also called a string or group) that can- position that is further removed. See Rules of Go: Rep-
not subsequently be subdivided and, in eect, becomes etition for further information.
a single larger stone.* [37] Only stones immediately con-
nected to one another by the lines on the board create
a chain; stones that are diagonally adjacent are not con- 2.3 Suicide
nected. Chains may be expanded by placing additional
stones on adjacent intersections, and can be connected A player may not place a stone such that it or its group
together by placing a stone on an intersection that is ad- immediately has no liberties, unless doing so immediately
jacent to two or more chains of the same color. deprives an enemy group of its nal liberty. In the latter
A vacant point adjacent to a stone is called a liberty for case, the enemy group is captured, leaving the new stone
that stone.* [38]* [nb 4] Stones in a chain share their lib- with at least one liberty.* [43] This rule is responsible for
erties. A chain of stones must have at least one liberty the all-important dierence between one and two eyes:
to remain on the board. When a chain is surrounded by if a group with only one eye is fully surrounded on the
opposing stones so that it has no liberties, it is captured outside, it can be killed with a stone placed in its single
and removed from the board. eye.
4 2 RULES

Under normal rules, White cannot play at A because that

point has no liberties. Under the Ing* [41] and New Zealand
rules,* [42] White may play A, a suicide stone that kills itself and
the two neighboring white stones, leaving an empty three-space
eye. Black naturally answers by playing at A, creating two eyes.
The Ing and New Zealand rules do not have this rule,* [44]
and there a player might destroy one of its own groups
"commit suicide. This play would only be useful
in a limited set of situations involving a small interior
space.* [45] In the example at right, it may be useful as
a ko threat.
A simplied game at its end. Black's territory (A) + (C) and pris-
oners (D) is counted and compared to White's territory (B) only
(no prisoners). In this example, both Black and White attempted
to invade and live (C and D groups) to reduce the other's total
territory. Only Black's invading group (C) was successful in liv-
ing, as White's group (D) was killed with a black stone at (E).
The points in the middle (F) are dame, meaning they belong
to neither player.

2.4 Komi the number of stones that the player has on the board,
plus the number of empty intersections surrounded by
Main article: Komidashi that player's stones.
Territory scoring (including Japanese and Korean):
Because Black has the advantage of playing the rst In the course of the game, each player retains the stones
move, the idea of awarding White some compensation they capture, termed prisoners. Any dead stones removed
came into being during the 20th century. This is called at the end of the game become prisoners. The score is
komi, which gives white a 6.5-point compensation under the number of empty points enclosed by a player's stones,
Japanese rules (number of points varies by rule set).* [46] plus the number of prisoners captured by that player.* [nb
Under handicap play, White receives only a 0.5-point 5]
komi, to break a possible tie (jigo). If there is disagreement about which stones are dead, then
under area scoring rules, the players simply resume play
to resolve the matter. The score is computed using the
2.5 Scoring rules position after the next time the players pass consecutively.
Under territory scoring, the rules are considerably more
Two general types of scoring system are used, and play- complex; however, in practice, players generally play on,
ers determine which to use before play. Both systems al- and, once the status of each stone has been determined,
most always give the same result. Territory scoring counts return to the position at the time the rst two consecutive
the number of empty points a player's stones surround, passes occurred and remove the dead stones. For further
together with the number of stones the player captured. information, see Rules of Go.
Area scoring counts the number of points a player's stones
occupy and surround. It is associated with contemporary Given that the number of stones a player has on the board
Chinese play and was probably established there during is directly related to the number of prisoners their oppo-
the Ming Dynasty in the 15th or 16th century.* [47] nent has taken, the resulting net score, that is the dier-
ence between Black's and White's scores, is identical un-
After both players have passed consecutively, the stones der both rulesets (unless the players have passed dierent
that are still on the board but unable to avoid capture, numbers of times during the course of the game). Thus,
called dead stones, are removed. the net result given by the two scoring systems rarely dif-
Area scoring (including Chinese): A player's score is fers by more than a point.* [48]
 5

2.6 Life and death

See also: Life and death

While not actually mentioned in the rules of Go (at least

in simpler rule sets, such as those of New Zealand and the
U.S.), the concept of a living group of stones is necessary
for a practical understanding of the game.* [49]
Examples of eyes (marked). The black groups at the top
of the board are alive, as they have at least two eyes. The
black groups at the bottom are dead as they only have one
eye. The point marked a is a false eye.
When a group of stones is mostly surrounded and has no
options to connect with friendly stones elsewhere, the sta- Example of seki (mutual life). Neither Black nor White can play
tus of the group is either alive, dead or unsettled. A group on the marked points without reducing their own liberties for
of stones is said to be alive if it cannot be captured, even those groups to one (self-atari).
if the opponent is allowed to move rst. Conversely, a
group of stones is said to be dead if it cannot avoid cap- life or seki. Neither player receives any points for
ture, even if the owner of the group is allowed the rst those groups, but at least those groups themselves remain
move. Otherwise, the group is said to be unsettled: the living, as opposed to being captured.* [nb 6]
defending player can make it alive or the opponent can
kill it, depending on who gets to play rst.* [49] Seki can occur in many ways. The simplest are:

An "eye" is an empty point or group of points surrounded 1. each player has a group without eyes and they share
by one player's stones. If the eye is surrounded by Black two liberties, and
stones, thesuicide ruleforbids White to place a stone in
a single-point eye surround by Black unless the placement 2. each player has a group with one eye and they share
results in a capture of Black stones that creates a liberty one more liberty.
for White's new stone (or connected group). Eectively,
the capture rule is applied before the suicide rule, and In the Example of seki (mutual life)" diagram, the cir-
both are applied before White's play is completed. cled points are liberties shared by both a black and a white
By the interplay of the capture and suicide rules, survival group. Neither player wants to play on a circled point, be-
for a group can be guaranteed only by having two or more cause doing so would allow the opponent to capture. All
eyes. If two such eyes exist, the opponent can never cap- the other groups in this example, both black and white,
ture a group of stones, because one liberty is always re- are alive with at least two eyes. Seki can result from an
maining. One eye is not enough for life because a point attempt by one player to invade *
and kill a nearly settled
that would normally be suicide may be lled by the op- group of the other player. [49]
ponent, thereby capturing the group. In the Examples
of eyesdiagram, all the circled points are eyes. The
two black groups in the upper corners are alive, as both 3 Tactics
have at least two eyes. The groups in the lower corners
are dead, as both have only one eye. The group in the Main article: Go strategy and tactics
lower left may seem to have two eyes, but the surrounded
empty point marked a is not actually an eye. White can
play there and take a black stone. Such a point is often In Go, tactics deal with immediate ghting between
called a false eye.* [49] stones, capturing and saving stones, life, death and other
issues localized to a specic part of the board. Larger is-
sues, not limited to only part of the board, are referred to
as strategy, and are covered in their own section.
2.7 Seki (mutual life)

There is an exception to the requirement that a group must
have two eyes to be alive, a situation called seki (or mutual
life). Where dierent colored groups are adjacent and
share liberties, the situation may reach a position when
neither player wants to move rst, because doing so would
allow the opponent to capture; in such situations there-
fore both players' stones remain on the board in mutual
3.1 Capturing tactics
There are several tactical constructs aimed at capturing
stones.* [50] These are among the rst things a player
learns after understanding the rules. Recognizing the
possibility that stones can be captured using these tech-
niques is an important step forward.
6 3 TACTICS

A ladder. Black cannot escape unless the ladder connects practice material available to players of the game comes
to black stones further down the board that will intercept in the form of life and death problems, also known as
with the ladder. tsumego.* [56] In such problems, players are challenged
The most basic technique is the ladder.* [51] To capture to nd the vital move sequence that kills a group of the
stones in a ladder, a player uses a constant series of cap- opponent or saves a group of their own. Tsumego are
ture threatscalled atarito force the opponent into a considered an *excellent way to train a player's ability at
zigzag pattern as shown in the adjacent diagram. Unless reading ahead, [56] and are available for all skill levels,
the pattern runs into friendly stones along the way, the some posing a challenge even to top players.
stones in the ladder cannot avoid capture. Experienced
players recognize the futility of continuing the pattern and 3.3 Ko ghting
play elsewhere. The presence of a ladder on the board
does give a player the option to play a stone in the path
of the ladder, thereby threatening to rescue their stones,
forcing a response. Such a move is called a ladder breaker
and may be a powerful strategic move. In the diagram,
Black has the option of playing a ladder breaker.
A net. The chain of three marked black stones cannot
escape in any direction.
Another technique to capture stones is the so-called
net,* [52] also known by its Japanese name, geta. This
refers to a move that loosely surrounds some stones, pre-
venting their escape in all directions. An example is given
in the adjacent diagram. It is generally better to capture
stones in a net than in a ladder, because a net does not de-
pend on the condition that there are no opposing stones in
the way, nor does it allow the opponent to play a strategic
ladder breaker.
A snapback. Although Black can capture the white stone
by playing at the circled point, the resulting shape for
Black has only one liberty (at 1), thus White can then A simplied ko ght on a 99 board. The ko is at the point
capture the three black stones by playing at 1 again (snap marked with a squareBlack has taken the korst. The
back). ko ght determines the life of the A and B groupsonly one
survives and the other is captured. White may play C as a ko
A third technique to capture stones is the snapback.* [53] threat, and Black properly answers at D. White can then take
In a snapback, one player allows a single stone to be cap- the koby playing at the square-marked point (capturing the one
tured, then immediately plays on the point formerly oc- black stone). E is a possible ko threat for Black.
cupied by that stone; by so doing, the player captures a
larger group of their opponent's stones, in eect snap- In situations when the Ko rule applies, a ko ght may oc-
ping back at those stones. An example can be seen on cur.* [40] If the player who is prohibited from capture is
the right. As with the ladder, an experienced player does of the opinion that the capture is important, because it
not play out such a sequence, recognizing the futility of prevents a large group of stones from being captured for
capturing only to be captured back immediately. instance, the player may play a ko threat.* [40] This is a
move elsewhere on the board that threatens to make a
large prot if the opponent does not respond. If the op-
3.2 Reading ahead ponent does respond to the ko threat, the situation on the
board has changed, and the prohibition on capturing the
One of the most important skills required for strong tac- ko no longer applies. Thus the player who made the ko
tical play is the ability to read ahead.* [54] Reading ahead threat may now recapture the ko. Their opponent is then
includes considering available moves to play, the possible in the same situation and can either play a ko threat as
responses to each move, and the subsequent possibilities well, or concede the ko by simply playing elsewhere. If a
after each of those responses. Some of the strongest play- player concedes the ko, either because they do not think
ers of the game can read up to 40 moves ahead even in it important or because there are no moves left that could
complicated positions.* [55] function as a ko threat, they have lost the ko, and their
As explained in the scoring rules, some stone formations opponent may connect the ko.
can never be captured and are said to be alive, while other Instead of responding to a ko threat, a player may also
stones may be in the position where they cannot avoid choose to ignore the threat and connect the ko.* [40] They
being captured and are said to be dead. Much of the thereby win the ko, but at a cost. The choice of when
4.2 Opening strategy 7

to respond to a threat and when to ignore it is a subtle is that of adjacent groups that share their last few lib-
one, which requires a player to consider many factors, in- ertiesif either player plays in the shared liberties,
cluding how much is gained by connecting, how much is they can reduce their own group to a single liberty
lost by not responding, how many possible ko threats both (putting themselves in atari), allowing their oppo-
players have remaining, what the optimal order of play- nent to capture it on the next move.
ing them is, and what the sizepoints lost or gainedof
Death: A group that lacks living shape is eventually
each of the remaining threats is.* [57]
removed from the board as captured.
Frequently, the winner of the ko ght does not connect the
ko but instead captures one of the chains that constituted Invasion: Set up a new living group inside an area
their opponent's side of the ko.* [40] In some cases, this where the opponent has greater inuence, means one
leads to another ko ght at a neighboring location. reduces the opponent's score in proportion to the
area one occupies.
Reduction: Placing a stone far enough into the op-
4 Strategy ponent's area of inuence to reduce the amount of
territory they eventually get, but not so far in that it
Main article: Go strategy and tactics can be cut o from friendly stones outside.
Sente: A play that forces one's opponent to respond
Strategy deals with global inuence, interaction between (gote). A player who can regularly play sente has the
distant stones, keeping the whole board in mind during lo- initiative and can control the ow of the game.
cal ghts, and other issues that involve the overall game.
Sacrice: Allowing a group to die in order to carry
It is therefore possible to allow a tactical loss when it con-
out a play, or plan, in a more important area.
fers a strategic advantage.
Novices often start by randomly placing stones on the The strategy involved can become very abstract and com-
board, as if it were a game of chance. An understanding plex. High-level players spend years improving their un-
of how stones connect for greater power develops, and derstanding of strategy, and a novice may play many hun-
then a few basic common opening sequences may be un- dreds of games against opponents before being able to
derstood. Learning the ways of life and death helps in a win regularly.
fundamental way to develop one's strategic understanding
of weak groups.* [nb 7] A player who both plays aggres-
sively and can handle adversity is said to display kiai, or 4.2 Opening strategy
ghting spirit, in the game.
In the opening of the game, players usually play in the cor-
ners of the board rst, as the presence of two edges makes
4.1 Basic concepts it easier for them to surround territory and establish their
stones.* [59] After the corners, focus moves to the sides,
Main article: Go terms where there is still one edge to support a player's stones.
Opening moves are generally on the third and fourth line
from the edge, with occasional moves on the second and
Basic strategic aspects include the following:
fth lines. In general, stones on the third line oer sta-
bility and are good defensive moves, whereas stones on
Connection: Keeping one's own stones connected
the fourth line inuence more of the board and are good
means that fewer groups need to make living shape,
attacking moves. The opening is the most dicult part
and one has fewer groups to defend.
of the game for professional players and takes a dispro-
Cut: Keeping opposing stones disconnected means portionate amount of the playing time.* [60]
that the opponent needs to defend and make living In the opening, players often play established sequences
shape for more groups. called joseki, which are locally balanced exchanges;* [61]
Stay alive: The simplest way to stay alive is to es- however, the joseki chosen should also produce a satisfac-
tablish a foothold in the corner or along one of the tory result on a global scale. It is generally advisable to
sides. At a minimum, a group must have two eyes keep a balance between territory and inuence. Which
(separate open points) to be alive.* [58] An op- of these gets precedence is often a matter of individual
ponent cannot ll in either eye, as any such move is taste.
suicidal and prohibited in the rules.
Mutual life (seki) is better than dying: A situation in 4.3 Middle phase and endgame
which neither player can play on a particular point
without then allowing the other player to play at an- The middle phase of the game is the most combative, and
other point to capture. The most common example usually lasts for more than 100 moves. During the mid-
8 5 HISTORY

dlegame, the players invade each other's territories, and

attack formations that lack the necessary two eyes for vi-
ability. Such groups may be saved or sacriced for some-
thing more signicant on the board.* [62] It is possible
that one player may succeed in capturing a large weak
group of the opponent's, which often proves decisive and
ends the game by a resignation. However, matters may
be more complex yet, with major trade-os, apparently
dead groups reviving, and skillful play to attack in such a
way as to construct territories rather than kill.* [63]
The end of the middlegame and transition to the endgame
is marked by a few features. The game breaks up into ar-
eas that do not aect each other (with a caveat about ko
ghts), where before the central area of the board related
to all parts of it. No large weak groups are still in se-
rious danger. Moves can reasonably be attributed some
denite value, such as 20 points or fewer, rather than sim-
ply being necessary to compete. Both players set limited
objectives in their plans, in making or destroying terri-
tory, capturing or saving stones. These changing aspects
of the game usually occur at much the same time, for
strong players. In brief, the middlegame switches into
the endgame when the concepts of strategy and inuence
need reassessment in terms of concrete nal results on the
board. Woman Playing Go (Tang Dynasty c. 744), discovered at the
Astana Graves

5 History
Main article: History of Go

5.1 Origin in China

The earliest written reference to the game is generally
recognized as the historical annal Zuo Zhuan* [4]* [5]
(c. 4th century BC),* [6] referring to a historical event
of 548 BC. It is also mentioned in Book XVII of the
Analects of Confucius* [6] and in two books written by
Mencius* [5]* [64] (c. 3rd century BC).* [6] In all of these
works, the game is referred to as y (). Today, in China, 19x19 Go Board from Sui Dynasty
it is known as weiqi (simplied Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ; pinyin: wiq; WadeGiles: wei ch'i),
literally encirclement board game. calligraphy, painting and playing the musical instrument
guqin.* [68]
Go was originally played on a 1717 line grid, but a
1919 grid became standard by the time of the Tang
Dynasty (618907).* [5] Legends trace the origin of the 5.2 Spread to Korea and Japan
game to the mythical Chinese emperor Yao (23372258
BC), who was said to have had his counselor Shun de- Weiqi was introduced to Korea sometime between the 5th
sign it for his unruly son, Danzhu, to favorably inu- and 7th centuries CE, and was popular among the higher
ence him.* [65] Other theories suggest that the game classes. In Korea, the game is called baduk (hangul:
was derived from Chinese tribal warlords and generals, ), and a variant of the game called Sunjang baduk was
who used pieces of stone to map out attacking posi- developed by the 16th century. Sunjang baduk became
tions.* [66]* [67] the main variant played in Korea until the end of the 19th
In China, Go was considered one of the four culti- century, when the current version was reintroduced from
vated arts of the Chinese scholar gentleman, along with Japan.* [69]* [70]
5.3 Internationalization 9

competing schools were founded soon after.* [73] These

ocially recognized and subsidized Go schools greatly
developed the level of play and introduced the dan/kyu
style system of ranking players.* [74] Players from the
four schools (Honinbo, Yasui, Inoue and Hayashi) com-
peted in the annual castle games, played in the presence
of the shogun.* [75]

5.3 Internationalization

Despite its widespread popularity in East Asia, Go has

Korean couple, in traditional dress, play in a photograph dated
been slow to spread to the rest of the world. Although
between 1910 and 1920.
there are some mentions of the game in western litera-
ture from the 16th century forward, Go did not start to
become popular in the West until the end of the 19th
century, when German scientist Oskar Korschelt wrote
a treatise on the ancient Han Chinese game.* [76] By the
early 20th century, Go had spread throughout the German
and Austro-Hungarian empires. In 1905, Edward Lasker
learned the game while in Berlin. When he moved to New
York, Lasker founded the New York Go Club together
with (amongst others) Arthur Smith, who had learned of
the game in Japan while touring the East and had pub-
lished the book The Game of Go in 1908.* [77] Lasker's
book Go and Go-moku (1934) helped spread the game
throughout the U.S.,* [77] and in 1935, the American Go
Association was formed. Two years later, in 1937, the
German Go Association was founded.
World War II put a stop to most Go activity, since it was a
game coming from Japan, but after the war, Go continued
to spread.* [78] For most of the 20th century, the Japan
Go Association (Nihon Ki-in) played a leading role in
spreading Go outside East Asia by publishing the English-
language magazine Go Review in the 1960s, establishing
Go centers in the U.S., Europe and South America, and
often sending professional teachers on tour to Western na-
tions.* [79] Internationally, the game had been commonly
known since the start of the twentieth century by its short-
ened Japanese name, and terms for common Go concepts
are derived from their Japanese pronunciation.
In 1996, NASA astronaut Daniel Barry and Japanese as-
Illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji (12th century).
tronaut Koichi Wakata became the rst people to play Go
in space. They used a special Go set, which was named
*
The game reached Japan in the 7th century CEwhere Go Space, designed by Wai-Cheung Willson Chow. [80]
it is called go () or igo ( ) the game became Both astronauts *
were awarded honorary dan ranks by the
popular at the Japanese imperial court in the 8th cen- Nihon Ki-in. [80]
tury,* [71] and among the general public by the 13th cen- As of December 2015, the International Go Federation
tury.* [72] The modern version of the game as we know has 75 member countries, with 67 member countries out-
it today was formalized in Japan in the 15th century CE. side East Asia.* [14]
In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu re-established Japan's unied
national government. In the same year, he assigned the
then-best player in Japan, a Buddhist monk named Nikkai
(n Kan Yosaburo, 1559), to the post of Godokoro
(Minister of Go).* [73] Nikkai took the name Honinbo 6 Competitive play
Sansa and founded the Honinbo Go school.* [73] Several
10 6 COMPETITIVE PLAY

6.1 Ranks and ratings 6.2 Tournament and match rules

See also: Go competitions

Main article: Go ranks and ratings
In Go, rank indicates a player's skill in the game.
Tournament and match rules deal with factors that may
inuence the game but are not part of the actual rules
of play. Such rules may dier between events. Rules
that inuence the game include: the setting of compen-
sation points (komi), handicap, and time control parame-
ters. Rules that do not generally inuence the game are:
the tournament system, pairing strategies, and placement
criteria.
Common tournament systems used in Go include the
McMahon system,* [84] Swiss system, league systems
and the knockout system. Tournaments may combine
multiple systems; many professional Go tournaments use
a combination of the league and knockout systems.* [85]
Tournament rules may also set the following:

compensation points, called komi, which compen-

sate the second player for the rst move advantage
of his opponent; tournaments commonly use a com-
pensation in the range of 58 points,* [86] generally
including a half-point to prevent draws;

handicap stones placed on the board before alternate

play, allowing players of dierent strengths to play
competitively (see Go handicap for more informa-
tion); and

superko: Although the basic ko rule described above

Three Japanese professional Go players observe some younger covers more than 95% of all cycles occurring in
amateurs as they dissect a life and death problem in the corner
games,* [87] there are some complex situations
of the board, at the US Go Congress in Houston, Texas, 2003.
triple ko, eternal life,* [nb 8] etc.that are not cov-
ered by it but would allow the game to cycle indef-
initely. To prevent this, the ko rule is sometimes
extended to forbid the repetition of any previous po-
Traditionally, ranks are measured using kyu and dan
sition. This extension is called superko.* [87]
grades,* [81] a system also adopted by many martial arts.
More recently, mathematical rating systems similar to the
Elo rating system have been introduced.* [82] Such rating
systems often provide a mechanism for converting a rat-
6.3 Top players and professional go
ing to a kyu or dan grade.* [82] Kyu grades (abbreviated
k) are considered student grades and decrease as playing See also: Go players, Go professional, and List of
level increases, meaning 1st kyu is the strongest available professional Go tournaments
kyu grade. Dan grades (abbreviated d) are considered
master grades, and increase from 1st dan to 7th dan. First A Go professional is a professional player of the game
dan equals a black belt in eastern martial arts using this of Go. There are six areas with professional go associ-
system. The dierence among each amateur rank is one ations, these are: China (China Qiyuan), Japan (Nihon
handicap stone. For example, if a 5k plays a game with a Ki-in, Kansai Ki-in), South Korea (Korea Baduk Asso-
1k, the 5k would need a handicap of four stones to even ciation), Taiwan (Taiwan Chi Yuan Culture Foundation),
the odds. Top-level amateur players sometimes defeat the United States (AGA Professional System) and Europe
professionals in tournament play.* [83] Professional play- (European Professional System).
ers have professional dan ranks (abbreviated p). TheseAlthough the game was developed in China, the establish-
ranks are separate from amateur ranks. ment of the Four Go houses by Tokugawa Ieyasu at the
The rank system comprises, from the lowest to highest start of the 17th century shifted the focus of the Go world
ranks: to Japan. State sponsorship, allowing players to dedicate
6.3 Top players and professional go
themselves full-time to study of the game, and erce com- tem.* [97] In 2014, the European Go Federation followed
petition between individual houses resulted in a signi- suit and started their professional system.* [98]
cant increase in the level of play. During this period, the
best player of his generation was given the prestigious ti-
tle Meijin (master) and the post of Godokoro (minister
of Go). Of special note are the players who were dubbed
Kisei (Go Sage). The only three players to receive this
honor were Dosaku, Jowa and Shusaku, all of the house
Honinbo.* [88]
Honinbo Shusai (left), last head of house Honinbo, plays against
then-up-and-coming Go Seigen in the game of the century.
After the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji
Restoration period, the Go houses slowly disappeared,
and in 1924, the Nihon Ki-in (Japanese Go Association)
was formed. Top players from this period often played
newspaper-sponsored matches of 210 games.* [89] Of
special note are the (Chinese-born) player Go Seigen
(Chinese: Wu Qingyuan), who scored 80% in these
matches and beat down most of his opponents to infe-
rior handicaps),* [90] and Minoru Kitani, who dominated
matches in the early 1930s.* [91] These two players are
also recognized for their groundbreaking work on new
opening theory (Shinfuseki).* [92]
For much of the 20th century, Go continued to be dom-
inated by players trained in Japan. Notable names in-
cluded Eio Sakata, Rin Kaiho (born in China), Masao
Kato, Koichi Kobayashi and Cho Chikun (born Cho Ch'i-
hun, from South Korea).* [93] Top Chinese and Korean
talents often moved to Japan, because the level of play
there was high and funding was more lavish. One of the
rst Korean players to do so was Cho Namchul, who stud-
ied in the Kitani Dojo 19371944. After his return to Ko-
rea, the Hanguk Kiwon (Korea Baduk Association) was
formed and caused the level of play in South Korea to rise
signicantly in the second half of the 20th century.* [94]
In China, the game declined during the Cultural Revolu-
tion (19661976) but quickly recovered in the last quarter
of the 20th century, bringing Chinese players, such as Nie
Weiping and Ma Xiaochun, on par with their Japanese
and South Korean counterparts.* [95] The Chinese Weiqi
Association (today part of the China Qiyuan) was estab-
lished in 1962, professional dan grades started being is-
sued in 1982.* [96] Western professional go began in 2012
with the American Go Association's Professional Sys-
11
South Korean player Lee Chang-ho plays against Russian player
Alexandre Dinerchtein, seven-time European Champion and one
of the few non-East Asian players to reach professional status.
With the advent of major international titles from 1989
onward, it became possible to compare the level of play-
ers from dierent countries more accurately. Cho Hun-
hyun of South Korea won the rst edition of the Qua-
drennial Ing Cup in 1989. His disciple Lee Chang-ho was
the dominant player in international Go competitions for
more than a decade spanning much of 1990s and early
2000s; he is also credited with groundbreaking works on
the endgame. Cho, Lee and other South Korean players
such as Seo Bong-soo, Yoo Changhyuk and Lee Sedol be-
tween them won majority of international titles in this pe-
riod.* [99] Several Chinese players also rose to the top in
international Go from 2000s, most notably Ma Xiaochun,
Chang Hao, Gu Li and Ke Jie. As of 2016, Japan lags be-
hind in the international Go scene.
Historically, as with most sports and games, more men
than women have played Go. Special tournaments for
women exist, but until recently, men and women did not
compete together at the highest levels; however, the cre-
ation of new, open tournaments and the rise of strong
female players, most notably Rui Naiwei, have in re-
cent years highlighted the strength and competitiveness
of emerging female players.* [100]
The level in other countries has traditionally been much
lower, except for some players who had preparatory pro-
fessional training in East Asia.* [nb 9] Knowledge of the
game has been scant elsewhere up until the 20th century.
A famous player of the 1920s was Edward Lasker.* [nb
10] It was not until the 1950s that more than a few West-
ern players took up the game as other than a passing in-
terest. In 1978, Manfred Wimmer became the rst West-
erner to receive a professional player's certicate from an
East Asian professional Go association.* [101] In 2000,
American Michael Redmond became the rst Western
player to achieve a 9 dan rank.
12 7 EQUIPMENT

7 Equipment added length compensates for this.* [102] There are two
main types of boards: a table board similar in most re-
Main article: Go equipment spects to other gameboards like that used for chess, and
It is possible to play Go with a simple paper board a oor board, which is its own free-standing table and at
which the players sit.
The traditional Japanese goban is between 10 and 18 cm
(3.9 and 7.1 in) thick and has legs; it sits on the oor
(see picture).* [102] It is preferably made from the rare
golden-tinged Kaya tree (Torreya nucifera), with the very
best made from Kaya trees up to 700 years old. More
recently, the related California Torreya (Torreya califor-
nica) has been prized for its light color and pale rings as
well as its reduced expense and more readily available
stock. The natural resources of Japan have been unable to
keep up with the enormous demand for the slow-growing
Kaya trees; both T. nucifera and T. californica take many
hundreds of years to grow to the necessary size, and they
are now extremely rare, raising the price of such equip-
ment tremendously.* [103] As Kaya trees are a protected
species in Japan, they cannot be harvested until they have
died. Thus, an old-growth, oor-standing Kaya goban can
easily cost in excess of $10,000 with the highest-quality
examples costing more than $60,000.* [104]
Other, less expensive woods often used to make quality
table boards in both Chinese and Japanese dimensions in-
clude Hiba (Thujopsis dolabrata), Katsura (Cercidiphyl-
lum japonicum), Kauri (Agathis), and Shin Kaya (various
varieties of spruce, commonly from Alaska, Siberia and
China's Yunnan Province).* [103] So-called Shin Kaya
is a potentially confusing merchant's term: shin means
new, and thus shin kaya is best translatedfaux kaya
, because the woods so described are biologically unre-
A traditional Japanese set, with a solid wooden oor board ( lated to Kaya.* [103]
goban), 2 bowls ( goke) and 361 stones ( goishi)

and coins or plastic tokens for the stones. More popu- 7.1.2 Stones
lar midrange equipment includes cardstock, a laminated
particle board, or wood boards with stones of plastic or A full set of Go stones (goishi) usually contains 181 black
glass. More expensive traditional materials are still used stones and 180 white ones; a 1919 grid has 361 points,
by many players. The most expensive Go sets have black so there are enough stones to cover the board, and Black
stones carved from slate and white stones carved from gets the extra odd stone because that player goes rst.
translucent white shells, played on boards carved in a sin-
Traditional Japanese stones are double-convex, and made
gle piece from the trunk of a tree.
of clamshell (white) and slate (black).* [105] The clas-
sic slate is nachiguro stone mined in Wakayama Prefec-
7.1 Traditional equipment ture and the clamshell from the Hamaguri clam; how-
ever, due to a scarcity in the Japanese supply of this clam,
7.1.1 Boards the stones are most often made of shells harvested from
Mexico.* [105] Historically, the most prized stones were
The Go board (generally referred to by its Japanese name made *
of jade, often given to the reigning emperor as a
goban ) typically measures between 45 and 48 cm gift. [105]
(18 and 19 in) in length (from one player's side to the In China, the game is traditionally played with single-
other) and 42 to 44 cm (17 to 17 in) in width. Chi- convex stones* [105] made of a composite called Yunzi.
nese boards are slightly larger, as a traditional Chinese Go The material comes from Yunnan Province and is made
stone is slightly larger to match. The board is not square; by sintering a proprietary and trade-secret mixture of
there is a 15:14 ratio in length to width, because with a mineral compounds derived from the local stone. This
perfectly square board, from the player's viewing angle process dates to the Tang Dynasty and, after the knowl-
the perspective creates a foreshortening of the board. The edge was lost in the 1920s during the Chinese Civil War,
7.2 Playing technique and etiquette
was rediscovered in the 1960s by the now state-run Yunzi 7.2
company. The material is praised for its colors, its pleas-
ing sound as compared to glass or to synthetics such as
melamine, and its lower cost as opposed to other materi-
als such as slate/shell. The termyunzican also refer to a
single-convex stone made of any material; however, most
English-language Go suppliers specify Yunzi as a mate-
rial and single-convex as a shape to avoid confusion, as
stones made of Yunzi are also available in double-convex
while synthetic stones can be either shape.
Traditional stones are made so that black stones are
slightly larger in diameter than white; this is to compen-
sate for the optical illusion created by contrasting colors
that would make equal-sized white stones appear larger
on the board than black stones.* [105]* [nb 11]
An example of single-convex stones and Go Seigen bowls. These
particular stones are made of Yunzi material, and the bowls of
jujube wood.
7.1.3 Bowls
The bowls for the stones are shaped like a attened sphere
with a level underside.* [106] The lid is loose tting and
upturned before play to receive stones captured during the
game. Chinese bowls are slightly larger, and a little more
rounded, a style known generally as Go Seigen; Japanese
Kitani bowls tend to have a shape closer to that of the
bowl of a snifter glass, such as for brandy. The bowls are
usually made of turned wood. Mulberry is the traditional
material for Japanese bowls, but is very expensive; wood
from the Chinese jujube date tree, which has a lighter
color (it is often stained) and slightly more visible grain
pattern, is a common substitute for rosewood, and tradi-
tional for Go Seigen-style bowls. Other traditional ma-
terials used for making Chinese bowls include lacquered
wood, ceramics, stone and woven straw or rattan. The
names of the bowl shapes, Go Seigenand Kitani
, were introduced in the last quarter of the 20th century
by the professional player Janice Kim as homage to two
20th-century professional Go players by the same names,
of Chinese and Japanese nationality, respectively, who
are referred to as the Fathers of modern Go.* [88]
13
Playing technique and etiquette
Go players in Shanghai demonstrate the traditional technique of
holding a stone.
The traditional way to place a Go stone is to rst take
one from the bowl, gripping it between the index and
middle ngers, with the middle nger on top, and then
placing it directly on the desired intersection.* [107] One
can also place a stone on the board and then slide it into
position under appropriate circumstances (where it does
not move any other stones). It is considered respectful
towards White for Black to place the rst stone of the
game in the upper right-hand corner.* [108] (Because of
symmetry, this has no eect on the game's outcome.)
It is considered poor manners to run one's ngers through
one's bowl of unplayed stones, as the sound, however
soothing to the player doing this, can be disturbing to
one's opponent. Similarly, clackinga stone against
another stone, the board, or the table or oor is also dis-
couraged. However, it is permissible to emphasize select
moves by striking the board more rmly than normal, thus
producing a sharp clack.
7.3 Time control
See also: Time control and Byoyomi
A game of Go may be timed using a game clock. For-
mal time controls were introduced into the professional
game during the 1920s and were controversial.* [109] Ad-
journments and sealed moves began to be regulated in
the 1930s. Go tournaments use a number of dierent
time control systems. All common systems envisage a
single main period of time for each player for the game,
but they vary on the protocols for continuation (in over-
time) after a player has nished that time allowance.* [nb
12] The most widely used time control system is the so-
called byoyomi* [nb 13] system. The top professional Go
matches have timekeepers so that the players do not have
to press their own clocks.
Two widely used variants of the byoyomi system
are:* [110]
14 8 COMPUTERS AND GO

Standard byoyomi: After the main time is depleted, In combinatorial game theory terms, Go is a zero-
a player has a certain number of time periods (typ- sum, perfect-information, partisan, deterministic strategy
ically around thirty seconds). After each move, the game, putting it in the same class as chess, checkers
number of full-time periods that the player took (of- (draughts) and Reversi (Othello); however it diers from
ten zero) is subtracted. For example, if a player has these in its game play. Although the rules are simple, the
three thirty-second time periods and takes thirty or practical strategy is extremely complex.
more (but less than sixty) seconds to make a move,The game emphasizes the importance of balance on mul-
they lose one time period. With 6089 seconds, they
tiple levels and has internal tensions. To secure an area of
lose two time periods, and so on. If, however, they
the board, it is good to play moves close together; how-
take less than thirty seconds, the timer simply resets
ever, to cover the largest area, one needs to spread out,
without subtracting any periods. Using up the last
perhaps leaving weaknesses that can be exploited. Play-
period means that the player has lost on time. ing too low (close to the edge) secures insucient ter-
Canadian byoyomi: After using all of their main ritory and inuence, yet playing too high (far from the
time, a player must make a certain number of moves edge) allows the opponent to invade.
within a certain period of time, such as twenty It has been claimed that Go is the most complex game in
moves within ve minutes.* [110]* [nb 14] If the the world due to its vast number of variations in individ-
time period expires without the required number of ual games.* [113] Its large board and lack of restrictions
stones having been played, then the player has lost allow great scope in strategy and expression of players'
on time.* [nb 15] individuality. Decisions in one part of the board may be
inuenced by an apparently unrelated situation in a dis-
tant part of the board. Plays made early in the game can
7.4 Notation and recording games shape the nature of conict a hundred moves later.

See also: Kifu The game complexity of Go is such that describing even
elementary strategy lls many introductory books. In
fact, numerical estimates show that the number of pos-
Go games are recorded with a simple coordinate system. sible games of Go far exceeds the number of atoms in
This is comparable to algebraic chess notation, except the observable universe.* [nb 16]
that Go stones do not move and thus require only one
coordinate per turn. Coordinate systems include purely Research of go endgame by John H. *
Conway led to the
numerical (4-4 point), hybrid (K3), and purely alphabeti- invention of the surreal numbers. [114] Go also con-
*
cal. [111] The Smart Game Format uses alphabetical co- tributed to development of combinatorial game theory
*
ordinates internally, but most editors represent the board (with Go Innitesimals [115] being a specic example
with hybrid coordinates as this reduces confusion. The of its use in Go).
Japanese word kifu is sometimes used to refer to a game
record.
8.2 Software players
In Unicode, Go stones are encoded in the block
Miscellaneous Symbols: Main article: Computer Go

U+2686 white circle with dot right (HTML Go long posed a daunting challenge to computer pro-
⚆)* [112] grammers, putting forward dicult decision-making
tasks; an intractable search space; and an optimal solu-
U+2687 white circle with two dots (HTML
tion so complex it appears infeasible to directly approx-
⚇)
imate using a policy or value function.* [116] Prior to
U+2688 black circle with dot right (HTML 2015,* [116] the best Go programs only managed to reach
⚈) amateur dan level.* [117] On smaller 99 and 13x13
boards, computer programs fared better, and were able
U+2689 black circle with two dots (HTML to compare to professional players. Many in the eld
⚉) of articial intelligence consider Go to require more ele-
ments that mimic human thought than chess.* [118]
The reasons why computer programs had not played Go
8 Computers and Go at the professional dan level prior to 2016 include:* [119]

8.1 Nature of the game The number of spaces on the board is much larger
(over ve times the number of spaces on a chess
See also: Go and mathematics board 361 vs. 64). On most turns there are
many more possible moves in Go than in chess.
8.3 Software assistance
A nished beginner's game on a 1313 board. Go software can
reach stronger levels on a smaller board size.
Throughout most of the game, the number of le-
gal moves stays at around 150250 per turn, and
rarely falls below 100 (in chess, the average num-
ber of moves is 37).* [120] Because an exhaustive
computer program for Go must calculate and com-
pare every possible legal move in each ply (player
turn), its ability to calculate the best plays is sharply
reduced when there are a large number of possi-
ble moves. Most computer game algorithms, such
as those for chess, compute several moves in ad-
vance. Given an average of 200 available moves
through most of the game, for a computer to calcu-
late its next move by exhaustively anticipating the
next four moves of each possible play (two of its
own and two of its opponent's), it would have to
consider more than 320 billion (3.210* 11) possi-
ble combinations. To exhaustively calculate the next
eight moves, would require computing 512 quin-
tillion (5.1210* 20) possible combinations. As of
March 2014, the most powerful supercomputer in
the world, NUDT'sTianhe-2, can sustain 33.86
* An abundance of software is available to support players
petaops. [121] At this rate, even given an exceed-
ingly low estimate of 10 operations required to as-
sess the value of one play of a stone, Tianhe-2 would
require 4 hours to assess all possible combinations of
the next eight moves in order to make a single play.
The placement of a single stone in the initial phase
can aect the play of the game a hundred or more
moves later. A computer would have to predict this
inuence, and it would be unworkable to attempt to
exhaustively analyze the next hundred moves.
In capture-based games (such as chess), a position
can often be evaluated relatively easily, such as by
calculating who has a material advantage or more
active pieces.* [nb 17] In Go, there is often no easy
way to evaluate a position.* [122] However a 6-kyu
human can evaluate a position at a glance, to see
which player has more territory, and even begin-
ners can estimate the score within 10 points, given
time to count it. The number of stones on the board
(material advantage) is only a weak indicator of
15
the strength of a position, and a territorial advan-
tage (more empty points surrounded) for one player
might be compensated by the opponent's strong po-
sitions and inuence all over the board. Normally a
3-dan can easily judge most of these positions.
As an illustration, the greatest handicap normally given
to a weaker opponent is 9 stones. It was not until Au-
gust 2008 that a computer won a game against a pro-
fessional level player at this handicap. It was the Mogo
program, which scored this rst victory in an exhibition
game played during the US Go Congress.* [123]* [124] By
2013, a win at the professional level of play was accom-
plished with a four-stone advantage.* [125]* [126] In Oc-
tober 2015, Google DeepMind's program AlphaGo beat
Fan Hui, the European Go champion and a 2 dan (out of
9 dan possible) professional, ve times out of ve with no
handicap on a full size 19x19 board.* [116] AlphaGo used
a fundamentally dierent paradigm than earlier Go pro-
grams; it included very little directinstruction, and
mostly used deep learning where AlphaGo played itself
in hundreds of millions of games such that it could mea-
sure positions more intuitively. In March 2016, Google
next challenged Lee Sedol, a 9 dan considered the top
player in the world in the early 21st century,* [127] to
a ve-game match. Leading up to the game, Lee Sedol
and other top professionals were condent that he would
win;* [128] however, AlphaGo defeated Lee in four of the
ve games.* [129]* [130] After having already lost the se-
ries by the third game, Lee won the fourth game, describ-
ing his win as invaluable.* [131]
8.3 Software assistance
Main article: Go software
A 99 game with graphical aids. Colors and markings show
evaluations by the computer assistant.
of the game. This includes programs that can be used to
view or edit game records and diagrams, programs that
allow the user to search for patterns in the games of strong
16 11 GAME THEORY

players, and programs that allow users to play against each ter's personality.
other over the Internet. Similarly, Go has been used as a subject or plot de-
Some web servers provide graphical aids like maps, to aid vice in lm, such as , A Beautiful Mind, Tron: Legacy,
learning during play. These graphical aids may suggest and The Go Master, a biopic of Go professional Go
possible next moves, indicate areas of inuence, highlight Seigen.* [140]* [nb 22] 2013's Tky ni kita bakari or
vital stones under attack and mark stones in atari or about Tokyo Newcomer portrays a Chinese foreigner Go player
to be captured. moving to Tokyo.* [141] In King Hu's wuxia lm The
There are several le formats used to store game records, Valiant Ones, the characters are color-coded as Go stones
the most popular of which is SGF, short for Smart Game (black or other dark shades for the Chinese, white for
Format. Programs used for editing game records allow the Japanese invaders), Go boards and stones are used
the user to record not only the moves, but also variations, by the characters to keep track of soldiers prior to battle,
commentary and further information on the game.* [nb and *the battles themselves are structured like a game of
18] Go. [142] Go is also featured prominently in the movie
The Divine Move.
Electronic databases can be used to study life and death
situations, joseki, fuseki and games by a particular player. The corporation
*
and brand Atari was named after the Go
Programs are available that give players pattern search- term. [143]
ing options, which allow players to research positions by Hedge fund manager Mark Spitznagel used weiqi as his
searching for high-level games in which similar situations main investing metaphor in his popular investing book
occur. Such software generally lists common follow-up The Dao of Capital.* [144]
moves that have been played by professionals and gives
statistics on win/loss ratio in opening situations.
Internet-based Go servers allow access to competition 10 Psychology
with players all over the world, for real-time and turn-
based games.* [nb 19] Such servers also allow easy access A 2004 review of literature by Fernand Gobet, de Voogt
to professional teaching, with both teaching games and & Retschitzki* [145] shows that relatively little scientic
interactive game review being possible.* [nb 20] research has been carried out on the psychology of Go,
compared with other traditional board games such as
chess and Mancala. Computer Go research has shown
9 In popular culture and science that given the large search tree, knowledge and pattern
recognition are more important in Go than in other strat-
egy games, such as chess.* [145] A study of the eects of
Apart from technical literature and study material, Go
age on Go-playing* [146] has shown that mental decline is
and its strategies have been the subject of several works
milder with strong players than with weaker players. Ac-
of ction, such as The Master of Go by Nobel prize-
* cording to the review of Gobet and colleagues, the pat-
winning author Yasunari Kawabata [nb 21] and The Girl
tern of brain activity observed with techniques such as
Who Played Go by Shan Sa. Other books have used
PET and fMRI does not show large dierences between
Go as a theme or minor plot device. For example, the
Go and chess. On the other hand, a study by Xiangchuan
novel Shibumi by Trevanian centers around the game and
* Chen et al.* [147] showed greater activation in the right
uses Go metaphors, [132] and The Way of Go: 8 An-
hemisphere among Go players than among chess players.
cient Strategy Secrets for Success in Business and Life by
* There is some evidence to suggest a correlation between
Troy Anderson applies Go strategy to business. [133]
* playing board games and reduced risk of Alzheimer's dis-
GO: An Asian Paradigm for Business Strategy [134] by
* ease and dementia.* [148]
Miura Yasuyuki, a manager with Japan Airlines, [135]
uses Go to describe the thinking and behavior of business
men.* [136] Go features prominently in the Chung Kuo
series of novels by David Wingrove, being the favourite 11 Game theory
game of the main villain.* [137]
The manga (Japanese comic book) and anime series In formal game theory terms, Go is a non-chance,
Hikaru no Go, released in Japan in 1998, had a combinatorial game with perfect information. Informally
large impact in popularizing Go among young play- that means there are no dice used (and decisions or moves
ers, both in Japan andas translations were released create discrete outcome vectors rather than probability
abroad.* [138]* [139] Go Player is a similar animated se- distributions), the underlying math is combinatorial, and
ries about young Go players that aired in China. In the all moves (via single vertex analysis) are visible to both
anime PriPara, one of the main characters, Sion Td, players (unlike some card games where some information
is a world renowned Go player, but decides to retire as is hidden). Perfect information also implies sequence
nobody has been able to beat her, becoming an idol in- players can theoretically know about all past moves.
stead. Despite this Go still features heavily in her charac- Other game theoretical taxonomy elements include the

facts that Go is bounded (because every game must end
with a victor (or a tie) within a nite number of moves);
the strategy is associative (every strategy is a function of
board position); format is non-cooperative (not a team
sport); positions are extensible (can be represented by
board position trees); game is zero-sum (player choices
do not increase resources availablecolloquially, rewards
in the game are xed and if one player wins, the other
loses) and the utility function is restricted (in the sense
of win/lose; however, ratings, monetary rewards, national
and personal pride and other factors can extend utility
functions, but generally not to the extent of removing the
win/lose restriction). Ane transformations can theoret-
ically add non-zero and complex utility aspects even to
two player games.* [149]
12 Comparisons
Go begins with an empty board. It is focused on building
from the ground up (nothing to something) with multi-
ple, simultaneous battles leading to a point-based win.
Chess is tactical rather than strategic, as the predeter-
mined strategy is to trap one individual piece (the king).
This comparison has also been applied to military and po-
litical history, with Scott Boorman's 1969 book The Pro-
tracted Game exploring the strategy of the Communist
Party of China in the Chinese Civil War through the lens
of Go.* [150]
A similar comparison has been drawn among Go, chess [8]
and backgammon, perhaps the three oldest games that en-
joy worldwide popularity.* [151] Backgammon is aman
vs. fatecontest, with chance playing a strong role in [9]
determining the outcome. Chess, with rows of soldiers
marching forward to capture each other, embodies the
conict ofman vs. man. Because the handicap system
tells Go players where they stand relative to other players,
an honestly ranked player can expect to lose about half of
their games; therefore, Go can be seen as embodying the
quest for self-improvement, man vs. self.* [151] [10]
13 See also
Benson's algorithm (Go) a method for determining
the chains that are unconditionally alive
Go opening strategy
Go variants and Games played with Go equipment
14 Notes
[1] Children below a certain age may swallow or choke on
stones.
17
[2] The full Japanese name igo is derived from its Chinese
name weiqi (Middle Chinesehjwj-gi), which roughly
translates asboard game of surrounding. To dierenti-
ate the game Go from the common English verb to go, it is
generally capitalized (Gao 2007) or, in events sponsored
by the Ing Foundation, spelled goe.
[3] The Korean word 'baduk' derives from the Middle Ko-
rean word 'Badok', the origin of which is controversial; the
more plausible etymologies include the sux '-ok' added
to 'Bad' creating the meaning 'at and wide board', or
the joining of 'Bad', meaning 'eld', and 'Dok', meaning
'stone'. Less plausible etymologies include a derivation of
'Badukdok', referring to the playing pieces of the game,
or a derivation from Chinese , meaning 'to arrange
pieces'.See , (October 8, 2005). . .
ISBN 9788959660148. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
[4] Compare "liberty", a small local government unit in me-
dieval England the local area under control.
[5] Exceptionally, in Japanese and Korean rules, empty
points, even those surrounded by stones of a single color,
may count as neutral territory if some of them are alive by
seki. See the section on Life and Deathfor seki.
[6] In game theoretical terms, seki positions are an example
of a Nash equilibrium.
[7] Whether or not a group is weak or strong refers to the ease
with which it can be killed or made to live. See this article
by Benjamin Teuber, amateur 6 dan, for some views on
how important this is felt to be.
A full explanation of the eternal life position can be found
on Sensei's Library, it also appears in the ocial text for
Japanese Rules, see translation.
Kaku Takagawa toured Europe around 1970, and reported
(Go Review) a general standard of amateur 4 dan. This is a
good amateur level but no more than might be found in or-
dinary East Asian clubs. Published current European rat-
ings would suggest around 100 players stronger than that,
with very few European 7 dans.
European Go has been documented by Franco Pratesi, Eu-
rogo (Florence 2003) in three volumes, up to 1920, 1920
1950, and 1950 and later.
[11] See Overshoot in Western typography for similar subtle
adjustment to create a uniform appearance.
[12] Roughly, one has the time to play the game and then a little
time to nish it o. Time-wasting tactics are possible in
Go, so that sudden death systems, in which time runs out
at a predetermined point however many plays are in the
game, are relatively unpopular (in the West).
[13] Literally in Japanese byyomi means 'reading of seconds'.
[14] Typically, players stop the clock, and the player in over-
time sets his/her clock for the desired interval, counts
out the required number of stones and sets the remain-
ing stones out of reach, so as not to become confused. If
twenty moves are made in time, the timer is reset to ve
minutes again.
18 15 REFERENCES

[15] In other words, Canadian byoyomi is essentially a stan-
dard chess-style time control, based on N moves in a time
period T, imposed after a main period is used up. It is pos-
sible to decrease T, or increase N, as each overtime period
expires; but systems with constant T and N, for example
20 plays in 5 minutes, are widely used.
depth (number of moves [plies] per game). For chess and
Go the comparison is very roughly 3580 250150 , or
10123 10360 . (Allis 1994, pp. 158161, 171, 174,
6.2.4, 6.3.9, 6.3.12)
[8] Matthews, Charles. Teach Yourself Go, p.1

[16] The number of board positions is at most 3361 (about [9] Cho Chikun, p.18
10172 ) since each position can be white, black, or vacant.
[10] Matthews, Charles. Teach Yourself Go, p.2
Ignoring (illegal) suicide moves, there are at least 361!
games (about 10768 ) since every permutation of the 361 [11] Iwamoto, p.22
points corresponds to a game. See Go and mathematics
for more details, which includes much larger estimates. [12] Iwamoto, p.18

[17] While chess position evaluation is simpler than Go po- [13] About the IGF, retrieved June 5, 2012
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engine.
[16] Cho Chikun, p.21
[18] Lists of such programs may be found at Sensei's Library
or GoBase. [17] Iwamoto, p.77
[19] Lists of Go servers are kept at Sensei's Library and the [18] Cho Chikun, p.27
AGA website
[19] Cho Chikun, p.28
[20] The British Go Association provides a list of teaching ser-
vices [20] Cobb p.21

[21] A list of books can be found at Sensei's Library [21] Cho Chikun, p.69

[22] A list of lms can be found at the EGF Internet Go Fil- [22] Cobb p.20
mography
[23] Cho Chikun, p.35

[24] KGS Go Tutorial: Game End. KGS. Retrieved 5 June

15 References 2014.

[25] Cho Chikun, p.107

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22 17 EXTERNAL LINKS

16 Further reading 17 External links

16.1 Introductory books Go at DMOZ

History of Go.
Baker, Karl. The Way to Go: How to Play the Asian
Game of Go, American Go Association, New York, Sensei's Library, a major resource about the game
rev. 7th ed., 2008, available as free .pdf download of Go.
or e-book.
Goproblems.com, open database of interactive Go
problems.
Bradley, Milton N. Go for Kids, Yutopian Enter-
prises, Santa Monica, 2001 ISBN 978-1-889554- The Interactive Way to Go, an interactive tutorial for
74-7. Go.

Cho, Chikun. Go: A Complete Introduction to the The Way to Go Karl Baker's classic pamphlet on
Game, Kiseido Publishers, Tokyo, 1997, ISBN 978- how to play Go.
4-906574-50-6.

Cobb, William. The Book of Go, Sterling Publish-

ers, 2002, ISBN 978-0-8069-2729-9.

Iwamoto, Kaoru. Go for Beginners, Pantheon, New

York, 1977, ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.

Kim, Janice, and Jeong Soo-hyun. Learn to Play Go

series, ve volumes: Good Move Press, Sheboygan,
Wisconsin, second edition, 1997. ISBN 0-9644796-
1-3.

Matthews, Charles. Teach Yourself Go, McGraw-

Hill, 2004, ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.

Shotwell, Peter. Go! More than a Game, Tuttle Pub-

lishing, Boston, Revised 2010. ISBN 0-8048-3475-
X.

Sancar Seckiner, Chinese Go Players, 6th article of

the main book Budaha, El Yayinevi, Ankara, Feb.
2016, ISBN 978-605-4160-62-4.

16.2 Historical interest

Boorman, Scott A. (1969), The Protracted Game:

A Wei Ch'i Interpretation of Maoist Revolutionary
Strategy, New York, NY: Oxford University Press,
ISBN 978-0-19-501493-8

De Havilland, Walter Augustus (1910), The ABC of

Go: The National War Game of Japan, Yokohama,
Kelly & Walsh, OCLC 4800147

Korschelt, Oscar (1966), The Theory and Practice

of Go, C.E. Tuttle Co, ISBN 978-0-8048-0572-8

Smith, Arthur (1956), The Game of Go: The Na-

tional Game of Japan, C.E. Tuttle Co, OCLC
912228
 23

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.1 Text
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File:Anonymous-Astana_Graves_Wei_Qi_Player.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/
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BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Alexandre Dinerchtein homepage http://breakfast.go4go.net/ Original artist: Alexandre Dinerchtein
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org/pub/GNOME/sources/gnome-themes-extras/0.9/gnome-themes-extras-0.9.0.tar.gz Original artist: David Vignoni
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1937. Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
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svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
18.2 Images 25

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SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-
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inal artist: ?
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inal artist: ?
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tributors: ? Original artist: ?
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artist: ?
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inal artist: ?
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nal artist: ?
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nal artist: ?
File:Go_l.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Go_l.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
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File:Go_lA.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Go_lA.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Origi-
nal artist: Thunderdan81
File:Go_pros_and_amateurs.jpg.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Go_pros_and_amateurs.jpeg
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File:Go_r.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Go_r.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
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nal artist: ?
File:Go_u.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Go_u.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
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nal artist: ?
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26 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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tors: Own work Original artist: Scsc
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work Original artist: Scsc
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work Original artist: Scsc
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work Original artist: Scsc
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work Original artist: Scsc
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tors: ? Original artist: ?
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Zoid
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