Review

If failure is considered as change in desired performance*- which could involve changes in

properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.

Mechanisms / Methods by which a can Material can FAIL

Elastic deformation

Creep Chemical / Physical

Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture degradation
deformation
Microstructural
Twinning changes
Wear
Slip Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth

Particle coarsening

* Beyond a certain limit

FRACTURE MECHANICS
Fracture strength of a brittle solid is related to the
cohesive forces between atoms.

One can estimate that the theoretical cohesive strength

of a brittle material should be ~ E/10. But experimental
fracture strength is normally E/100 - E/10,000.

This much lower fracture strength is explained by the

effect of stress concentration at microscopic flaws.

The applied stress is amplified at the tips of micro-cracks,

voids, notches, surface scratches, corners, etc. that are
called stress raisers. The magnitude of this amplification
depends on micro-crack orientations, geometry and
dimensions.

2
FRACTURE MECHANICS

Cracks or crack-like flaws (surface scratches, voids in

welds, delaminations, foreign substances in cast
materials) exist frequently

Commercial aircraft
Ship structures
Bridges
Pressure vessels and piping

Fracture mechanics: a methodology to aid in selecting

materials and designing components to minimize the
possibility of fracture where cracks are difficult to avoid

3
FRACTURE MECHANICS
One important reason for the big difference in theoretical and experimental
values in fracture strength is cracks.
There always exists cracks or flaws in solid materials. Why?
Stress is enlarged at the crack tip (stress raisers).

The uniform stress field is altered in the vicinity of the hole

Stress concentration factor depends of geometry
Theoretically, a sharp crack (zero tip radius) causes a severe
concentration of stress (infinite stress)
4
 CRACKS AS STRESS RAISERS
In practice, the theoretically infinite
stress relieved by modifying the
sharp crack tip
ductile material can accommodate
the presence of an initially sharp
crack as large plastic deformation
in the vicinity of the tip results in
blunted crack tip and finite stress
values - the plastic zone

Some polymers, a region

containing elongated voids
develops that contains a fibrous
structure bridging the crack faces-
craze zone

Brittle materials, a region

containing high density of tiny
crack

Crack tip experiences intense

deformation and finite separation
near its tip
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, N. E. Dowling
High stress is spread over a larger
region - redistributed

5
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
What is fracture toughness? Critical value of the stress-intensity factor at a crack tip
necessary to produce catastrophic failure under simple uniaxial load.

The stress intensity at the crack tip is dependent on both the applied stress and the
length of the crack. A new mechanical variable, Stress Intensity Factor, KI, is used to
describe the relationship:

KI f a

Where,
I stands for mode: uniaxial loading
C stands for mode: critical
f is a dimensionless constant (related to geometry of specimen and flaw)
is the applied stress
a is the crack length or half the length of an internal crack
KI is a variable but NOT a materials property
KI has unusual unit of Mpa(m) or psi(in) .
6
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Fracture Toughness
When the stress intensity, KI is increased to a critical value, KIC , crack
propagation will occur, which will lead to fracture.

Analogy: A balloon with a small pinhole will catastrophically fails starting from the
pinhole location when the pressure has reached a critical value.

K IC f a
Where,
KIC is a measure of a materials resistance to crack propagation.
It is a material property.
KIC is dependent on temperature, microstructure, and strain rate.
KIC usually increases with a reduction in grain size.

7
 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
How to use KIC ?
Fracture toughness is most useful in mechanical designs involving
materials with limited toughness or ductility.
Usually yield/n is good enough for ductile materials, which are
statically loaded.
Design criterion using KIC :
KI K IC
taking into account KIC , which is a material property, the allowable stress
and/or the allowable flaw size (a) can be determined.

Material Selection:
If the maximum applied stress, max , and maximum crack length are
specified for a certain application, then only the materials with KIC greater
than KI can be used:
K IC f max amax
8
 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Highly brittle materials with
little or no ability to deform
plastically in the vicinity of a
crack tip have low KIC values
and are susceptible to
catastrophic failure.

High ductility alloys can

undergo significant plastic
deformation on both
macroscopic and
microscopic scale before
fracture.

9
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

Allowable stress design (if a and KIC are specified by application

constraints)

K IC
max
f amax

10
 EFFECTS OF CRACKS ON STRENGTH
The value of KIC decreases with increasing strain rate and
decreasing temperature

Refining the grain increases KIC

If load is too high the crack may suddenly grow, fracture in

brittle manner with little plastic deformation

Stress intensity factor, K: characterizes the severity of the

crack situation as affected by crack size, stress, and
geometry

11
DISPLACEMENT MODES ON CRACKED
BODY

12
13
MICROSTRUCTURE OF FRACTURE IN METALS
Most often ductile fracture occurs in a transgranular manner, which means
through the grains rather than only along grain boundaries.

Brittle fracture is typically intergranular or along the grain boundaries, which

is enhanced when impurities collect and weaken the grain boundaries.

In a simple tensile test, ductile fracture begins by the nucleation, growth and
coalescence of microvoids at the center of a sample (in the necked region).

The stress causes separation of the grain boundaries or the interfaces between
the metal and small impurity particles (inclusions or precipitates).

As the local stresses increase, the micro-voids grow and coalesce into larger
cavities.

Eventually the metal-to-metal contact is too small to support the load and
fracture occurs.
14
MICROSTRUCTURE OF FRACTURE IN METALS

Formation of voids in the necked region during tensile testing, leading to

fracture.

15
 CREEP

It can be defined as the slow & progressive (increasingly continuing)

deformation of a material with time under a constant stress.
It is both a time & temperature dependent phenemenon.
The method of carrying out creep tests is to subject the specimen to a
constant stress while maintaining the temperature constant and
measuring the extent of deformation.
The resulting data are presented as deformation (strain)-time curve.
Review
Though plasticity by slip is the most important mechanism of plastic deformation, there are
other mechanisms as well (plastic deformation here means permanent deformation in the
absence of external constraints):

Plastic Deformation in Crystalline Materials

Slip Twinning Phase Transformation Creep Mechanisms

(Dislocation
motion) Grain boundary sliding
+ Other Mechanisms
Vacancy diffusion
Grain rotation
Dislocation climb

Note: Plastic deformation in amorphous materials occur by other mechanisms including flow (~viscous fluid) and shear
banding
High-temperature behaviour of materials

Designing materials for high temperature applications is one of the most challenging tasks
for a material scientist.
Various thermodynamic and kinetic factors tend to deteriorate the desirable microstructure.
This is because kinetics of underlying processes (like diffusion) are an exponential function
of temperature.
Hence, a small increase in temperature can prove to be catastrophic.
Strength decreases at high temperature and material damage (e.g. void formation) tends to
accumulate.
Phenomena like creep and accelerated oxidation kick-in.
Cycling between high and low temperature will cause thermal fatigue.
High temperature effects (many of the effects described below are coupled)
Increased vacancy concentration at high temperatures more vacancies are
thermodynamically stabilized (this will further increase the diffusion rate).
Thermal expansion material will expand and in multiphase materials/hybrids thermal
stresses will develop due to differential thermal expansion of the components.
High diffusion rate diffusion controlled processes become important.
Phase transformations can occur this not only can give rise to undesirable
microstructure, but lead to generation of internal stresses.
Precipitates may dissolve.
Grain related:
Grain boundary weakening may lead to grain boundary sliding and wedge cracking.
Grain boundary migration
Recrystallization / grain growth decrease in strength.
Dislocation related these factors will lead to decrease in strength
Climb
New slip systems can become active
Change of slip system
Decrease in dislocation density.
Overaging of precipitates and precipitate coarsening decrease in strength.
The material may creep (time dependent elongation at constant load/stress).
Enhanced oxidation and intergranular penetration of oxygen.
Etc.
Creep Creep is phenomenological term, which is responsible for plastic deformation.

In some sense creep and superplasticity are related phenomena: in creep we can think of
damage accumulation leading to failure of sample; while in superplasticity extended plastic
deformation may be achieved (i.e. damage accumulation leading to failure is delayed).
Creep is permanent deformation (plastic deformation) of a material under constant load (or
constant stress) as a function of time. (Usually at high temperatures lead creeps at RT).

Normally, increased plastic deformation takes place with increasing load (or stress)
In creep plastic strain increases at constant load (or stress)
Usually appreciable only at T > 0.4 Tm High temperature phenomenon.
Mechanisms of creep in crystalline materials is different from that in amorphous materials.
Amorphous materials can creep by flow.
At temperatures where creep is appreciable various other material processes may also
active (e.g. recrystallization, precipitate coarsening, oxidation etc.- as considered before).

Creep experiments are done either at constant load or constant stress and can be classified
based on Phenomenology or underlying Mechanism.

Phenomenology
Constant load (easier)
Creep can Harper-Dorn creep
Power Law creep Creep tests can
be classified
be carried out at
based on Constant stress
Mechanism
 Constant load creep curve
In a typical creep test the load and temperature are kept constant and the elongation is
monitored with time. The strain (typically engineering strain) computed from the elongation
is plotted as function of time. The loads employed are typically below the elastic limit.
Three stages may be observed in such a plot: (i) decreasing rate with time, (ii)
approximately constant rate, (iii) increasing rate with time. These stages have to be
understood keeping in view underlying mechanisms (& necking in stage-III).
The instantaneous strain seen ( 0) is the elastic strain, which develops on the application of the load.

Stages of creep Measured as strain rate (note that this strain

Constant load creep curve rate is not the one imposed as in UTT, but
the one which develops in the material)
Stage-I
I II
Creep rate decreases with time.
Effect of work hardening more than recovery.
Strain ( )

III
The distinguishability of the three
stages strongly depends on T and
0 Initial instantaneous strain
0
t Specimen failure processes set in.
A technical term
Stage-II
Stage of minimum creep rate ~ constant.
Work hardening is balanced by recovery.
Stage-III
Absent (/delayed very much) in constant
stress tests (shown later).
Necking of specimen starts in this stage.
Constant Stress creep curve

In stage-III (due to necking) the engineering stress is no longer a correct measure of the
state of stress. To keep the stress constant, the instantaneous area has to be taken into
account.
If this is done, then the increasing strain rate part is not observed. Note: if load is kept
constant then in stage-III the stress is actually increasing (for the material it is stress which
matters and not load).

I II
Strain ( )

III
t
Effect of stress on the creep curve (constant load)

On increasing the load at which the experiment is conducted: (i) the instantaneous strain
( elastic) increases, (ii) for a given time (say t1) the strain is more, (iii) the time to failure (tf)
decreases (i.e. as expected, specimens fail earlier).

Fracture

Elastic strains

Strain ( )

Increasing stress

With increasing load there is

increased initial elastic strain
increases

''
0
' ''
0 0 0
0

'
0
0 t1 t 'f' t t 'f t 0f
Effect of temperature

On increasing the temperature at which the experiment is conducted:

(i) the instantaneous strain ( elastic = 0) increases (slightly),
(ii) for a given time (say t1) the strain is more, (iii) the time to failure (tf) decreases.
The instantaneous strain 0 increases with increasing T because of the slight decrease in the
Youngs modulus (E) of the material.

Strain ( )
E as T Increasing T

As decrease in E
with temperature
increases

is usually small
the 0 increase is
also small

0

0
' '' t1 t 'f' t t 'f t 0f
0 0 0
Creep Mechanisms of crystalline materials
Stress and temperature are the two important variables, which not only affect the creep rate,
but also the mechanism operative. Three kinds of mechanisms are operative in creep:
1 dislocation related,
2 diffusional,
3 grain boundary sliding.
These and their sub-classes are shown in the next page.
At high temperatures the grain boundary becomes weaker than the grain interior and two
grains can slide past one another due to shear stress. The temperature at which the grain is
as strong as the grain boundary is called the equicohesive temperature.
A combination of these mechanisms could also be responsible for the creep strain.
Depending on the stress and temperature other mechanisms of plastic deformation or
microstructural changes may occur concurrently with creep. These include plastic
deformation by slip and dynamic recrystallization.
Deformation mechanism maps can be drawn with homologous temperature (T/Tm) and
normalized shear stress ( /G) as the axis (other combination of variables may also be chosen
for these plots: T/Tm vs shear strain rate, normalized shear stress vs shear strain rate, etc.).
Typically these maps overlay descriptors, which are based both on phenomenology and
mechanism.
Creep Mechanisms of crystalline materials

Cross-slip

Dislocation related Climb

Glide

Coble creep
Grain boundary diffusion controlled

Creep Diffusional Nabarro-Herring creep

Lattice diffusion controlled

Dislocation core diffusion creep

Diffusion rate through core of edge dislocation more

Interface-reaction controlled diffusional flow

Grain boundary sliding

Accompanying mechanisms: creep with dynamic recrystallization

Dislocation related mechanisms
Two roles can be differentiated with respect to of dislocations activity: (i) it is the primary
source of strain, (ii) it plays a secondary role to accommodate local strain (while the major
source of strain is another mechanism (e.g. grain boundary sliding).

Cross-slip
This kind of creep is observed at relatively low temperatures. Herein screw dislocations
cross-slip by thermal activation and give rise to plastic strain as a function of time.

Dislocation climb
Edge dislocations piled up against an obstacle can climb to another slip plane and cause
plastic deformation. In response to stress this gives rise to strain as a function of time. It is
to be noted that at low temperatures these dislocations (being pinned) are sessile and
become glissile only at high temperatures.
Rate controlling step is the diffusion of vacancies.
Diffusional creep Nabarro-Herring creep high T lattice diffusion

Coble creep low T Due to GB diffusion

In response to the applied stress vacancies preferentially move from

surfaces/interfaces (GB) of specimen transverse to the stress axis to
surfaces/interfaces parallel to the stress axis thus causing
elongation. Flow of vacancies
Diffusion of vacancies in one direction can be thought of as flow of
matter in the opposite direction.
This process like dislocation creep (involving climb) is controlled by
the diffusion of vacancies (but diffusional creep does not require
dislocations to operate).
The diffusion could occur predominantly via the lattice (at high
temperatures) or via grain boundaries (at low temperatures). The
former is known as Nabarro-Herring creep, while the later is known
as Coble creep.
Diffusion through edge dislocation cores (pipe diffusion) could play
an important role in creep.
Grain boundary sliding
At low temperatures the grain boundaries are stronger than the crystal interior and impede
the motion of dislocations.
Being a higher energy region, the grain boundaries pre-melt before the crystal interior.
Above the equicohesive temperature, due to shear stress at the local scale, grain
boundaries slide past one another to cause plastic deformation.
The relative motion of grain boundaries can lead to wedge cracks at triple lines (junction of
three grains). If these wedge cracks are not healed by diffusion (or slip), microstructural
damage will accumulate and will lead to failure of the specimen.

Grains

Wedge crack due to

grain boundary sliding
Phenomenological descriptions of creep
One of the important descriptions of creep is using the power-law formula. The shear strain
rate is a power function of the shear stress. Clearly this formula is not based on a
mechanism operative, but a fit of data. .
n
Shear strain rate
.
G Shear modulus
G Shear stress
n An exponent having a value between ~ 3 - 10

Power-law behaviour can arise from:

Only glide at low temperatures (~0.3TM). Here the exponent n ~ 3.
Glide + climb (referred to as climb controlled creep) occurs at higher temperatures. Above
~0.6TM climb is lattice-diffusion controlled. At low temperatures than this pipe diffusion
may play an important role in creep.
At high stresses (> 10 3G) the power law breaks down. At high stresses the mechanism
changes from climb controlled (creep) to glide controlled (slip).
Deformation Mechanism Maps
Time and temperature are coupled when it comes to processes like diffusion.
At large values of stresses and at low T, the time available is less (as material immediately
begins to deform plastically) and creep mechanisms do not have time (/activation) to operate.
Usually contours of constant strain rate are superimposed on these diagrams (not shown here).
Stress or strain rate can be used as axes (variable). In components (e.g. truss in a structure,
pressure vessel, etc.) stress is prescribed, while in processing (e.g. extrusion, forging, etc.),
strain rate is prescribed.

At high stresses plastic

flow will take place

Dynamic recrystallization
gives rise to strain-free
grains.

At high temperature and

low stress Diffusional creep
dominates

From Deformation Mechanism Maps: The plasticity and creep of Metals and Ceramics by H.J. Frost and M.F.Ashby, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982.
Creep Resistant Materials
The is a growing need for materials to operate at high temperatures (and in some
applications for long times). For example, higher operating temperatures gives better
efficiency for a heat engine. Hence, there is a need to design materials which can withstand
high temperatures.
It is to be noted that material should also be good in other properties for high temperature
applications (like it should possess good oxidation resistance). Factors like cost, ease of
fabrication, density, etc. play an important role in determining the final choice of a material.
Some of the material design strategies, which work at low temperature are not useful at
high temperatures (e.g. work hardening, precipitation hardening with precipitates which
coarsen, grain size reduction, etc.).
Some strategies which work are: (i) having grain boundaries aligned along the primary
loading axis, (ii) produce single crystal components (like turbine blades), (iii) use
precipitates with low interfacial energy for strengthen (which will not coarsen easily), (iv)
use dispersoids for strengthening.

High melting point E.g. Ceramics

Creep Dispersion hardening ThO2 dispersed Ni (~0.9 Tm)
resistance
Solid solution strengthening
Single crystal / aligned (oriented) grains
 Creep Resistant Materials, cotd..

Commonly used materials Fe, Ni (including superalloys), Co base alloys.

Precipitation hardening involving usual precipitates* is not a good method as precipitates
coarsen (smaller particles dissolve and larger particles grow interparticle separation
thus lowering the strength)
Ni-base superalloys have Ni3(Ti,Al) precipitates, which form a low energy interface with
the matrix. This reduces the driving force for coarsening. (Note: other phenomena like
rafting may lead to the deterioration of the properties of such materials).
Cold work cannot be used for increasing creep resistance, as recrystallization can occur
which will produced strain free crystals.
Fine grain size is not desirable for creep resistance (this is contrary to what is usually practiced for increasing
the low temperature strength) grain boundary sliding can cause creep elongation/cavitation. Hence,
the following two strategies can be used:
Use single crystals (single crystal Ti turbine blades in gas turbine engine have been used though they are very costly).
Aligned/oriented polycrystals as all the grain boundaries are aligned along the
primary tensile axis, they experience no shear stress and creep is negated.

* Which coarsen at high temperatures due to high interfacial energy.

 Deformation
(strain) E

V0
C

B
Instantaneous
elastic strain A
Time
Primary Secondary Steady- Tertiary
Creep State Creep Creep
 When a load is applied at the beginning of a creep test, the
instantaneous elastic deformation (AB) is followed by
transient or primary creep (BC) then the secondary or
steady-state creep (CD) and finally by tertiary or accelerated
creep (DE).

Instantaneous deformations Elastic

The primary creep rate has a decreasing rate because of

work hardening. It is similar to delayed elasticity (retarded
elasticity) and the deformations are recoverable.
 Secondary creep is essentially viscous in character. The
minimum creep rate (V0) is determined by the slope /t.
The secondary creep stage is highly temperature-sensitive.
It can be related to temperature with an equation similar to
that in viscosity.

E
n RT
A e
t
 Tertiary creep occurs at an accelerated rate. Time to
rupture & stress relationship can be given as:

n tr: time to failure

tr a a, n: material constants

The two parameters determined from creep tests are:

1. /t (Steady state creep rate): engineering design parameter for long-

life applications.
2. Rupture lifetime (tr): relatively short-life applications
 Creep
Strain T4 or 4
T3 or 3

T2 or 2 T1<T2<T3<T4

T1 or 1
1<2<3<4

Time
Both temperature & applied stress adversely affect
the creep strains. Usually under the same
temperature different stress levels are applied & the
creep strains are determined.
 Creep 3=69MPa
Strain
d/dt 2=62MPa

d/dt 1=55MPa

d/dt

Time
When the slope of two curves (d/dt) are determined the
material constants can then be determined. In practice,
however, three or more stress levels are usually used for
discrepancies in lab data.
 Ex: In the creep test of an aluminum alloy at 180C various
stresses were applied and the corresponding creep rates were
determined.

Creep 62 MPa
Strain
0.0066 1/hr For 55 MPa 0.0025
t
55 MPa
0.0025 1/hr For 62 MPa 0.0066
t

Time (hrs)

Determine the creep rate for the stress of 59 MPa

 n
0.0066 B 62 62 n
2.64 n
0.0025 B 55 n 55
ln 2.64 n ln 62 n ln 55
n = 8.1
17
B 2 10

So for = 59 MPa

2 10 17
59 8.1
0.0044 1/hr
t
 FATIGUE
Fatigue is the lowering of strength or failure of a material due to repetitive stress, which may be
above or below the yield strength.

Many engineering materials such as those used in cars, planes, turbine engines, machinery, shoes,
etc are subjected constantly to repetitive stresses in the form of tension, compression, bending,
vibration, thermal expansion and contraction or other stresses.

There are typically three stages to fatigue failure.

First a small crack is initiated or nucleates at the surface and can include scratches, pits, sharp
corners due to poor design or manufacture, inclusions, grain boundaries or dislocation
concentrations.

Second the crack gradually propagates as the load continues to cycle.

Third a sudden fracture of the material occurs when the remaining cross-section of the material is
too small to support the applied load.

At a local size scale the stress intensity exceeds the yield strength.

For fatigue to occur at least part of the stress in the material has to be tensile.

Fatigue is most common in metals and plastics, whereas ceramics fail catastrophically without
fatigue because of their low fracture toughness.
44
FATIGUE
Fatigue failures are often easy to identify.
The fracture surface near the origin is usually smooth (Beach mark-crack
initiation point). The surface becomes rougher as the crack increases in size.

Striations (concentric line patterns): the slow cyclic build up of crack growth
from a surface intrusion. Striations are on a much finer scale and show the
position of the crack tip after each cycle.

Granular portion of the fracture surface: rapid crack propagation at the time
of catastrophic failure

45
DYNAMIC LOADING AND FATIGUE

46
 FATIGUE UNDER CYCLIC/REPEATED
LOADING
Cracks generally grow under repeated loading

Trucks passing over bridges,

Sailboat rudders
Bicycle pedals

May result failure or fracture: fatigue fracture

Periodic inspections required for fatigue critical systems

Thermal fatigue: repeated heating and cooling can

cause a cyclic stress due to differential thermal
expansion and contraction
47
 FATIGUE

Repeated, also called cyclic loads resulting in cyclic stresses

can lead to microscopic physical damage.

Accumulation of this microscopic damage with continued

cycling is possible until it develops into a macroscopic crack
such as cracks that may lead to failure

Fatigue: Damage progression to failure due to repeated or

cyclic loading at amplitudes considerably lower than tensile or
yield strengths of material under a static load

Estimated to causes 90 % of all failures of metallic structures

(bridges, aircraft, machine components, etc.)

Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation)

- even in normally ductile materials. Thus sudden and
catastrophic!
48
 FATIGUE DATA
The most important fatigue data for engineering designs are the S-N curves,
which is the Stress-Number of Cycles curves.

In a fatigue test, a specimen is subjected to a cyclic stress of a certain form

and amplitude and the number of cycles to failure is determined.

The number of cycles, N, to failure is a function of the stress amplitude, S.

A plot of S versus N is called the S-N curve.

49
 DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
Constant amplitude
stressing
Mean stress
Stress amplitude (half of
the range) variation
about the mean
Stress ratio R, Amplitude
ratio
Completely reversed
stressing, R=-1

50
FATIGUE FAILURES

Types of stresses for fatigue tests include,

axial (tension compression)
flexural (bending)
torsional (twisting)
From these tests the following data is generated.

max min
Mean Stress, m
2
max min
Stress Amplitude, a
2
Stress Range, r max min

min
Stress Ratio, R
max

By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compression stresses are

negative.
51
52
S-N CURVE

53
Fatigue Limit:
For some materials such as BCC steels and Ti alloys, the S-N curves become
horizontal when the stress amplitude is decreased to a certain level.

This stress level is called the Fatigue Limit, or Endurance Limit.

Fatigue Strength:
For materials, which do not show a fatigue limit such as Al, Cu, and Mg (non-ferrous
alloys), and some steels with a FCC structure, fatigue strength is specified as the stress
level at which failure will occur for a specified number of cycles, where 107 cycles is
often used.

54
55
 DEFINITIONS

Fatigue life: indicates how long

(no. of cycles) a component
survives a particular stress.

Fatigue strength: is applicable to a component with No endurance limit. It is the

maximum stress for which fatigue will not occur at a particular number of cycles, in
general, 108 cycles for metals.

Endurance ratio: the endurance limit is approximately to the tensile strength.

endurance limit(fatigue strenght)

Endurance ratio 0.25 0.5 56
tensilestrength
57
FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE LIFE
Magnitude of stress (mean, amplitude...)

Quality of the surface (scratches, sharp transitions and edges).

Solutions:
Polishing (removes machining flaws etc.)

Introducing compressive stresses (compensate for applied tensile

stresses) into thin surface layer by Shot Peening- firing small shot
into surface to be treated. High-tech solution - ion implantation, laser
peening.

Case Hardening - create C- or N- rich outer layer in steels by atomic

diffusion from the surface. Makes harder outer layer and also
introduces compressive stresses

Optimizing geometry - avoid internal corners, notches etc.

58
59
60
 Creep and
Superplasticity
Creep Strain vs.Time: Constant Temperature
Creep Strain vs. Time at Constant Engineering
Stress
 Creep Machine

Initial position Length of specimen has increased

from L0 to L1.

Creep machine with variable lever arms to ensure constant stress on

specimen; note that l2 decreases as the length of the specimen increases.
Mukherjee-Bird-Dorn Equation
Larson-Miller Equation

Relationship between time to rupture and

temperature at three levels of engineering
stress, ,a ,band ,cusing LarsonMiller
equation ( a > b >). c
 Larson-Miller Parameter

Master plot for LarsonMiller parameter for S-590 alloy (an Fe-
based alloy) (C = 17).

(From R. M. Goldhoff, Mater.Design Eng., 49 (1959) 93.)

 Manson-Hafered Parameter

Relationship between time rupture and temperature at three levels

of stress, ,a ,band ,cusing MansonHaferd parameter ( a >
b > ). c
 Sherby-Dorn Parameter

Relationship between time to rupture and temperature

at three levels of stress, a > b >
c,
using SherbyDorn
parameter.
Material Parameters
 Activation Energies for Creep

Activation energies for creep (stage II) and self-diffusion for a number of
metals.
(Adapted with permission from O. D. Sherby and A. K. Miller, J. Eng. Mater.Technol., 101 (1979) 387.)
 Secondary Creep

Ratio between activation energy for secondary creep and activation

energy for bulk diffusion as a function of temperature.

(Adapted with permission from O. D. Sherby and A. K. Miller, J. Eng. Mater. Technol., 101 (1979) 387.)
FUNDAMENTAL CREEP MECHANISM

/G < 10^(-4) Diffusion Creep

Nabarro Herring
DlGb b 2
AN H ( ) ( )
kT d G
DlGb
HD AHD ( )
kT G
Coble Creep
Gb b 3
c Ac ( )( ) ( )
kT b d G

Harper Dorn Creep

DlGb
HD AHD ( )
kT G
 Diffusion Creep

Flow of vacancies according to (a) NabarroHerring and (b) Coble

mechanisms, resulting in an increase in the length of the specimen.
 Dislocation Climb

Dislocation climb (a) upwards, under compressive 22

stresses, and (b) downwards, under tensile
22 stresses.
 Diffusion Creep

Different regimes for diffusion creep in alumina; notice that cations (Al3+) and
anions (O2) have different diffusion coefficients, leading to different regimes
of dominance.

(From A. H. Chokshi and T. G. Langdon, Defect and Diffusion Forum, 6669 (1989) 1205.)
 Power Law Creep
Dislocation (Power Law) Creep: 10^(-2) < /G < 10^(-4)

Power relationship between and for AISI 316 stainless steel.

Adapted with permission from S. N. Monteiro and T. L. da Silveira, Metalurgia-ABM, 35 (1979) 327.
 Dislocations Overcoming Obstacles
Weertman Mechanism

Dislocation overcoming obstacles by climb, according to Weertman theory. (a)

Overcoming CottrellLomer locks. (b) Overcoming an obstacle.
Shear Stress and Shear Strain Rate

Shear stress vs. shear

strain rate in an aluminum (6061) with
30 vol.% SiC particulate composite in
creep.

(From K.-T. Park, E. J. Lavernia, and F. A. Mohamed, Acta

Met. Mater., 38 (1990) 2149.)
Dislocation Glide

Effect of stress and temperature

on deformation
substructure developed in AISI
316 stainless steel in middle of
stage II.

Reprinted with permission from H.-J. Kestenbach, W.

Krause, and
T. L. da Silveira, Acta Met., 26 (1978) 661.)
Grain Boundary Sliding

(a) Steady-state
grain-boundary sliding with
diffusional accommodations.

(b) Same process as in (a), in an

idealized polycrystal; the dashed
lines show the flow of vacancies.

(Reprinted with permission from

R. Raj and M. F. Ashby, Met. Trans.,
2A (1971) 1113.)
 Ashby-Verralls Model

Grain-boundary sliding assisted by diffusion in AshbyVerralls model.

(Reprinted with permission from M. F. Ashby and R. A. Verrall, Acta Met., 21 (1973) 149.)
 Weertman-Ashby Map for Pure Silver

WeertmanAshby map for pure silver, established for a critical strain rate
of 108 s1; it can be seen how the deformation-mechanism fields are
affected by the grain size.

Adapted with permission from M. F. Ashby, Acta Met., 20 (1972) 887.

Weertman-Ashby Map for Tungsten

WeertmanAshby map for tungsten, showing

constant strain-rate contours.

(Reprinted with permission from M. F. Ashby, Acta Met., 20 (1972) 887.)

Weertman-Ashby Map for Al2O3
Mechanisms of intergranular nucleation

.
(From W.D. Nix and J. C. Gibeling, in Flow and Fracture at ElevatedTemperatures, ed, R. Raj
(Metals Park, Ohio: ASM, 1985).)
Heat-Resistance Materials

Transmission electron micrograph of Mar

M-200; notice the cuboidal precipitates.

(Courtesy of L. E. Murr.)
Microstructural Strengthening Mechanism
in nickel-based superalloys

(Reprinted with from C. T. Sims and W. C. Hagel, eds., The Superalloys

(New York: Wiley, 1972), p. 33.)
 Rafting

Rafting in MAR M-200 monocrystalline superalloy; (a) original

configuration of gamma prime precipitates aligned with three
orthogonal cube axes; (b) creep deformed at 1253 K for 28
hours along the [010] direction, leading to coarsening of
precipitates along loading direction.

(From U. Glatzel, Microstructure and Internal Strains of Undeformed and Creep Deformed Samples of a Nickel-
Based Superalloy,
Habilitation Dissertation,Technische Universitat, Berlin,
1994.)
 Stress-Rupture (at 1000 hours) vs.
Temperature for Heat Resistant Materials

Stress versus temperatures curves for rupture

in
1,000 hours for selected nickel-based
superalloys.

(Reprinted with permission from C. T. Sims and W. C. Hagel, eds., The

Superalloys (New York: Wiley, 1972), p. vii.)
 Gas Turbine

Cross-section of a gas turbine showing different parts.

The temperature of gases in combustion chamber reaches 1500 C.
Turbine Blade

(a) Single crystal

turbine blade developed for
stationary turbine. (Courtesy of
U. Glatzel.) (b) Evolution of
maximum temperature in gas
turbines; notice the significant
improvement made possible by
the
introduction of thermal barrier
coatings (TBCs).

(Courtesy of V. Thien, Siemens.)

 Creep in Polymers

Springdashpot analogs (a) in series and (b) in parallel.

Maxwell and Voigt Models

(a) Straintime and

(b) stresstime
predictions for
Maxwell and Voigt
models.
 Viscoelastic Polymer

Strain response as a function of time for a glassy, viscoelastic polymer

subjected to a constant stress 0. Increasing the molecular weight or
degree of cross-linking tends to promote secondary bonding between
chains and thus make the polymer more creep resistant.
Creep Compliances

(a) A series of creep

compliances vs. time, both on
logarithmic scales, over a range of
temperature. (b) The individual
plots in (a) can be superposed by
horizontal shifting (along the log-
time axis) by an amount log aT, to
obtain a master curve corresponding
to a reference temperature Tg of the
polymer. (c) Shift along the log-time
scale to produce a master curve.
(Courtesy of W. Knauss.)
(d) Experimentally determined
shift factor.
 Stress Relaxation

A constant imposed strain

0 results in a drop in stress
(t) as a function of time.
Effect of Crosslinking on Stress Relaxation

A master curve obtained in the case of stress relaxation, showing the variation in
the reduced modulus as a function of time. Also shown is the effect of cross-
linking and molecular weight.
Electromigration

Metal interconnect line covered by

passivation layer subjected
toelectromigration;
(a) overall scheme;
(b) voids and cracks produced
by thermal mismatch and
electromigration;
(c) basic scheme used in Nix
Arzt equation, which assumes
grain-boundary diffusion of
vacancies counterbalancing
electron wind.

(Adapted from W. D. Nix and E. Arzt.

Met. Trans., 23A (1992) 2007.)
 Superplasticity

Superplastic tensile deformation in Pb62% Sn eutectic alloy tested at

415 K and a strain rate of 1.33 104 s1; total strain of 48.5.

(From M. M. I. Ahmed and T. G. Langdon, Met. Trans. A, 8 (1977) 1832.)

 Plastic Deformation

(a) Schematic representation of plastic deformation in tension

with formation and inhibition of necking. (b) Engineering-
stress engineering-strain curves.
 Strain Rate Dependence

Strain-rate dependence of (a) stress and (b) strain-rate sensitivity for

MgAl eutectic alloy tested at 350 C (grain size 10 m).

(After D. Lee, Acta. Met., 17 (1969) 1057.)

 Fracture

Tensile fracture strain and stress as a function of strain

rate for Zr22% Al alloy with 2.5-m grain size.

(After F. A. Mohamed, M. M. I. Ahmed, and T. G. Langdon, Met. Trans. A, 8 (1977) 933.)

 Effect of Strain Rate Sensitivity

Effect of strain-rate sensitivity m on maximum tensile

elongation for different alloys (Fe, Mg, Pu, PbSr, Ti, Zn, Zr based).

(From D. M. R. Taplin, G. L. Dunlop, and T. G. Langdon, Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci., 9 (1979) 151.)
 Cavitation in Superplasticity

Cavitation in superplasticity formed 7475-T6 aluminum alloy (= 3.5) at

475 C and 5 104 s1. (a) Atmospheric pressure. (b) Hydrostatic
pressure P = 4 MPa. (Courtesy of A. K. Mukherjee.)
Effect of Grain Size on Elongation
(a) Effect of grain size on
elongation: (A) Initial
configuration. (B) Large
grains. (C) Fine grains (10 m)
(Reprinted with permission from
N. E. Paton, C. H.
Hamilton, J. Wert, and M.
Mahoney, J. Metal, 34 (1981) No. 8,
21.)

(b) Failure strains

increase with superimposed
hydrostatic pressure (from 0 to 5.6
MPa). (Courtesy of
A. K. Mukherjee.)