A PROJECT REPORT

ON

HYDRAULIC CRANE
 INTRODUCTION

This project deals with the fabrication of hydraulic crane. The aim of this
project work is to acquire practical knowledge in the field of complicated
loading job with the help of worm and worm wheel. The project work is
concerned with the fabrication of the portable mechanical crane. This
machine is very useful for lifting and carrying heavy loads such as painting
equipment, spray painting gun and etc. this is demo model project.
 REQUIREMENTS

1. MOTOR

2. TRANSFORMER

3. CONTROLLING CARD

4. IRON CRANE

5. HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
 WORKING

The main work of the crane is to lift anything upward. We use hydraulic
piston in this project .when the motor start the hydraulic piston moves in the
upward direction due to which the crane moves and the crane move.
 HYDRAULICS
Hydraulics is the study of liquids and their mechanical properties: how they
move, resist movement, act when subject to pressure, and so forth. In
engineering, one application of hydraulics is using liquids, like water and
oil, to move things.

Why use a liquid to move things, instead of, say, air?

One important reason is that a liquid is incompressible, which means that if

you press on it, you cannot change its volume. For example, if you have a
cup filled with marshmallows, you can fit even more marshmallows into the
cup by compressing (squeezing) the marshmallows together. But if the cup is
filled with water, you cannot fit more water into the cup - no matter how
hard you squeeze! Because liquid is incompressible, applying a force (for
example, a push or a pull) to one end of a hydraulic system transmits
(moves) the force through the liquid to the other end.

Pressure is a force spread out over an area, or a force divided by an area.

Pushing on the top of a glass of water, for instance, puts pressure on all of
the water in the glass. Another way of thinking about pressure is to imagine
pushing on an object with your finger or with the palm of your hand. In both
cases, you are applying the same force, but the pressure is different because
the area of the tip of your finger is much smaller than the palm of your hand.
Figure 1 below shows a simple hydraulic system that uses the concepts of
force and pressure.

The hydraulic system

in Figure 1 is made
up of a liquid-filled
tube topped with
two pistons that
move up or down as
the liquid moves.
Applying a
downward force on
this closed system (in this case, pushing down on the left-hand piston)
causes the liquid to move against the right-hand piston and, because the
liquid is incompressible, push the piston up. The pressure in the liquid is the
same at every point within the liquid, because the liquid is incompressible.
When the energy from the force applied to one piston is transferred to the
liquid and then to the second piston, thus moving it, we say that work has
been done by the first piston. Hydraulic machinery, like wheelchair lifts
and excavators use liquids to do work. That work can be applied to big jobs,
like lifting heavy loads.
An advantage of hydraulic tools is the concept of force multiplication.
Force multiplication enables the force you apply to one piston to be
multiplied, by a multiplicative factor, to make larger force acting on the
second piston. This only works if the first piston is smaller in area than the
second piston. Taking the simple hydraulic system mentioned above and
altering it to use force multiplication, it will look like Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Simple hydraulic system with pistons of different areas.

The piston with the smaller area is called the master and the piston
with the larger area is called the slave. The difference in areas
between the two enables force multiplication.

When you push in the master (smaller) piston, the amount of force applied
to the slave (larger) piston by the liquid is multiplied by the ratio of the area
of the slave piston to the area of the master piston. Using Equations 1 to 3
below derives this relationship.

Equation 1.
Pressure at slave piston = Pressure at master piston
Pressure is in units of Newtons (N)/area

Area is in units of centimeters (cm) squared

Because pressure is force acting over an area, Equation 1 is transformed into

Equation 2.

Equation 2.
Fs Fm
=
As Am
Fs = Force applied by liquid on slave piston (in units of newtons, N)
Fm = Force applied to liquid by master piston (N)
As = Area of slave piston (cm)

Am = Area of master piston (cm)

In Figure 2, the area of both pistons is a circle and the area of a circle is r,
where r is the radius of the circle. Using this given, you can transform
Equation 2 into Equation 3 to find the force the liquid applies on the slave
piston.
Equation 3.
Force on slave piston = Force applied by master piston x (area of slave
piston/area of master piston)

rs2

Fs = Fm ( )
rm2

Fs= Force applied by liquid on slave piston (N)

Fm=Force applied to liquid by master piston (N)
rs= radius of slave piston (cm)
rm= radius of master piston (cm)

= pi (approximately 3.14)

The ratio of the areas of the two different pistons in Equation 3 is called
the multiplicative factor. Using Equation 3, you can see that the force on
the slave piston in Figure 2 is four times the force applied by the master
piston. So if the master piston applies 1 N of force to the liquid, the liquid's
force on the slave piston is 4 N. But note that the master must be pushed
down 4 cm while the slave rises only 1 cm.

Force multiplication is the reason hydraulic machinery is so useful. A small

force from the operator on one end of the machine is multiplied and results
in a much larger force on the other end. Construction equipment like
excavators and forklifts use the force multiplication of hydraulics. Often
these machines have hydraulic cylinders. A hydraulic cylinder is made up
of a piston and a cylinder that houses the piston and the hydraulic liquid.

BASIC

The goal of the basic project is to impart a base level understanding of the
principles behind hydraulics. A superb introductory project is setting up a
basic demonstration, showing how a gravity powered hydraulic lever can
move a small object. The project only needs a few basic items: a large funnel
to act as an elevated reservoir, a small plastic hose and a plastic bag with a
thin membrane such as a typical shopping bag. Use some tape to seal the
hose to the bag. A Styrofoam plate is one of the best items to use for the
lifting demonstration, because of its low weight and relative stability.
Assemble all the parts, then place the plate on the on the bag. Pour water
into the funnel while holding it as high as possible. The water pressure
should cause bag to expand lifting the plate and demonstrating the concept

A fine example of a basic project teaching hydraulic principles is the

construction of a hydraulic braking device. In order to build a break there
will need to be a few simple pistons in action. The simplest way to construct
a piston is by using a pair syringes without needles. Attach the syringe to a
small length of plastic hose and seal it with tape or glue. Fill the device with
water and attach another syringe to the other end, creating a rudimentary
hydraulic piston system. Allow students to construct models that transfer the
force of one syringe to a small brake. The brake pad which can simply be an
eraser glued to the end of the other syringe plunger. Students will also need
to set up a positioning apparatus, however this should not prove particularly
difficult. A perfectly completed classroom sized project of this nature will
have the student pressing one plunger into the syringe, and the other syringe
plunger applying brake pressure to a spinning model wheel.
Expanding upon the basic principles of hydraulics demonstrated in other
experiments students can be directed to construct a mini-crane. The crane
will make use of several of the ordinary pistons outlined in the intermediate
hydraulics projects. Since a crane has a number of moving joints, students
will need to construct several hydraulic pistons and control them
independently to achieve the desired effect. Giving students team challenges
such as moving candies from one dish, to another can add a memorable
competitive aspect to a lesson. A basic hydraulic crane will have an arm with
at least four actuated points, in addition to two more moving points to rotate
the base. Adding a counterweight opposite to the arm will significantly
improve stability.
 CRANE
A 'crane' is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or
chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to
move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and
transporting them to other places. It uses one or more simple machines to
create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal
capability of a man. Cranes are commonly employed in the transport
industry for the loading and unloading of freight, in the construction industry
for the movement of materials and in the manufacturing industry for the
assembling of heavy equipment.

The first construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were
powered by men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were
used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later
developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting
of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were
introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction some
were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest
cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over with
the coming of the Industrial Revolution.
For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or
animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the
harnessed natural power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided by
steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th
century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century. Modern
cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and
hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was
previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilised where the
provision of power would be uneconomic.

Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms each tailored to a specific

use. Sometimes sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside
workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high buildings.
For a while, mini - cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, in
order to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Finally, we can find
larger floating cranes, generally used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken
ships.

This article also covers lifting machines that do not strictly fit the above
definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker
cranes and loader cranes.
 MOTOR

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A

current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then
placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional
to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic
field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite
(North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North,
South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a motor is designed to
harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and
an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole electric motor (here red represents a
magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a
magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).
Every motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor , stator, commutator, field
magnet(s), and brushes. In most common motors, the external magnetic
field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets1.
The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor
casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole
pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate
with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a
core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The
above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the
stator (field) magnets.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are
such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and
the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost
aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the
brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next
winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the
direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the
rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, motors will always have more than two poles (three is a
very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the
commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the
rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field
magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there
is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both
brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad
for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well.
Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a
high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is
cyclic with the position of the rotor).
As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one
coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up
(this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of
this later, but in the meantime you can see
that this is a direct result of the coil
windings' series wiring: The use of an iron
core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is
quite common, and has a number of
advantages. First off, the iron core provides a
strong, rigid support for the windings -- a
particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also
conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven
harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also
relatively inexpensive compared with other
Figure 3.1.2 Iron Core construction types.
But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature
has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This
construction also results in high winding inductances which limit brush and
commutator life.
In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a
'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for
structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent
magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much
lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size,
extending brush and commutator life.

Figure 3.1.3 Coreless armature winding

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors;
meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are
somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is generally used just
in small, low-power motors. BEAMers will most often see coreless motors
in the form of pager motors.

3.2 WORKING OF MOTOR

The direct current
motor is one of
the first machines
devised to
convert electrical
power into
mechanical
power. Permanent magnet (PM) direct current convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields. One field
is produced by a permanent magnet assembly, the other Figure 3.2.1
Working of dc motor
field is produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings.
These two fields result in a torque which tends to rotate the rotor. As the
rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a
continuous torque output. The stationary electromagnetic field of the motor
can also be wire-wound like the armature or can be made up of permanent
magnets.
In either style (wound-field or permanent magnet) the commutator, acts as
half of a mechanical switch and rotates with the armature as it turns. The
commutator is composed of conductive segments (called bars), usually made
of copper, which represent the termination of individual coils of wire
distributed around the armature. The second half of the mechanical switch is
completed by the brushes. These brushes typically remain stationary with the
motor's housing but ride (or brush) on the rotating commutator. As electrical
energy is passed through the brushes and consequently through the armature
a torsional force is generated as a reaction between the motor's field and the
armature causing the motor's armature to turn. As the armature turns, the
brushes switch to adjacent bars on the commutator. This switching action
transfers the electrical energy to an adjacent winding on the armature which
in turn perpetuates the torsional motion of the armature.
Permanent magnet (PM) motors are probably the most commonly used
motors, but there are also some other type of motors(types which use coils
to make the permanent magnetic field also) .motors operate from a direct
current power source. Movement of the magnetic field is achieved by
switching current between coils within the motor. This action is called
"commutation". Very many motors (brush-type) have built-in commutation,
meaning that as the motor rotates, mechanical brushes automatically
commutate coils on the rotor. You can use dc-brush motors in a variety of
applications. A simple, permanent-magnet dc motor is an essential element
in a variety of products, such as toys, servo mechanisms, valve actuators,
robots, and automotive electronics. There are several typical advantages of a
PM motor. When compared to AC or wound field motors, PM motors are
usually physically smaller in overall size and lighter for a given power
rating. Furthermore, since the motor's field, created by the permanent
magnet, is constant, the relationship between torque and speed is very linear.
A PM motor can provide relatively high torque at low speeds and PM field
provides some inherent self-braking when power to the motor is shutoff.
There are several disadvantages through, those being mostly being high
current during a stall condition and during instantaneous reversal. Those can
damage some motors or be problematic to control circuitry. Furthermore,
some magnet materials can be damaged when subjected to excessive heat
and some loose field strength if the motor is disassembled.
A simplest method to control the rotation speed of a motor is to control it's
driving voltage. The higher the voltage is, the higher speed the motor tries to
reach. In many applications a simple voltage regulation would cause lots of
power loss on control circuit, so a pulse width modulation method (PWM)is
used in many motor controlling applications. In the basic Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) method, the operating power to the motors is turned on
and off to modulate the current to the motor. The ratio of "on" time to "off"
time is what determines the speed of the motor. When doing PWM
controlling, keep in mind that a motor is a low pass device. The reason is
that a motor is mainly a large inductor. It is not capable of passing high
frequency energy, and hence will not perform well using high frequencies.
Reasonably low frequencies are required, and then PWM techniques will
work. Lower frequencies are generally better than higher frequencies, but
PWM stops being effective at too low a frequency. The idea that a lower
frequency PWM works better simply reflects that the "on" cycle needs to be
pretty wide before the motor will draw any current (because of motor
inductance). A higher PWM frequency will work fine if you hang a large
capacitor across the motor or short the motor out on the "off" cycle (e.g.
power/brake pwm) The reason for this is that short pulses will not allow
much current to flow before being cut off. Then the current that did flow is
dissipated as an inductive kick - probably as heat through the fly-back
diodes. The capacitor integrates the pulse and provides a longer, but lower,
current flow through the motor after the driver is cut off. There is not
inductive kick either, since the current flow isn't being cut off. Knowing the
low pass roll-off frequency of the motor helps to determine an optimum
frequency for operating PWM. Try testing your motor with a square duty
cycle using a variable frequency, and then observe the drop in torque as the
frequency is increased. This technique can help determine the roll off point
as far as power efficiency is concerned.
Besides "brush-type" motors, there is another motor type: brushless motor.
Brushless motors rely on the external power drive to perform the
commutation of stationary copper winding on the stator. This changing stator
field makes the permanent magnet rotor to rotate .A brushless permanent
magnet motor is the highest performing motor in terms of torque / vs. weight
or efficiency. Brushless motors are usually the most expensive type of motor.
Electronically commutated, brush-less motor systems are widely used as
drives for blowers and fans used in electronics, telecommunications and
industrial equipment applications. There is wide variety of different brush-
less motors for various applications. Some are designed to rotate at constant
speed (those used in disk drives) and the speed of some can be controlled by
varying the voltage applied to them (usually the motors used in fans). Some
brushless motors have a built-in tachometer which gives out pulses as the
motor rotates (this applies to both disk drive motors and some computer
fans). In general, users select brush-type motors when low system cost is a
priority, and brushless motors to fulfill other requirements (such as
maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and explosive environments where
sparking could be hazardous). Brush type motors are used in very many
battery powered appliances. Brushless motors are commonly used in
applications like powered fans and disk drive rotation motors.

Motor is a device that creates motion, not an engine; it usually refers to

either an electrical motor or an internal combustion engine. It may also refer
to:

Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a mechanical

motion
o AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current
Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor
distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing
magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and
resulting magnetic field which drives it
Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type
of asynchronous alternating current motor where power
 is supplied to the rotating device by means of
electromagnetic induction
o DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current
electricity
Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated
electric motor designed to be run from a direct current
power source
Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which
is powered by direct current electricity and has an
electronically controlled commutation system, instead of
a mechanical commutation system based on brushes
o Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the
attraction and repulsion of electric charge
o Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo, commonly
used in robotics
o Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is self-
cooled by a fan, typically used for motors with a high energy
density

Other uses:

Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism

or system
Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of pressurized
liquid flow into mechanical motion
Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines
Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms
 o Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of
rotation under energy input
Motor language, extinct since the 1840s, a Uralic language that was
spoken in the northern region of the Sayan Mountains in Siberia
Motor system, the physiological system that is responsible for
physical movement
o Motor neuron, neurons that originate in the spinal cord and
synapse with muscle fibers
o Motor skill, the ability of an organism to use the motor system
effectively
Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy into
movement
Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of compressed
air into mechanical motion
The Motors, a British pub rock/punk band, formed in 1977 by Nick
Garvey, Andy McMaster, Ricky Slaughter and Rob Hendry, who was
replaced by Bram Tchaikovsky the same year.

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very

typically through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying
conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from
mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Many types
of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. For example a
starter/generator for a gas turbine or Traction motors used on vehicles often
perform both tasks.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans,

blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and
disk drives. They may be powered by direct current (for example a battery
powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a
central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in
electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized
dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for
industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of
large ships, and for such compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts.
Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their
internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they
give.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions

of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821.
Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed throughout the
19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale
required efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks.

Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they

generate some mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric
motors, and are usually termed actuators and transducers, respectively.

The principle

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by

electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael
Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on
which a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was passed through
the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave
rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often
demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes
used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of
devices called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel.
These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications
due to their primitive construction.

Jedlik's "lightning-magnetic self-rotor", 1827. (Museum of Applied Arts,

Budapest.)

In 1827, Hungarian nyos Jedlik started experimenting with

electromagnetic rotating devices he called "lightning-magnetic self-rotors".
He used them for instructive purposes in universities, and in 1828
demonstrated the first device which contained the three main components of
practical direct current motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. Both the
stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic, employing no
permanent magnets.Again, the devices had no practical application.

The first electric motors

The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of turning

machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in
1832.Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric
motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by Americans
Emily and Thomas Davenport and patented in 1837. Their motors ran at up
to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools and a printing
press. Due to the high cost of the zinc electrodes required by primary battery
power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and the Davenports went
bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC
motors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary battery power.
No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's
motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.

In 1855 Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his
electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work. He built a
model electric motor-propelled vehicle that same year. There is no evidence
that this experimentation was communicated to the wider scientific world at
that time, or that it influenced the development of electric motors in the
following decades.

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Znobe

Gramme connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit,
driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the first electric motor that
was successful in the industry. In 1886 Frank Julian Sprague invented the
first practical DC motor, a non-sparking motor capable of constant speed
under variable loads. Other Sprague electric inventions about this time
greatly improved grid electric distribution [prior work done while employed
by Edison], allowed power from electric motors to be returned to the electric
grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the
trolley pole, and provided controls systems for electric operations. This
allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric trolley
system in 1887-88 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and control system
in 1892, and the electric subway with independently powered centrally
controlled cars, which was first installed in 1892 in Chicago by the South
Side Elevated Railway where it became popularly known as the "L".
Sprague's motor and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and
use in electric motors for industry, while almost simultaneously another
great inventor was developing its primary competitor, which would become
much more widespread.

In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the
polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC
motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.[citation needed]

The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for

several decades by failure to recognize the extreme importance of a
relatively-small air gap between rotor and stator. Early motors, for some
rotor positions, had comparatively huge air gaps which constituted a very
high reluctance magnetic circuit. They produced far-lower torque than an
equivalent amount of power would produce with efficient designs. The cause
of the lack of understanding seems to be that early designs were based on
familiarity of distant attraction between a magnet and a piece of
ferromagnetic material, or between two electromagnets. Efficient designs, as
this article describes, are based on a rotor with a comparatively small air
gap, and flux patterns that create torque.

Note that the armature bars are at some distance (unknown) from the field
pole pieces when power is fed to one of the field magnets; the air gap is
likely to be considerable. The text tells of the inefficiency of the design.
(Electricity was created, as a practical matter, by consuming zinc in wet
primary cells!)

In his workshops Froment had an electromotive engine of one-horse power.

But, though an interesting application of the transformation of energy, these
machines will never be practically applied on the large scale in
manufactures, for the expense of the acids and the zinc which they use very
far exceeds that of the coal in steam-engines of the same force. [...] motors
worked by electricity, independently of any question as to the cost of
construction, or of the cost of the acids, are at least sixty times as dear to
work as steam-engines.

Although Gramme's design was comparatively much more efficient,

apparently the Froment motor was still considered illustrative, years later. It
is of some interest that the St. Louis motor, long used in classrooms to
illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for the same reason, as
well as appearing nothing like a modern motor. Photo of a traditional form
of the motor: [3] Note the prominent bar magnets, and the huge air gap at the
ends opposite the rotor. Even modern versions still have big air gaps if the
rotor poles are not aligned.

Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes

were no longer limited by power transmission using shaft, belts, compressed
air or hydraulic pressure. Instead every machine could be equipped with its
own electric motor, providing easy control at the point of use, and improving
power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture
eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling
grain or pumping water. Household uses of electric motors reduced heavy
labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and
safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of all electric
energy produced.

Categorization of electric motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating Current
(AC) types vs Direct Current (DC) types. This is more a de facto convention,
rather than a rigid distinction. For example, many classic DC motors run on
AC power, these motors being referred to as universal motors.

Rated output power is also used to categorise motors, those of less than 746
Watts, for example, are often referred to as fractional horsepower motors
(FHP) in reference to the old imperial measurement.

The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction,
as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For
this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal
AC drive currents, or some approximation thereof. The two best examples
are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being poly-phase
AC motors requiring external electronic control, although historically,
stepping motors (such as for maritime and naval gyrocompass repeaters)
were driven from DC switched by contacts.

Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism

between a moving magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average
torque production, there is a clearer distinction between an asynchronous
motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous motor requires slip between
the moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce current in the
winding set by mutual inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the
common AC induction motor which must slip to generate torque. In the
synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or
current production (e.g. permanent magnet motors, synchronous brush-less
wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).

Comparison of motor types

Comparison of motor types[15]
Typical Typical
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Application Drive
AC Least Rotation slips
Induction expensive from frequency Uni/Poly-
Fans
(Shaded Long life Low starting phase AC
Pole) high power torque
AC
High power
Induction Rotation slips Uni/Poly-
high starting Appliances
(split-phase from frequency phase AC
torque
capacitor)
Industrial
Rotation in-
motors
sync with
AC Clocks Uni/Poly-
freq More expensive
Synchronous Audio phase AC
long-life
turntables
(alternator)
tape drives
Precision
Positioning
positioning
Requires a in printers
Stepper DC High DC
controller and floppy
holding
drives
torque
Brushless Long High initial Hard drives DC
DC lifespan cost CD/DVD
 low
players
maintenance Requires a
electric
High controller
vehicles
efficiency
Low initial
High Treadmill
cost
maintenance exercisers Direct DC
Brushed DC Simple
(brushes) automotive or PWM
speed
Low lifespan starters
control
Compact
design Medium cost
Office Equip Direct DC
Pancake DC Simple Medium
Fans/Pumps or PWM
speed lifespan
control
Servo motor

A servomechanism,or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing

feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly
applies only to systems where the feedback or error-correction signals help
control mechanical position or other parameters. For example, an automotive
power window control is not a servomechanism, as there is no automatic
feedback which controls positionthe operator does this by observation. By
contrast the car's cruise control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it
as a servomechanism.

Synchronous electric motor

Main article: Synchronous motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor

spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating
current and resulting magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying
this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this
with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. A synchronous
motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field.
Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to rotor. The rotor poles
connect to each other and move at the same speed hence the name
synchronous motor.

Induction motor
Main article: Induction motor

An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power

is supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction.
Another commonly used name is squirrel cage motor because the rotor bars
with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster wheel). An electric
motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating
part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor
this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an
induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An induction
motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator
(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the
rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used,
especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in
industrial drives.

Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)

Main article: Electrostatic motor
An electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on
the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors
are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high
voltage power supply, although very small motors employ lower voltages.
Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and
repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first
electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew
Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-
mechanical (MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are below 100 volts,
and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and
iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often
based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.

DC Motors

A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure

DC designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon),
and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most
common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use
internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC
current from the DC sourceso they are not purely DC machines in a strict
sense.

Brushed DC motors
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound

rotor, or armature, with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or
permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of one or more coils of wire
wound around a core on a shaft; an electrical power source is connected to
the rotor coil through the commutator and its brushes, causing current to
flow in it, producing electromagnetism. The commutator causes the current
in the coils to be switched as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of
the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field,
so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does) but rather keeps
rotating indefinitely (as long as power is applied and is sufficient for the
motor to overcome the shaft torque load and internal losses due to friction,
etc.)

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the
need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At
higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact.
Brushes may bounce off the irre crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the
inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its
circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes.) This sparking
limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will
overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit
area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of
the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also causes electrical
noise, and the sparks additionally cause RFI. Brushes eventually wear out
and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and
maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The
commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring
precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is
usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires
replacing the whole rotor.

Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor
output, but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at
which the motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and
sparking (comparable to the problem of "valve float" in internal combustion
engines). (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush
springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher
speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and
accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design
entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

A: shunt
B: series
C: compound
f = field coil
There are five types of brushed DC motor:

A. DC shunt wound motor

B. DC series wound motor

C. DC compound motor (two configurations):

Cumulative compound
 Differentially compounded

D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor (not shown)

E. Separately-excited (sepex) (not shown).

Brushless DC motors
Main article: Brushless DC electric motor

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the

brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or
commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch
synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-90%
efficient or more (higher efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to
96.5% were reported by researchers at the Tokai University in Japan in
2009),[16] whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.

Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of
the brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors,
these often use a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving
coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and
the associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the
other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from either Hall effect
sensors or from the back EMF (electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In
effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing their own
variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC
motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections
instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These
motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When
configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by
modellers as outrunner motors.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is

necessary, as in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the
spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office
products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several
advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very

efficient, running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This
cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.
Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor
can be significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and
a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of
electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless
motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio
equipment or computers.
The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also
provide a convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-
controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to
derive a "fan OK" signal.
The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock,
leading to precise speed control.
Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors,
making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals
and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in
poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
 Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as
computers and are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to

many kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used
in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance
electric model aircraft.

Coreless or ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the
iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the
windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless
or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor.
Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is
constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-
filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only the magnet
wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a
magnetically-soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path
for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding
basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a
magnetically-soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and
likewise provides a return path for the flux.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor
formed from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate
much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms.
This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier
copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink,
even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air.

Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed

between the poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast
head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives.

Printed Armature or Pancake DC Motors

A rather unique motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has the
windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets,
arranged in a circle, facing the rotor and forming an axial air gap. This
design is commonly known the pancake motor because of its extremely flat
profile, although the technology has had many brand names since it's
inception, such as ServoDisc.

The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a

printed armature motor is made from punched copper sheets that are
laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The
printed armature has a unique construction, in the brushed motor world, in
that is does not have a separate ring commutator. The brushes run directly on
the armature surface making the whole design very compact.

An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat

with a central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The
windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with electrical epoxy
potting systems. These are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity
and a long gel time. They are highlighted by low shrinkage and low
exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for
use up to 180C (Class H) (UL File No. E 210549).

The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging

(vibration caused by attraction between the iron and the magnets) and
parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless. This
can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a
higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or direct current because of the decreased
electromagnetic induction.

These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic

tape drives, in the burgeoning computer industry. Pancake motors are still
widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, humanoid
robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the
variety of constructions now available the technology is used in applications
from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servo
applications.

Universal motors

A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has been

designed to operate on either AC or DC power. The ability to operate on AC
is because the current in both the field and the armature (and hence the
resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism,
and hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in a constant direction.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are very rarely
larger than one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower). Universal motors also form
the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this
application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from
very low frequency AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation
being common. Because they are universal motors, locomotives using this
design were also commonly capable of operating from a third rail powered
by DC.

An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on

motors which have some characteristics more common in DC motors,
specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running
speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life
problems caused by the commutator. As a result, such motors are usually
used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only
intermittently, and often have high starting-torque demands. Continuous
speed control of a universal motor running on AC is easily obtained by use
of a thyristor circuit, while (imprecise) stepped speed control can be
accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that
advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and
a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to
run on half-wave rectified AC).

Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for
appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high
RPM operation is desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power
tools, such as drills, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics
work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000
RPM, while Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will often exceed
30,000 RPM.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess
of design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger
motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an
occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and control schemes.
In some smaller applications, a fan blade attached to the shaft often acts as
an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means
to circulate cooling airflow over the armature and field windings.

AC motors

In 1882, Nikola Tesla discovered the rotating magnetic field, and pioneered
the use of a rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the
principle to design a unique two-phase induction motor in 1883. In 1885,
Galileo Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris
published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine could be removed
and the device could operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel,
his teacher, stated that would be akin to building a perpetual motion
machine.[17] Tesla would later attain U.S. Patent 0,416,194, Electric Motor
(December 1889), which resembles the motor seen in many of Tesla's
photos. This classic alternating current electro-magnetic motor was an
induction motor.

Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase "cage-

rotor" in 1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast majority of
commercial applications.
Components

A typical AC motor consists of two parts:

An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to

produce a rotating magnetic field, and;
An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by
the rotating field.

Torque motors

A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form

of induction motor which is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled,
that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In
this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load
(hence the name).

A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up

reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the
characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-constant light tension to be
applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape
heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the
torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without
requiring any additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the
computer gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering
wheels.

Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal

combustion engine in conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage,
the motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance
with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed by
counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic
[18]
pickup and, depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the
amount of current applied to the motor. If the engine starts to slow down
relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor will
develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the
throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current
being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and close
the throttle.

Slip ring

The slip ring is a component of the wound rotor motor as an induction

machine (best evidenced by the construction of the common automotive
alternator), where the rotor comprises a set of coils that are electrically
terminated in slip rings. These are metal rings rigidly mounted on the rotor,
and combined with brushes (as used with commutators), provide continuous
unswitched connection to the rotor windings.

In the case of the wound-rotor induction motor, external impedances can be

connected to the brushes. The stator is excited similarly to the standard
squirrel cage motor. By changing the impedance connected to the rotor
circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be altered.

(Slip rings are most-commonly used in automotive alternators as well as in

synchro angular data-transmission devices, among other applications.)
The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that
requires a very high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly
selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the
motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply current
from zero speed to full speed. This type of motor also offers controllable
speed.

Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is
effectively modified by the amount of resistance connected to the rotor
circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move the speed of maximum
torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond the
point where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the torque will be
further reduced.

When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the
motor will operate at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is
equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up,
and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and
motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are
dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed
regulation and net efficiency is also very poor.

Stepper motors

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are stepper

motors, where an internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a
magnetically-soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of external
magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be
thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As
each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field
produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its
application, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it
"steps" starts and then quickly stops again from one position to the
next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence.
Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and
it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.

Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the

field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions;
more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field
windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby
rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of operation is often called
microstepping. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most
versatile forms of positioning systems, particularly when part of a digital
servo-controlled system.

Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease,
and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head positioning in
computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for the same purpose in
pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision and speed they
offered was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a
hard disk drive. As drive density increased, the precision and speed
limitations of stepper motors made them obsolete for hard drivesthe
precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed limitation made
them uncompetitivethus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head
actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it
refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was
used for a while to position the heads. Modern drives have a pivoted coil
mount; the coil swings back and forth, something like a blade of a rotating
fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the
magnet wire) move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)

Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical
scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the optical scanning element, the
print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen.
Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the early 1990s have been
replaced with large-format inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper
motors for pen and platen movement; the typical alternatives here were
either linear stepper motors or servomotors with complex closed-loop
control systems.

So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace

stepping motors; they have one coil, draw very little power, and have a
permanent-magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered
quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs, contain more
than one stepping motor.

Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term
SRM (Switched Reluctance Motor).

Linear motor

A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so

that, instead of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-line force
along its length by setting up a traveling electromagnetic field.
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You
can find a linear motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train, where the train "flies"
over the ground, and in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the
motorless railcar is controlled by the rail. On a smaller scale, at least one
letter-size (8.5" x 11") computer graphics X-Y pen plotter made by Hewlett-
Packard (in the late 1970s to mid 1980's) used two linear stepper motors to
move the pen along the two orthogonal axes.

Feeding and windings

Doubly-fed electric motor

Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase windings that

actively participate in the energy conversion process with at least one of the
winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two is
the most active multiphase winding sets possible without duplicating singly-
fed or doubly-fed categories in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed
electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed range
that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is
twice the constant torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines, which
have only one active winding set.

A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of
the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power
electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed near
synchronous speed limit applications.
Singly-fed electric motor

Singly-fed electric motors incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is

connected to a power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either
induction or synchronous. The active winding set can be electronically
controlled. Induction machines develop starting torque at zero speed and can
operate as standalone machines. Synchronous machines must have auxiliary
means for startup, such as a starting induction squirrel-cage winding or an
electronic controller. Singly-fed electric machines have an effective constant
torque speed range up to synchronous speed for a given excitation
frequency.

The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or wound

rotor), synchronous motors (i.e., field-excited, permanent magnet or
brushless DC motors, reluctance motors, etc.), which are discussed on this
page, are examples of singly-fed motors. By far, singly-fed motors are the
predominantly installed type of motors.

Nanotube nanomotor

Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed

rotational bearings based upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By attaching a
gold plate (with dimensions of the order of 100 nm) to the outer shell of a
suspended multiwall carbon nanotube (like nested carbon cylinders), they
are able to electrostatically rotate the outer shell relative to the inner core.
These bearings are very robust; devices have been oscillated thousands of
times with no indication of wear. These nanoelectromechanical systems
(NEMS) are the next step in miniaturization and may find their way into
commercial applications in the future.

See also:

Molecular motors
Electrostatic motor

[edit] Efficiency

To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by

the electrical input power:

where is energy conversion efficiency, Pe is electrical input power, and Pm

is mechanical output power.

In simplest case Pe = VI, and Pm = T, where V is input voltage, I is input

current, T is output torque, and is output angular velocity. It is possible to
derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is typically at less
than 1/2 the stall torque. Implications

Because a DC motor operates most efficiently at less than 1/2 its stall torque,
an "oversized" motor runs with the highest efficiency. IE: using a bigger
motor than is necessary enables the motor to operate closest to no load, or
peak operating conditions.
Torque capability of motor types

When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque current),
voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed),
and core flux density, all categories of electric motors or generators will
exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating
torque) within a given physical size of electromagnetic core. Some
applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque,
such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill.
Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature
rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum
operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors
or generators.

Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field
Weakening capability inherent in fully electromagnetic electric machines
(Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are excluded). Field Weakening,
which is not readily available with PM electric machines, allows an electric
machine to operate beyond the designed frequency of excitation without
electrical damage.

Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-

Wound (i.e., electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous
electric machines cannot realize bursts of torque higher than the maximum
designed torque without saturating the magnetic core and rendering any
increase in current as useless. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly
of PM synchronous electric machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts
of torque exceeding the maximum operating torque rating are attempted.
Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as Induction
(i.e., asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric
machines, and Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor Doubly-Fed
(WRDF) electric machines, exhibit very high bursts of torque because the
active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the product of current and
winding-turns) induced on either side of the transformer oppose each other
and as a result, the active current contributes nothing to the transformer
coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead to core
saturation.

Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-

circuit one port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive
impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases,
which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque
that are two to three times higher than the maximum design torque are
realizable.

The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with
a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports
independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported
transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a
multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor
winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control
torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or
generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor
winding set (see Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the
active current of the Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be
independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts
of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far
beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would
be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have
been calculated.

Materials

There is an impending shortage of many rare raw materials used in the

manufacture of hybrid and electric cars (Nishiyama 2007) (Cox 2008). For
example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of
the advanced electric motors used in hybrid cars (Cox 2008). However, over
95% of the world's rare earth elements are mined in China (Haxel et al.
2005), and domestic Chinese consumption is expected to consume China's
entire supply by 2012 (Cox 2008).[citation needed]

While permanent magnet motors, favored in hybrids such as those made by

Toyota, often use rare earth materials in their magnets, AC traction motors
used in production electric vehicles such as the GM EV1, Toyota RAV4 EV
and Tesla Roadster do not use permanent magnets or the associated rare
earth materials. AC motors typically use conventional copper wire for their
stator coils and copper or aluminum rods or bars for their rotor. AC motors
do not significantly use rare earth materials.

Motor standards

The following are major design and manufacturing standards covering

electric motors:
 International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating
Electrical Machines
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (USA): NEMA MG 1
Motors and Generators
Underwriters Laboratories (USA): UL 1004 - Standard for Electric
Motors

Uses

Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines. Obvious
uses would be in rotating machines such as fans, turbines, drills, the wheels
on electric cars, locomotives and conveyor belts. Also, in many vibrating or
oscillating machines, an electric motor spins an irregular figure with more
area on one side of the axle than the other, causing it to appear to be moving
up and down.

Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the wheels
of vehicular robots, and servo motors are used to turn arms and legs in
humanoid robots. In flying robots, along with helicopters, a motor causes a
propeller or wide, flat blades to spin and create lift force, allowing vertical
motion.

Electric motors are replacing hydraulic cylinders in airplanes and military

equipment.

In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors are used to turn

saws and blades in cutting and slicing processes, and to spin gears and
mixers (the latter very common in food manufacturing). Linear motors are
often used to push products into containers horizontally.
Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors to accomplish various
jobs. Food processors and grinders spin blades to chop and break up foods.
Blenders use electric motors to mix liquids, and microwave ovens use
motors to turn the tray food sits on. Toaster ovens also use electric motors to
turn a conveyor to move food over heating elements.

Transformers
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another by magnetic coupling without requiring relative motion between its
parts. It usually comprises two or more coupled windings, and, in most
cases, a core to concentrate magnetic flux. A transformer operates from the
application of an alternating voltage to one winding, which creates a time-
varying magnetic flux in the core. This varying flux induces a voltage in the
other windings. Varying the relative number of turns between primary and
secondary windings determines the ratio of the input and output voltages,
thus transforming the voltage by stepping it up or down between circuits.

2.8.1 Basic principle

The principles of the transformer are illustrated by consideration of a
hypothetical ideal transformer consisting of two windings of zero resistance
around a core of negligible reluctance. A voltage applied to the primary
winding causes a current, which develops a magnetomotive force (MMF) in
the core. The current required to create the MMF is termed the magnetising
current; in the ideal transformer it is considered to be negligible. The MMF
drives flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.

Figure 26: The ideal transformer as a circuit element

An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each winding, an effect

known as mutual inductance. The windings in the ideal transformer have no
resistance and so the EMFs are equal in magnitude to the measured terminal
voltages. In accordance with Faraday's law of induction, they are
proportional to the rate of change of flux:
 and

Equation 7: EMF induced in primary and secondary windings

where:

and are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary windings,

and are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,

and are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and
secondary windings.

In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links
the secondary, and so , from which the well-known transformer
equation follows:

Equation 8: Transformer Equation

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio
of the number of turns; alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the same in
both windings. The conditions that determine Transformer working in STEP
UP or STEP DOWN mode are:

Ns > Np

Equation 9: Conditon for STEP UP

Ns < Np

Equation 10: Conditon for STEP DOWN

Rectifier

A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge

circuit as shown below, that provides the same polarity of output voltage for
any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common
application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct
current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier
provides full wave rectification from a two wire AC input (saving the cost of
a center tapped transformer) but has two diode drops rather than one
reducing efficiency over a center tap based design for the same output
voltage.
Figure 9: Schematic of a bridge rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the
voltage at the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

2.2.1 Basic Operation

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the
right along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input
supply via the lower one.
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner,
current flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the
lower colored path.

Figure 10: AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the
lower right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit
not only produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can
provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it
permits normal functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC
input-power supply wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry
it powers against damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was
always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single
four-terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge
configuration became a standard commercial component and is now
available with various voltage and current ratings.

2.2.2 Output Smoothing

For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave
bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a
capacitor may be important because the bridge alone supplies an output
voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude.

Figure 11: Bridge Rectifier with smoothen output

The function of this capacitor, known as a 'smoothing capacitor' (see also
filter capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the raw output
voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that
the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the
output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive
load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of
the bridge tends to be cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This
charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of
load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the
capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the
capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC
where C and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long
as the load resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer
than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a
well smoothed DC voltage across the load resistance. In some designs, a
series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can
then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs,
often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be
sensitive to supply voltage noise.
 CAPACITOR

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a

pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential
difference (voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present
in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow
separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are
often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric
between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors
and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an
electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference,
to smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They
are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular
frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric

field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive
region.The non-conductive substance is called the dielectric medium,
although this may also mean a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region
chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an
external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite
charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric field.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C,
defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between
them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing

the capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of
incremental changes:
In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on
each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the
conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the
charge separation persists and energy is stored in the electric field. If charge
is later allowed to return to its equilibrium position, the energy is released.
The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of
energy stored, is given by:
 RESISTORS

Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a circuit. Resistors offer
opposition to the flow of current. They are expressed in ohms for which the
symbol is . Resistors are broadly classified as
(1) Fixed Resistors
(2) Variable Resistors

Fixed Resistors :

The most common of low wattage, fixed type resistors is the molded-carbon
composition resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay composition.
The leads are made of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are readily
available in value ranging from few ohms to about 20M, having a
tolerance range of 5 to 20%. They are quite inexpensive. The relative size of
all fixed resistors changes with the wattage rating.
 Another variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized
type. It is made by deposition a homogeneous film of pure carbon over a
glass, ceramic or other insulating core. This type of film-resistor is
sometimes called the precision type, since it can be obtained with an
accuracy of 1%.

Lead Tinned Copper Material

Colour Coding Molded Carbon Clay Composition

Fixed Resistor

A Wire Wound Resistor :

It uses a length of resistance wire, such as nichrome. This wire is wounded

on to a round hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding are attached to
these metal pieces inserted in the core. Tinned copper wire leads are attached
to these metal pieces. This assembly is coated with an enamel coating
powdered glass. This coating is very smooth and gives mechanical
protection to winding. Commonly available wire wound resistors have
resistance values ranging from 1 to 100K, and wattage rating up to about
200W.
Coding Of Resistor :

Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on
the body. However there are some resistors that are too small in size to have
numbers printed on them. Therefore, a system of colour coding is used to
indicate their values. For fixed, moulded composition resistor four colour
bands are printed on one end of the outer casing. The colour bands are
always read left to right from the end that has the bands closest to it. The
first and second band represents the first and second significant digits, of the
resistance value. The third band is for the number of zeros that follow the
second digit. In case the third band is gold or silver, it represents a
multiplying factor of 0.1to 0.01. The fourth band represents the
manufactures tolerance.
RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

0 black 0 black 0 black 0 black

1 brown 1 brown 1 brown 1 brown

2 red 2 red 2 red 2 red
3 orange 3 orange 3 orange 3 orange

4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow

5 green 5 green 5 green 5 green
6 blue 6 blue 6 blue 6 blue
7 purple 7 purple 7 purple 7 purple

8 silver 8 silver 8 silver 8 silver

9 white 9 white 9 white 9 white

For example, if a resistor has a colour band sequence: yellow,

violet, orange and gold
 Then its range will be
Yellow=4, violet=7, orange=10, gold=5% =47K 5%
=2.35K

Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .

The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show
these small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold,
which means 0.1 and silver which means 0.01. The first and second
bands represent the digits as normal.

For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7
blue, green, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For
example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within
10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of
390).
A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.

VARIABLE RESISTOR:

In electronic circuits, sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the values of

currents and voltages. For n example it is often desired to change the volume
of sound, the brightness of a television picture etc. Such adjustments can be
done by using variable resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually called rheostats in
other applications, the smaller variable resistors commonly used in
electronic circuits are called potentiometers.
 DIODE

ACTIVE COMPONENT-

Active component are those component for not any other component
are used its operation. I used in this project only function diode, these
component description are described as bellow.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE-

A PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode.A crystal

diode has two terminal when it is connected in a circuit one thing is decide is
weather a diode is forward or reversed biased. There is a easy rule to
ascertain it. If the external CKT is trying to push the conventional current in
the direction of error, the diode is forward biased. One the other hand if the
conventional current is trying is trying to flow opposite the error head, the
diode is reversed biased putting in simple words.
 1. If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive W.R.T Bar of the symbol,
the diode is forward biased.
2.The arrowhead of diode symbol is negative W.R.T bar , the diode is
the reverse bias.
When we used crystal diode it is often necessary to know that which end
is arrowhead and which end is bar. So following method are available.

1.Some manufactures actually point the symbol on the body of the diode
e. g By127 by 11 4 crystal diode manufacture by b e b.

2. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the body of the crystal
diode. Red mark do not arrow wheres blue mark indicates bar e .g
oa80 crystal diode.

ZENER DIODE-

It has been already discussed that when the reverse bias on a

crystal diode is increased a critical voltage, called break down voltage. The
break down or zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the
diode is heavily doped depletion layer will be thin and consequently the
break down of he junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other
hand, a lightly doped diode has a higher break down voltage, it is called
zener diode
A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharped break down voltage, is
known as a zenor diode.

In this project I used semiconducter diode for bridge rectifies, two-crystal

diode.
 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

A junction diode, such as LED, can emit light or exhibit electro

luminescence. Electro luminescence is obtained by injecting minority
carriers into the region of a pn junction where radiative transition takes
place. In radiative transition, there is a transition of electron from the
conduction band to the valence band, which is made possibly by emission of
a photon. Thus, emitted light comes from the hole electron recombination.
What is required is that electrons should make a transition from higher
energy level to lower energy level releasing photon of wavelength
corresponding to the energy difference associated with this transition. In
LED the supply of high-energy electron is provided by forward biasing the
diode, thus injecting electrons into the n-region and holes into p-region.
The pn junction of LED is made from heavily doped material. On
forward bias condition, majority carriers from both sides of the junction
cross the potential barrier and enter the opposite side where they are then
minority carrier and cause local minority carrier population to be larger than
normal. This is termed as minority injection. These excess minority carrier
diffuse away from the junction and recombine with majority carriers.
 In LED, every injected electron takes part in a radiative recombination
and hence gives rise to an emitted photon. Under reverse bias no carrier
injection takes place and consequently no photon is emitted. For direct
transition from conduction band to valence band the emission wavelength.
In practice, every electron does not take part in radiative recombination
and hence, the efficiency of the device may be described in terms of the
quantum efficiency which is defined as the rate of emission of photons
divided by the rate of supply of electrons. The number of radiative
recombination, that take place, is usually proportional to the carrier injection
rate and hence to the total current flowing.
LED Materials:

One of the first materials used for LED is GaAs. This is a direct band gap
material, i.e., it exhibits very high probability of direct transition of electron
from conduction band to valence band. GaAs has E= 1.44 eV. This works in
the infrared region.
GaP and GaAsP are higher band gap materials. Gallium phosphide is an
indirect band gap semiconductor and has poor efficiency because band to
band transitions are not normally observed.
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide is a tertiary alloy. This material has a special
feature in that it changes from being direct band gap material.
Blue LEDs are of recent origin. The wide band gap materials such as GaN
are one of the most promising LEDs for blue and green emission. Infrared
LEDs are suitable for optical coupler applications.
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