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TheSocialLifeofPaper
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Lookingformethodinthemess.

1.

Onabusyday,atypicalairtrafficcontrollermightbeinchargeofasmanyastwentyfive
airplanesatatimesomeascending,somedescending,eachatadifferentaltitudeandtravelling
atadifferentspeed.Hepeersatalarge,monochromaticradarconsole,trackingthemovement
oftinytaggedblipsmovingslowlyacrossthescreen.Hetalkstothesectorwhereaplaneis
headed,andtalkstothepilotspassingthroughhissector,andtalkstotheothercontrollers
aboutanynewtrafficonthehorizon.And,asacontrollerjugglesallthoseplanesoverhead,he
scribblesnotesonlittlepiecesofpaper,movingthemaroundonhisdeskashedoes.Airtraffic
controldependsoncomputersandradar.Italsodepends,heavily,onpaperandink.

WhenpeopletalkabouttheneedtomodernizetheAmericanairtrafficcontrolsystem,thisis,in
largepart,whattheyarereferringto.Wheneveraplanetakesoff,thebasicdataabouttheflight
thetypeofplane,theradarI.D.number,therequestedaltitude,thedestinationareprinted
outonastiffpieceofpaper,perhapsoneandahalfbysixandahalfinches,knownasaflight
strip.Andastheplanepassesthrougheachsectoroftheairspacethecontrollerjotsdown,using
akindofshorthand,everythingnewthatishappeningtotheplaneitsspeed,say,andwhere
itsheading,clearancesfromgroundcontrol,holdinginstructions,commentsonthepilot.Itsa
methodthatdatesbacktothedaysbeforeradar,anditdrivescriticsoftheairtrafficcontrol
systemcrazy.Why,inthisdayandage,areplanesbeinghandledlikebreakfastordersina
roadsidediner?

Thisisoneofthegreatpuzzlesofthemodernworkplace.Computertechnologywassupposedto
replacepaper.Butthathasnthappened.EverycountryintheWesternworldusesmorepaper
today,onapercapitabasis,thanitdidtenyearsago.Theconsumptionofuncoatedfreesheet
paper,forinstancethemostcommonkindofofficepaperrosealmostfifteenpercentinthe
UnitedStatesbetween1995and2000.Thisisgenerallytakenasevidenceofhowharditisto
eradicateold,wastefulhabitsandofhowstubbornlyresistantwearetotheefficienciesoffered
bycomputerization.Anumberofcognitivepsychologistsandergonomicsexperts,however,
dontagree.Paperhaspersisted,theyargue,forverygoodreasons:whenitcomestoperforming
certainkindsofcognitivetasks,paperhasmanyadvantagesovercomputers.Thedismaypeople
feelatthesightofamessydeskorthespectacleofairtrafficcontrollerstrackingflights
throughnotesscribbledonpaperstripsarisesfromafundamentalconfusionabouttherole
thatpaperplaysinourlives.

2.

ThecaseforpaperismademosteloquentlyinTheMythofthePaperlessOffice(M.I.T.
$24.95),bytwosocialscientists,AbigailSellenandRichardHarper.Theybegintheirbookwith
anaccountofastudytheyconductedattheInternationalMonetaryFund,inWashington,D.C.
EconomistsattheI.M.F.spendmostoftheirtimewritingreportsoncomplicatedeconomic
questions,workthatwouldseemtobeperfectlysuitedtosittinginfrontofacomputer.
Nonetheless,theI.M.F.isawashinpaper,andSellenandHarperwantedtofindoutwhy.Their
answeristhatthebusinessofwritingreportsatleastattheI.M.Fisanintensely
collaborativeprocess,involvingtheprofessionaljudgmentsandcontributionsofmanypeople.
Theeconomistsbringdraftsofreportstoconferencerooms,spreadouttherelevantpages,and
negotiatechangeswithoneother.Theygobacktotheirofficesandjotdowncommentsinthe
margin,takingadvantageofthefreedomofferedbytheinformalityofthehandwrittennote.
Thentheydelivertheannotateddrafttotheauthorinperson,takinghim,pagebypage,through
thesuggestedchanges.Attheendoftheprocess,theauthorspreadsoutallthepageswith
commentsonhisdeskandstartstoenterthemonthecomputermovingthepagesaroundas
heworks,organizingandreorganizing,savinganddiscarding.

Withoutpaper,thiskindofcollaborative,iterativeworkprocesswouldbemuchmoredifficult.
AccordingtoSellenandHarper,paperhasauniquesetofaffordancesthatis,qualitiesthat
permitspecifickindsofuses.Paperistangible:wecanpickupadocument,flipthroughit,read
littlebitshereandthere,andquicklygetasenseofit.(Inanotherstudyonreadinghabits,Sellen
andHarperobservedthatintheworkplace,peoplealmostneverreadadocumentsequentially,
frombeginningtoend,thewaytheywouldreadanovel.)Paperisspatiallyflexible,meaningthat
wecanspreaditoutandarrangeitinthewaythatsuitsusbest.Anditstailorable:wecaneasily
annotateit,andscribbleonitasweread,withoutalteringtheoriginaltext.Digitaldocuments,of
course,havetheirownaffordances.Theycanbeeasilysearched,shared,stored,accessed
remotely,andlinkedtootherrelevantmaterial.Buttheylacktheaffordancesthatreallymatter
toagroupofpeopleworkingtogetheronareport.SellenandHarperwrite:

Becausepaperisaphysicalembodimentofinformation,actionsperformedinrelationtopaper
are,toalargeextent,madevisibletoonescolleagues.Reviewerssittingaroundadeskcouldtell
whetheracolleaguewasturningtowardorawayfromareportwhethershewasflickingthrough
itorsettingitaside.Contrastthiswithwatchingsomeoneacrossadesklookingatadocument
onalaptop.Whataretheylookingat?Whereinthedocumentarethey?Aretheyreallyreading
theiremail?Knowingthesethingsisimportantbecausetheyhelpagroupcordinateits
discussionsandreachasharedunderstandingofwhatisbeingdiscussed.

3.

Paperenablesacertainkindofthinking.Picture,forinstance,thetopofyourdesk.Chancesare
thatyouhaveakeyboardandacomputerscreenofftooneside,andaclearspaceroughly
eighteeninchessquareinfrontofyourchair.Whatcoverstherestofthedesktopisprobably
pilespilesofpapers,journals,magazines,binders,postcards,videotapes,andalltheother
artifactsoftheknowledgeeconomy.Thepileslooklikeamess,buttheyarent.Whenagroupat
AppleComputerstudiedpilingbehaviorseveralyearsago,theyfoundthateventhemost
disorderlypilesusuallymakeperfectsensetothepiler,andthatofficeworkerscouldholdforth
ingreatdetailabouttheprecisehistoryandmeaningoftheirpiles.Thepileclosesttothe
cleared,eighteeninchsquareworkingarea,forexample,generallyrepresentsthemosturgent
business,andwithinthatpilethemostimportantdocumentofallislikelytobeatthetop.Piles
areliving,breathingarchives.Overtime,theygetbrokendownandresorted,sometimes
chronologicallyandsometimesthematicallyandsometimeschronologicallyandthematically
cluesaboutcertaindocumentsmaybephysicallyembeddedinthefileby,say,stackingacertain
pieceofpaperatanangleorinsertingdividersintothestack.

Butwhydowepiledocumentsinsteadoffilingthem?Becausepilesrepresenttheprocessof
active,ongoingthinking.ThepsychologistAlisonKidd,whoseresearchSellenandHarperrefer
toextensively,arguesthatknowledgeworkersusethephysicalspaceofthedesktoptohold
ideaswhichtheycannotyetcategorizeorevendecidehowtheymightuse.Themessydeskis
notnecessarilyasignofdisorganization.Itmaybeasignofcomplexity:thosewhodealwith
manyunresolvedideassimultaneouslycannotsortandfilethepapersontheirdesks,because
theyhaventyetsortedandfiledtheideasintheirhead.Kiddwritesthatmanyofthepeopleshe
talkedtousethepapersontheirdesksascontextualcuestorecoveracomplexsetofthreads
withoutdifficultyanddelaywhentheycomeinonaMondaymorning,oraftertheirworkhas
beeninterruptedbyaphonecall.Whatweseewhenwelookatthepilesonourdesksis,ina
sense,thecontentsofourbrains.

SellenandHarperarrivedatsimilarfindingswhentheydidsomeconsultingworkwitha
chocolatemanufacturer.Thepeopleinthefirmtheyweremostinterestedinwerethebuyers
thestaffwhohandledthecompanysrelationshipswithitsvenders,fromcocoaandsugar
manufacturerstoadvertisers.Thebuyerskeptfolders(containingcontracts,correspondence,
meetingnotes,andsoforth)oneverysuppliertheyhaddealingswith.Thecompanywantedto
movetheinformationinthosedocumentsonline,tosavespaceandmoney,andmakeiteasier
foreveryoneinthefirmtohaveaccesstoit.Thatsoundslikeaneminentlyrationalthingtodo.
ButwhenSellenandHarperlookedatthefolderstheydiscoveredthattheycontainedallkinds
ofidiosyncraticmaterialadvertisingparaphernalia,printoutsofemails,presentationnotes,
andlettersmuchofwhichhadbeenannotatedinthemarginswiththoughtsandamendments
and,theywrite,perhapsmostimportant,commentsaboutproblemsandissueswitha
suppliersperformancenotintendedforthesupplierseyes.Theinformationineachfolderwas
organizedifitwasorganizedatallaccordingtothewhimsoftheparticularbuyer.
Wheneverotherpeoplewantedtolookatadocument,theygenerallyhadtobewalkedthroughit
bythebuyerwhoownedit,becauseitsimplywouldntmakesenseotherwise.Themuch
advertisedadvantageofdigitizingdocumentsthattheycouldbemadeavailabletoanyone,at
anytimewasillusory:documentscannotspeakforthemselves.Allofthisemphasizedthat
mostofwhatconstitutedabuyersexpertiseresultedfrominvolvementwiththebuyersown
suppliersthroughalonghistoryofphonecallsandmeetings,SellenandHarperwrite:

Thecorrespondence,notes,andotherdocumentssuchdiscussionswouldproduceformeda
significantpartofthedocumentsbuyerskept.Thesematerialsthereforesupportedratherthan
constitutedtheexpertiseofthebuyers.Inotherwords,theknowledgeexistednotsomuchinthe
documentsasintheheadsofthepeoplewhoownedthemintheirmemoriesofwhatthe
documentswere,intheirknowledgeofthehistoryofthatsupplierrelationship,andinthe
recollectionsthatwerepromptedwhenevertheywentthroughthefiles.

4.

Thisideathatpaperfacilitatesahighlyspecializedcognitiveandsocialprocessisafarcryfrom
thewaywehavehistoricallythoughtaboutthestuff.Paperfirstbegantoproliferateinthe
workplaceinthelatenineteenthcenturyaspartofthemovetowardsystematicmanagement.
Tocopewiththecomplexityoftheindustrialeconomy,managerswereinstitutingcompany
widepoliciesanddemandingmonthly,weekly,orevendailyupdatesfromtheirsubordinates.
Thuswasbornthemonthlysalesreport,andtheofficemanualandtheinternalcompany
newsletter.Thetypewritertookoffintheeighteeneighties,makingitpossibletocreate
documentsinafractionofthetimeithadpreviouslytaken,andthatwasfollowedcloselybythe
adventofcarbonpaper,whichmeantthatatypistcouldcreatetencopiesofthatdocument
simultaneously.Ifyouwere,say,arailroadcompany,thenyouwouldnowhaveasecretaryatthe
companyheadquarterstypeupascheduleeveryweek,settingoutwhattrainwastravellingin
whatdirectionatwhattime,becauseinthemidnineteenthcenturycollisionswereaterrible
problem.Thenthesecretarywouldmaketencarboncopiesofthatscheduleandsendthemout
tothestationsalongyourrailwayline.Paperwasimportantnottofacilitatecreative
collaborationandthoughtbutasaninstrumentofcontrol.

PerhapsnooneembodiedthisnotionmorethantheturnofthecenturyreformerMelvilDewey.
Deweyhaslargelybeenforgottenbyhistory,perhapsbecausehewassuchanastyfellowan
outspokenracistandantiSemitebutinhisdayhedominatedAmericasthinkingaboutthe
workplace.HeinventedtheDeweydecimalsystem,whichrevolutionizedtheorganizationof
libraries.Hewasanardentadvocateofshorthandandofthemetricsystem,andwassoobsessed
withtimesavingandsimplificationthathechangedhisfirstnamefromMelvilletothemore
logicalMelvil.(Healsopushedfortheadoptionofcataloginplaceofcatalogue,andof
thruwaytodescribemajorhighways,ausagethatsurvivestothisdayinNewYorkState).
DeweysprincipalbusinesswassomethingcalledtheLibraryBureau,whichwasessentiallythe
OfficeDepotofhisday,sellingcardcatalogues,cabinets,officechairsandtables,preprinted
businessforms,and,mostimportant,filingcabinets.Previously,businessmenhadstoredtheir
documentsincumbersomecases,orfoldedandlabelledthepiecesofpaperandstuckthemin
thepigeonholesofthesecretarydeskssocommonintheVictorianera.WhatDeweyproposed
wasessentiallyanenlargedversionofacardcatalogue,wherepaperdocumentshungvertically
inlongdrawers.

Theverticalfilewasastunningaccomplishment.Inthoseefficiencyobsesseddays,itprompted
booksandarticlesanddebatesandendedupwinningagoldmedalatthe1893WorldsFair,
becauseitsoneatlyaddressedthethreatofdisorderposedbytheproliferationofpaper.What
goodwasthatrailroadschedule,afterall,ifitwaslostonsomeonesdesk?Nowarailroadcould
buyoneofDeweysverticalfilingcabinets,andputthescheduleunderS,whereeveryonecould
findit.InScrollingForward:MakingSenseofDocumentsintheDigitalAge(Arcade$24.95),
thecomputerscientistDavidM.LevyarguesthatDeweywastheantiWaltWhitman,andthat
hisvisionofregularizingandstandardizinglifeendedupbeingjustasbigacomponentofthe
AmericanpsycheasWhitmansappealtoembracetheworldjustasitis.Thatseemsabsolutely
right.Thefactis,thethoughtofallthosememosandreportsandmanualsmadeDeweyanxious,
andthatanxietyhasneverreallygoneaway,eveninthefaceofevidencethatpaperisnolonger
somethingtobeanxiousabout.

WhenThomasEdisoninventedthephonograph,forexample,howdidheimagineitwouldbe
used?Asadictationdevicethatabusinessmancouldpassaroundtheofficeinplaceofapaper
memo.In1945,thecomputerpioneerVannevarBushimaginedwhathecalledamemexa
mechanizedlibraryandfilingcabinet,onwhichanofficeworkerwouldstoreallhisrelevant
informationwithouttheneedforpaperfilesatall.So,too,withtheinformationtechnology
wizardswhohavedescendedontheworkplaceinrecentyears.Insteadofarealdesktop,they
haveofferedusthecomputerdesktop,wherecookiecuttericonsruninorderlyrowsacrossa
soothingbackground,implicitlypromisingtobringordertothechaosofouroffices.

SellenandHarperincludeintheirbookaphotographofanofficepiledhighwithstacksofpaper.
TheoccupantoftheofficearesearcherinXeroxsEuropeanresearchfacilitywas
consideredneitherineffectivenorinefficient.Quitethecontrary:hewas,theytellus,legendary
inbeingabletofindanydocumentinhisofficeveryquickly.Butthemanagersofthelaboratory
wereuncomfortablewithhisofficebecauseofwhatitsaidabouttheirlaboratory.Theywere,
afterall,anorganizationlookingtodevelopdigitalworkplacesolutions.Theywantedtoshow
thatthiswasaworkplacereachingouttothefutureratherthanbeingtrappedinaninefficient
past,SellenandHarperwrite.Yet,ifthisindividualsofficewasanythingtogoby,thereality
wasthatthisworkplaceofthefuturewasfullofpaper.Wheneverseniorcolleaguescamebythe
office,then,themanwiththemessydeskwasinstructedtoputhispapersinboxesandhide
themunderthestairs.Theironyis,ofcourse,thatitwasnottheresearcherwhowastrappedin
aninefficientpastbutthemanagers.Theywerecaptivesofthenineteenthcenturynotionthat
paperwasmostusefulwhenitwasputaway.TheywerechannellingMelvilDewey.Butthisisa
differentera.Inthetasksthatfacemodernknowledgeworkers,paperismostusefuloutinthe
open,whereitcanbeshuffledandsortedandannotatedandspreadout.Themarkofthe
contemporaryofficeisnotthefile.Itsthepile.

5.

Airtrafficcontrollersarequintessentialknowledgeworkers.Theyperformararefiedversionof
thetaskfacedbytheeconomistsattheI.M.F.whentheysitdownatthecomputerwiththe
commentsanddraftsoffiveotherpeoplespreadaroundthem,orthemanagerwhenshegetsto
herofficeonMondaymorning,looksatthepilesofpapersonherdesk,andtriestomakesense
ofallthethingsshehastodointhecomingweek.Whenanairtrafficcontrollerlooksathis
radar,heseesatwodimensionalpictureofwheretheplanesinhissectorare.Butwhatheneeds
toknowiswherehisplaneswillbe.Hehastobeabletotaketheevidencefromradar,whathe
hearsfromthepilotsandothercontrollers,andwhathehaswrittendownontheflightstripsin
frontofhim,andconstructathreedimensionalpictureofalltheplanesinhissector.
Psychologistscalltheabilitytocreatethatmentalpicturesituationawareness.Situation
awarenessoperatesonthreelevels,saysMicaEndsley,thepresidentofS.A.Technologies,in
Georgia,andperhapsthecountrysleadingexpertonthesubject.Oneisperceiving.Secondis
understandingwhattheinformationmeansanalogoustoreadingcomprehension.Thats
whereyouorIwouldhaveproblems.Wedseetheblipsonthescreen,anditwouldntmean
anythingtous.Thehighestlevel,though,isprojectiontheabilitytopredictwhichaircraftare
cominginandwhen.Youvegottobeabletolookintothefuture,probablybyasmuchasfive
minutes.

Psychologistsbelievethatthosesocalledflightstripsplayamajorroleinhelpingcontrollers
achievethissituationawareness.Recently,forexample,WendyMackay,acomputerscientist
nowworkinginParis,spentseveralmonthsatanairtrafficcontrolfacilitynearOrlyAirport,in
Paris.TheFrenchairtrafficcontrolsystemisvirtuallyidenticaltotheAmericansystem.One
controller,theplanningcontroller,isresponsiblefortheradar.Hehasapartner,whosejobisto
alerttheradarcontrollertoincomingtraffic,andwhatMackayobservedwashowbeautifullythe
stripsenableefficientinteractionbetweenthesetwopeople.Theplanningcontroller,for
instance,overhearswhathispartnerissayingontheradio,andwatcheshimannotatestrips.If
hehasanewstrip,hemightkeepitjustoutofhispartnersvisualfielduntilitisrelevant.She
[theplanner]movesitintohisperipheralviewifthestripshouldbedealtwithsoon,butnot
immediately,Mackaywrites.Iftheproblemisurgent,shewillphysicallymoveitintohisfocal
view,placingthestripontopofthestripboardor,rarely,insertingit.

Thosestripsmovinginandoutoftheperipheralviewofthecontrollerserveascognitivecues,
whichthecontrollerusestohelpkeepthepictureofhissectorclearinhishead.Whentaking
overacontrolposition,controllerstouchandrearrangethestripsinfrontofthem.Whenthey
aregivenanewstrip,theyareforcedmentallytoregisteranewflightandthenewtraffic
situation.Bywritingonthestrips,theycanoffloadinformation,keepingtheirmindsfreeto
attendtoothermatters.Thecontrollersflightstripsarelikethepilesofpaperonadesk:they
arethephysicalmanifestationsofwhatgoesoninsidehishead.Isitanywonderthatthe
modernizationoftheairtrafficcontrolsystemhastakensolong?Noonewantstodoanything
thatmightdisruptthatcriticalmentalprocess.

Thisis,ofcourse,adifficultconclusionforustoaccept.Likethemanagersoftheoffice
technologylab,wehaveinourheadsthenotionthatanairtrafficcontrolcenteroughttobea
pristineandgleamingplace,fullofthelatestelectronicgadgetry.Wethinkofallthoseflight
stripsasclutteringandconfusingtheworkoftheoffice,andwefretaboutwhereallthatpaper
willgo.But,asSellenandHarperpointout,weneedntworry.Itisonlyifpapersusefulnessis
intheinformationwrittendirectlyonitthatitmustbestored.Ifitsusefulnessliesinthe
promotionofongoingcreativethinking,then,oncethatthinkingisfinished,thepaperbecomes
superfluous.Thesolutiontoourpaperproblem,theywrite,isnottouselesspaperbuttokeep
lesspaper.Whybotherfilingatall?Everythingweknowabouttheworkplacesuggeststhatfewif
anyknowledgeworkerseverrefertodocumentsagainoncetheyhavefiledthemaway,which
shouldcomeasnosurprise,sincepaperisalousywaytoarchiveinformation.Itstoohardto
searchandittakesuptoomuchspace.Besides,weallhavethebestfilingsystemeverinvented,
rightthereonourdesksthepersonalcomputer.ThatistheironyoftheP.C.:theworkplace
problemthatitsolvesisthenineteenthcenturyanxiety.Itsabetterfilingcabinetthanthe
originalverticalfile,andifDeweywerealivetoday,hednodoubtbeworkingveryhappilyinan
informationtechnologydepartmentsomewhere.Theproblemthatpapersolves,bycontrast,is
theproblemthatmostconcernsustoday,whichishowtosupportknowledgework.Infretting
overpaper,wehavebeentrippedupbyahistoricalaccidentofinnovation,confusedbythe
assumptionthatthemostimportantinventionisalwaysthemostrecent.Hadthecomputer
comefirstandpapersecondnoonewouldraiseaneyebrowattheflightstripscluttering
ourairtrafficcontrolcenters.

2017MalcolmGladwell.