University of Helsinki, Faculty of Agriculture and

Forestry, Department of Ecology/ VITRI

Seminar ME456 17 April 2007

Soils of the Sudan:

Distribution, physicochemical properties and utilization

Daldoum Mohamed Ahmed

Address: University of Khartoum, Faculty of Forestry, Postal code 13314, Shambat; E-
mail: daldoum@gmail.com; Tel:+249 911251805, Sudan
Location
Sudan is located between latitudes 4 N - 22 N and 21.5 E 38.5 E. It is
bordered by Egypt in the North; Eretria and Ethiopia in the east; Kenya,
Uganda and Congo in the South; Central African republic, Chad and
Libya in the West.
Surface area: 2.5 million km2

Climate
The climate ranges from desertic in the north, arid-sahelian in the center to
tropical wet-and-dry in the far south.

Rainfall varies extremely from almost nill to traces in the far north (desert),
about 160 mm in the semi-desert, about 300-500 mm in the low rainfall
savanna woodland zone and to about 1000 mm or more in the far south
high rainfall savanna woodland. Also there are greater annual and inter-
annual fluctuations of rainfall amounts and distribution throughout the
country. Droughts are quite frequent, believed to occur in inter-decade
cycles.
Temperature regimes are hot in general all over the country with averages
above 35 C in the north and around 25 C in the south. Daily and inter-
seasonal temperature variations are greater in the north than in the south
where they are more stable. Maximum diurnal temperatures may reach 48
C in the summer (April-July, desert region) and minimum diurnal
temperatures may descend to 15 C or less in winter (November-February).
In autumn average temperatures are reduced influenced by rains.

Northerly and northeasterly winds prevail during the dry period

(November-June) while southerly and southwesterly winds prevail during
the rainy period (July-October).

Wind storms (Haboubs, kataha) are very frequent all over the country
especially in the north laden with considerable amounts of dust.
Physical Features

* Land configuration of the Sudan is fairly flat with gentel

inclination towards the north and northwest; the degrees of
inclination range between 3 to 5 .

* Big mountainous ranges are few and are widely scattered all
over the country especially towards the border lines: Red sea
hills on the northeast border; Galabat and Ingasana ranges on
the east along the borders with Eriteria and Ethiopia; Imatong
(> 3000 m a.s.l.), Dadinga and Dongotona ranges in the extreme
south and southeast along the borders with Kenya and
Uganda;
 Nuba mountains in the middle of the country and Jeble Marra mountains
(about 3000 m a.s.l, 300 km long and 100 km wide) in the far west of the
country. However, there are small numerous rock outcrops scattered all
over the country. Active moving sand dune mounts are located between the
parallel latitudes of 14 N and 16 N particularly towards the west of the
river Nile.

* The country is traversed by the river Nile and its tributaries the Blue Nile,
the White Nile and river Atbara. Atbara and the Blue Nile drain the
Eriterian and Ethiopian highlands; the Blue Nile is also fed by the Dinder
and Rahad rivers. The White Nile originates mainly from lake Victoria and
is fed by numerous branches coming from Congo, Central African
Republic, Ethiopia and western Sudan.
 Physical Features

N
Egypt
Saudi
Arabia
Libya Lake Nuba
22 0N
Jeble Ouinat Red Sea
hills Red Sea
Wadi Hawar
Chad River Nile
Eretria
Khartoum
Gerba dam
El Fasher White Blue
Jeble Marra Nile Nile Lake Tana
Nuba mountains
Roseires dam
Bahar
Melakal Ingasana hills
Elarab
Wau Ethiopia
CFR Bahar Eljeble
Juba
Imatong
mountains 4
0N
Congo Kenya
Uganda

22.5 0E 38.5 0E
Soil Types

Sudan has many types of soils but few types dominate the country landscape,
the major types are:

1/ Desert

2/ Semi-desert and arid lands (Aridisols, locally named goz and gardud soils)

3/ Central clay plains (Vertisols)

4/Alluvial river banks (Luvisols)

5/ Iron stone plateaus (Laterite, Ferralsols, Oxisols)

6/ Inundated lands and swamps in the Sudd region (hydromorphic soils 30000
km2)

7/ Mountainous soils (highly variable, including Andosols in Jeble Marra)

8/ Entisols around rock outcrops (Incelberge)

 Desertic soils Luvisols
N

Major soil types

Red sea
(marked with arrows)

Aridisols
Front of moving sand dunes

Vertisols
Mountainous
soils

Oxisols Hydromorphic
soils
Vertisols
A soil that moves (vertere)
Suborders:
Torrerts: tropical torrential rains
Uderts: wet climatic regimes
Usterts: contrasted wet/dry climatic regimes
Xererts: xeric or dry climatic regime

Parent Materials
Carbonates
Basic rocks (basalt)
Superficial deposits, in the case of Sudan brought from Ethiopian plateau
perhaps during the quaternary era

Topography: in plains and depressions

Vegetation: tall grasses; scattered trees and shrubs, mostly acacias and thorny
trees
Distribution: occupy most of the eastern, central, southern and parts of
western Sudan; running in a zone from east to west but skewed to the
south.
Pedogenesis (Vertisolisation)

Very acute alternations of wetting and desiccation of the profile are

triggering elements of pedogenesis. Because they act decisively on
humification of organic matter and evolution of weathering complex; these
processes occur in cold or continental climates (isohumisim) or hot climate
(vertisolisation). The role of Ca2+ linked with wetting/desiccation leads to
neoformation of expanding clays (montmorillonite) and presence of black
polycondensed humic compounds (2%) intimately bound with the clay
minerals, which is thought to be the origin of black color of this soil.
Wetting and desiccation causes homogenization of the soil profile, with
structural features of cracks and oblique friction surfaces (slickensides).
Presence of calcic horizon is possible but not obligatory.
General Landscape of Vertisols: Southern Blue Nile area
Close view of Vertisols: Southern Blue Nile area
 A1

Typical view of Vertisols profile: southern Blue Nile earea

Surface features: micro-relief (gilga); cracks (> 1cm wide, > 50cm deep)

Profile:
A1 B C, no differentiation in most cases (A1 very narrow)
- Depth: 1 to > 10 m
- Color: black, dark brown
- Texture: clayey (montmorillonite >35% and Kaolinite) very sticky and
plastic wet, very hard dry, swell and shrink on wetting
and drying (25-50% change of size)
- Structure: prismatic, columnar, parallelepipped, wedge, blocky dry
and massive wet
- Concretions: presence in most cases, CaCO3 and CaSO4;
- Porosity: poor, water infiltration through cracks dry and very slow
wet
- Roots: present
- Organic Matter: poor, visible only in the few top centimeters of the soil
surface
- Biological activity: presence through cracks when dry (termites, ants,
worms etc).
Table 1: Some physical and chemical properties of a Vertisols,
Southern Blue Nile area

Particle size Bulk

Depth distribution CaCO3 density pH Ec
sand silt clay
cm % % % % g/cm3 paste dS/m

0-10 41.8 13.1 45.1 3.4 1.4 7.3 0.65

10-50 32.7 12.1 55.2 3.1 1.4 7.4 0.7

50-100 28.8 11.5 59.7 3.3 1.5 7.6 0.52

100-150 34.1 12.1 53.9 3.1 1.5 7.4 0.4

Table 1: Continued
Depth Exchangeable bases CEC Organic N C/N PO3-

Ca2++Mg2+ K+ Na+ matter

(meq/100g
cm (meq/100g soil) soil) % % ppm

0-10 50.0 0.35 0.07 50.4 0.11 0.07 1 1.5

10-50 58.7 1.54 0.68 60.9 0.23 0.06 2 1.4

50-100 57.1 0.93 0.62 58.6 0.15 0.03 3 1.8

100-150 41.3 0.95 0.42 42.5 0.16 0.02 5 1.7

Workable properties:
Has good chemical properties but very bad physical properties (hard dry,
sticky and plastic wet, slow infiltration); deep ploughing can improve the
bad physical properties; causes damage to buildings and constructions if not
taken into consideration during laying of foundations

Utilization:
The intensively managed irrigated agricultural schemes (Gerzira, Rahad,
Suki, Khashim Elgirba, Kenana, West Sennar, Assalayia, etc ) and the
mechanized rain fed schemes (Gedaref, Southern Blue Nile, Upper Nile,
Southern Kordofan) are located here

Crops and other resources:

- Cotton, Sugar cane, Sorghum, Ground nuts, Wheat, Sesame, Sunflower,
vegetables...etc
- Forestry including the intensively managed plantations of Acacia nilotica
for the production of rail way sleepers
- Pastures and livestock grazing
- Wildlife (Dinder, Radom game reserves).
Luvisols

Location and topographic situation:

Banks of River Nile and tributaries, wadis and khors.

Genesis:

Pedogenetic processes are mainly determined by mass flow of water

(flooding), subject to change as a result of flooding dynamic.

Morphology and profile:

No typical profile but are characterized by presence of water deposited

material, alluvium, gravels, and debris; example of Blue Nile basin
Southern Fung area.
Parameter Surface horizons Subsoil horizons Bottom horizons
Depth 0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-100 cm
Color pale brown brown brown
Texture silty loam sandy loam sandy clay

Structure fragile Weak blocky laminar

spheroidal units spheroidal units
Porosity very good very good poor
Organic matter abundant present poor

Stones and few not present not present

gravels
Humidity dry medium very high

Biological low very high (ants, very high (ants,

activity termites, larva, termites, larva,
worms) worms)
Roots numerous present few
Table 2: Some physical and chemical properties of a Luvisols,
Southern Blue Nile area

Particle size Bulk

Depth distribution CaCO3 density pH Ec

sand silt clay

cm % % % % g/cm3 paste dS/m

0-10 39.3 11.4 49.3 3.8 1.4 7.4 1.5

10-50 45.0 10.1 45.0 3.5 1.4 7.3 1.6

50-100 31.4 11.1 57.6 3.4 1.5 7.1 1.7

100-150 33.6 12.1 54.3 3.5 1.5 7.4 0.5

Table 2: Continued

Depth Exchangeable bases CEC Organic N C/N PO3-

Ca2++Mg2+ K+ Na+ matter

(meq/100g
cm (meq/100g soil) soil) % % ppm

0-10 62.5 0.51 0.28 63.3 0.08 0.06 1 1.3

10-50 38.8 0.89 0.39 40.1 0.09 0.06 1 1.8

50-100 55.0 0.65 0.34 56.0 0.13 0.03 3 1.3

100-150 52.5 0.96 0.3 53.8 0.07 0.02 2 1.2

Utilization:

* These soils have very high fertility. They are enriched by alluvium deposition
annually. They have balanced texture and structure, high nutrient and
water contents, hence high production potential

* They are practically cultivated all the year round and in most cases without
any supplement of irrigation or fertilization (flooding cultivation is a local
term for their usage in the northern Sudan). In most areas mechanization is
limited due to lack of expansion of landscape and all the cultivation
operations are done manually

* They can support many types of crops: vegetables, cereals, animal fodder,
orchards and forestry

* They are also used for brick making.

Xerosols (Aridisols)

Xeros: Dry
Subdivisions:
- Haplic xerosols: do not have diagnostic horizons other than A ochric and B
cambic
- Calcic xerosols: has calcic horizon within 125 cm depth
- Gypsic xerosols: has gypsic horizon within 125 cm depth
-Luvic xerosols: has B argillic and/or calcic, gypsic

Location: arid zones, mid-latitude and tropical areas. In the Sudan they found
in the famous saheil zone just south of the sahara desert, the area is also
called the gum-arabic belt

Substrate: deposits of pleistocene and holocene, loess, on old non-functional

soils
Topography: flat or less acute slopes

Vegetation: annual grasses and succulent plants (gezu plants: cucumbers

grazed by camels), cacti, scattered shrubs and trees, mostly acacias and
thorny shrubs
Profile of Aridisols: Northern Kordofan area
Genesis: Pedological processes occur very slowly due to lack of water entering
the soil. Seasonal organic matter from plants decomposes very quickly and
incorporated into the soil and conserved. Salts are leached from topsoil and
deposited into the subsoil at depths of 1 to 5 m. Due to poor soil structure
the surface soil is easily fragmented and eroded leading to concentration of
coarse particles

General features: May comprise weak ochric A1 horizon in addition to B

cambic, B argillic, calcic, gypsic

Morphology (profile, Damokeya forest, northern Kordofan):A1 horizon: 0-10

cm; yellowish red (5 YR 5/6) dry and yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) moist; sandy
loam textured; weak fine blocky structured; few fine pores; few roots;

C horizon: 10-150 cm; yellowish red (5 YR 5/8) dry and yellowish red ( YR
4/6) moist; sandy; massive structure; few medium pores; few medium roots
Table 3: Some physical and chemical properties of sandy
soils at El Damokeya area, North Kordofan State

Depth Particle size distribution pH Ec Bulk density

sand silt clay

cm % % % paste dS/m g/cm3

0-10 87.6 3 8.4 6.3 0.19 1.5

10-150 88.9 2 7.2 6.7 0.17 1.5

Table 3: continued
Exchangeable
Depth bases CEC Organic N C/N PO---

Ca++ Mg++ K+ Na+ matter

(meq/100g (meq/100
cm soil) g soil) % % ppm

0-10 0.9 0.04 1.1 0.26 2.7 0.32 0.016 11 0.26

10-150 0.9 0.8 1.1 0.3 3.1 0.02 0.012 11 0.04

Utilization:

* Used for production of sorghum, millet, water melon, rossel

(kerkadae), sesame...etc by shifting cultivation including
agroforestry practices

* Pastures and grazing for sheep, goats, camels and cattle; most
of the Sudan livestock populations are located in this zone

* Forestry particularly for production of gum arabic (Acacia

senegal)

* Wildlife (gazelles)
Ferralsols (Oxisols)

Divisions: Orthic, Xanthic, Rhodic, Humic, Acric, Plinthic

Location and climate:
Humid equatorial climates, coastal trade winds climate, humid-dry tropical
climates; widely present in Australia, Southeast Asia (India), South
America (Brazil), Africa, in the Sudan are found in West Equatoria and
Bahar Elgazal states in border areas with Congo and Central African
Republic. Mean temperatures >25 C, mean annual rainfall 1000-1200 mm.
May be found as relic soils, where normal conditions of their presence have
changed e.g. some places in east Africa

Topography:
On plateaus, gentle sloped aspects of mountains, not present at altitudes
more than 1200-1500 m a.s.l
Vegetation:
Equatorial rain forests, deciduous tropical forests (may be thorny forest
and savanna)
Genesis:

Resulted from intensive and deep hydrolysis and complete transfer of rocks
into clay minerals and oxyhydroxides. Deep continuous infiltration lead to
leaching of basic cations and fine particles and concentration of coarse
particles in the profile

General characteristics and morphology:

These are soils that contain oxic epipedon. Have wide variety of properties:

1/ Depth: < 1 m to >10 m, shallow soil might have been washed in torrential
rainy periods

2/ Color: yellow 10 YR, red 10 R depending on original substrate, the reddish

colors originate from materials rich with iron and magnesium
(Ferromagnesian minerals) and limestone and the secondary iron oxides

3/ Iron stone: indurated horizon of iron stone is widely present

Surface features:
Little litter, presence of termite mounts (open forest and range land)

Profile:

* A1 horizon: depth 20 cm; red, red-grey colored with organic matter

* B horizon: depth 3 m, red-brown

* C horizon: Ochre colored

* Texture: clayey, in subsoil presence of material that hardens upon exposure

to air known as plinthite or mottled clay; Kaolinite (> 80%); Goethite;
haematite; Gibbsite; few hydrous mica; few silt

* Structure: spheroidal aggregates, stable not easily dispersed known as

pseudo-sand cemented with iron and aluminum oxides
Chemical properties:
* pH: acidic, 5.5 surface and 4.5 subsoil

* CEC: < 15 me/100g soil, poor

* Exchangeable elements: Ca, Mg, K, Na few (leached)

* AEC: high, due to presence of considerable amounts of iron

and aluminum oxides

* Organic matter: poor < 5%, in most cases 2-3%

* C/N: 8-12, indicative of high biological activity which causes

quick and intensive decomposition of organic matter
Utilization:

* Have very low fertility but support high forest through the biogeochemical
cycle of elements (transfer of nutrients from soil to plants and return to
soil via litter fall, decomposition and re-absorption by plants). When
trees are removed the soil loses its fertility immediately and
regeneration of forest or crop cultivation becomes at stake except by aid
of fertilizer addition
* Normal practice of land exploitation is by shifting cultivation including
agroforestry. Recently, usage of fertilizers lead to increased production
and stability of this land exploitation

* Crops: most tropical crops: tea, coffee, cacao, oil palm, rubber, sugar cane,
pine apple, cassava, yametc

* Tropical wood and timber

* Virtually no livestock here because of presence of tsetse fly

 Research Needs
All aspects of soil science and application practices are stil not covered and
satisfied in the Sudan. The major exception is the case of irrigated schemes
in the central clay plains (Vertisols) where rather intensive soil research
work has been going on for production of cotton, sugar cane and other
crops. The following aspects of scientific soil research and application need
to be given particular attention:
1/ Establishment of Sudanese soils map (it exists only isolated maps for certain
regions)
2/ Desertification and sand encroachment problems
3/ Drought and soil water research
4/ Soil nutrients availability (fertilization and soil amendments)
5/ Salinity and sodicity problems
6/ Soil-plant relationships (role of trees: forestry and agroforestry in
improvement of soil properties)
7/ Soil workability and cultivation practices
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