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How do cracks that lead to failure form?
How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?
Chapter 8 - 3
Ductile vs Brittle Failure
Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile
Chapter 8 - 4
Example: Pipe Failures
Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation
Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations
Chapter 8 - 5
Moderately Ductile Failure
Failure Stages:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface
Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) Chapter 8 - 6
Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure
Chapter 8 - 7
Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated
Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Deformation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. Chapter 8 - 9
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
Ideal vs Real Materials
Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
perfect matl-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber
Chapter 8 - 10
Chapter 8 - 11
Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a
m 2o K t o
t
t where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip
Chapter 8 - 12
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip
Chapter 8 - 13
Engineering Fracture Design
Avoid sharp corners!
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
0
w
max
2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1.0 r/h
1943.)
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 14
Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
blunts the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile
Chapter 8 - 15
Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (m)
exceeds a critical stress (c)
1/ 2
2E s
i.e., m > c c
a
where
E = modulus of elasticity
s = specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack
Chapter 8 - 16
Fracture Toughness Ranges
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa m0.5 )
design
Kc 1 K c
amax
Y amax Ydesign
amax
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture
Chapter 8 - 18
Chapter 8 - 19
Chapter 8 - 20
Chapter 8 - 21
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
K Ic --failure stress = ?
Use... c
Y amax
Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
KIc
= a = constant
Y
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm
c amax
A c amax B
Chapter 8 - 23
Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy
Chapter 8 - 24
Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
The Discovery of the Titanic.) "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
S = stress amplitude
Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
S = stress amplitude
For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 27
Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth
Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
K
m
dN
~ a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
Failed rotating shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister &
crack gets longer Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
loading freq. increases. 8.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Chapter 8 - 28
Improving Fatigue Life
S = stress amplitude
1. Impose compressive Adapted from
surface stresses Fig. 8.24, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive m
cracks from growing) moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 29
Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs. time
0 t
tertiary
primary
secondary
elastic
Chapter 8 - 31
Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
Qc
s K 2 exp
n
activation energy for creep
strain rate RT (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
Strain rate 200 Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427C (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
Stress (MPa)
g.b. cavities
applied
stress
Chapter 8 - 33
Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800C, = 20,000 psi
data for
S-590 Iron
12 16 20 24 28
1 (1073 K )(20 log t r ) 24 x103
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Ans: tr = 233 hr
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
Chapter 8 - 34
Estimate the rupture time for
S-590 Iron, T = 750C, = 20,000 psi
Solution: