KARSTIFICATION IN KINTA VALLEY

AND IMPLICATION FOR

RESERVOIR QUALITY
SATHIYA GANANATHAN RAJASEGARAM
Bachelor of Technology (Hons)
UniversitiTeknologiPetronas
Tronoh, Perak DarulRidzuan
Email: rsathiya7@yahoo.com
 Abstract Paleozoic limestones of Kinta Valley, Perak were The limestone in Kinta Valley has undergone
investigated to understand the karstification process and its
implication on reservoir quality since research on karstification various deformation process millions of years ago.
in Kinta Limestone were not been comprehensive and were not
associated to the quality of reservoir. This study includes field
Various study about deformation on Kinta Valley
observation, fracture analysis, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis limestone have been conducted, however research
to identify and categorize karst features and factorson the karst
formation and followed by thin section analysis, scanning on karstification in Kinta Valley limestone hills
electron microscopy (SEM) analysis and mercury injection were not been comprehensive and were not
porosimetry (MIP) analysis to evaluate karstification implication
on reservoir quality in Kinta Limestone were carried out. The associated to the quality of reservoir. Thus, this
findings show the karst features in Kinta Valley are mostly study will be conducted to understand about the
surface karst which are mostly are cave deposits karst features.
Karstifications in Kinta Valley are largely affected by the purity karstification in Kinta Valley and its implication for
of the carbonate, fractures induced by granite intrusion
hydrogeology effect, climate and vegetation. The dissolving action reservoir quality
of water on Kinta Limestone has induced non-fabric selective
secondary porosity in the Kinta Valley which enhanced the
porosity level. However, mercury injection porosimetry (MIP)
results showed that porosity and permeability level of the
karstified limestone are in fair level range, thus the reservoir
1.3 OBJECTIVE
quality of the Kinta Limestone could be consider as potentially
fair quality.
The objective of this project is to study the
INTRODUCTION karstification of limestone in Kinta Valley, Perak.
Besides, the karstifiaction process that occurred in
1.1 BACKGROUND Kinta Valley limestone is acknowledged, the
kartsification process implication towards the
Karst is a geomorphology feature that is formed through the reservoir quality of Kinta Valley Limestone is
dissolution of carbonate rocks. According to American further related.
Association of Petroleum Geologists (2016), the dissolution of
carbonates can be associated as diagenesis process, where
carbonate minerals are dissolved and removed. Karstification
process which started to take place on carbonate rocks million
years ago will result in the formation of karst topography such
as karst tower, sinkholes, caves, stalactite and stalagmite 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY
which can be spotted along the limestone hills including in
Kinta Valley where this project is going to be conducted.
The research will be focusing in Gua Kek Lok
The Kinta Valley, which is located at the center of western
Peninsular Malaysia, is bounded by 4 15N 4 50N and Tong area in Kinta Valley,Perak. In this research,
100 55E 101 20E. The Kinta Limestone is extended from road traversing will be conducted to produce a
the north to the south of Ipoh. It is bordered by two Triassic
granitic intrusions, the Main Range on the east and the
detailed geological map. Field observation and
Kledang Range on the west (Meng at., 2014). According to laboratory analysis were conducted to understand
Suntharalimgam(1968) the Kinta Limestone age is dated from the karstification in Kinta Valley and its implication
Silurian to Permian. Majestic high relief limestone hills and
decorated with many limestone morphological features in on reservoir quality. Rock samples were taken for
Kinta Valley and its location which is situated in the midst of laboratory analysis. This project requires a high
highly urbanized area are among the reasons for tourist
attraction. understanding on carbonate karstification and their
applications in the field, which is in Gua Kek Lok
Tong (Figure 1).
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

FIGURE 1: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF GUA KEK LOK TONG
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GEOLOGY OF KINTA VALLEY
The main lithology in the Kinta Valley is
limestone. Foo(1983) has named the limestone
formation in Kinta valley with the name of Kinta
Limestone . According to Metcalfe(2013), Kinta
Valley limestone is also called as Kanthan
Limestone by few other researchers. The Kinta
Limestone is estimated to be aged between
Devonian to Permian and deposited in a shallow
marine environment(Suntharalimgam,1968).Much
of the limestone is found beneath the surface where
it underlies the tin ore bearing alluvium for which
the Kinta Valley is famous (Fatihah and Djin, 2003).
Limestone hills at Kinta valley are featured with
beautiful karstic morphology and the base of the
hills are usually contains swamp and notches due to
dissolution(Simon, et al., 2015).
The Kinta Valley Schist occurs mainly below the
limestone though some parts are found to interbed
with the Kinta Limestone. About the end of the
Permian, the limestone and schist were probably
folded and metamorphosed during this time of
period. During very Late Triassic, these Paleozoic
rocks(limestone and schists) were intruded by the
Kledang and Main Range Granites(Bentong-Raub
Range). During this time of period folding and
metamorphism process occurred on Kinta
Limestone. Most of the drainage valleys would flow
initially in an east-west direction before joining the
major drainage river, the Kinta River, which lows in
a southerly direction. Some Jurassic igneous events
had been detected as well. After the folding and
intrusive events, they are slowly become emergent.
Gobett(1975) stated that a large number of
geologists have described the faulting event in the
Kinta Valley occurred at the contact between granite
and meta-sedimentary rocks.
2.2 LIMESTONE AND DISSOLUTION
According to Waltham, Bell and Culshaw,(2007)
the dissolution rate of a rock are generally affected
by the solubility and specific solution rate constant
of the constituent mineral, degree of saturation of
the solvent, area presented to the solvent and the
motion of the solvent. Limestone has very low
solubility in pure water and the key factor that
increases its solubility is carbon dioxide. When the
carbon dioxide dissolves in water, the solution
becomes acidic which later on produces bicarbonate
radical when it reacts with the limestone. The
bicarbonate radical produced are highly soluble in
water (Waltham, et al., 2007). Most of the carbon
dioxide content is obtained during the
decomposition of organic material. Carbon dioxide
which is released during the decomposition is taken
into solution by rainwater and this is the prime
source of chemically aggressive groundwater in
limestone karst Waltham et al. (2007) claims that
karst features are developed better in tropical region
due to the higher amount of rainfall and high
content of carbon dioxide in soil.
 Ford and Williams (1989) also states that an
organic complex (ion effect and mixing corrosion)
is an additional factor which affects the limestone
dissolution. When the saturation level is reached,
the dissolution of limestone become slow and
finally ceases. The site where aggressive
water( acidic water) first meets the rock surface and
rockhead beneath a soil cover is the place where the
dissolution process will occur at the maximum level
and this accounts for pinnacled rockheads and
sinkholes that narrow downwards into small
fissures(Williams,1985). Continued dissolution at
depth in a karst are due to rapid transmission of
unsaturated waters along open conduits which is the
impact of mixing corrosion where renewed
dissolution is possible after two saturated waters
mix and become unsaturated(Bogli,1964).
2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING KARST
DEVELOPMENT
According to Jain(2014) karst development are
largely affected by several factors. Among the
factors that have significant impact on karst
development are lithology, structure, topographic
relief, hydrology and climate.Karstification is
largely affected by lithology and it is primarily
subjected to the carbonate content or other soluble
mineral content of the rock (Jain,2014). Limestone
and Dolomite are among the dominant rock type
that undergoes karstification apart from gypsum and
other soluble rock bodies. Besides that, the purity of
the rock especially limestone also affects the karst
development as purer the limestone, the better the
development of karst morphology (Jain, 2014).
Jain (2014) also states karst development is also
influenced by structure aspect mainly fracture.
Secondary permeability on limestone and dolomites
are mainly contributed by fracture formation.
Subsurface solution drainage and cave development
are resulted from secondary permeability (Jain,
2014). Jain (2014) also states apart from fracture,
faults and folds also contribute in karst
development.According to Jain (2014) again karst
developments are also affected by topographic
relief. Elevation difference between two points on a
surface is referred as topographic relief.
Topographic relief largely affects the hydraulic
gradient which controls the driving force of river as
greater the hydraulic gradient, the better the karst
development.
Jain (2014) further states that karstification is
also affected by mechanical erosion by water apart
from the dissolution process. When it comes to
dissolution of carbonate rock, carbon dioxide,
calcium carbonate and water are the three
components that should be take count. Besides that,
Jain (2014) also states that influx of fresh
aggressive water is the key reason for the most of
limestone dissolution process. Apart from
atmospheric carbon dioxide, dissolution of
limestone is also further aided by dissolved organic
acid from soil and vegetations.Jain (2014) also
states karst developments are also affected by
climate and he believes the ideal climate for
karstification process to occur at the optimum level
is tropical climate. Karst is better developed in
tropic and temperate environment due to greater
amount of rainfall in the region. Besides that, this
environment also has high amount of carbon
dioxide level in atmosphere and soil.
2.4 CARBONATE RESERVOIR
According to Schlumberger (2008) carbonate
reservoir matters to oil company as the most of
world hydrocarbon are held in carbonate reservoir
and it is estimated 35-40% of world gas reserve and
55-60% of world oil reserve ids reserved in
carbonate reservoir all over the world. Besides that,
Dominguez(1992) states that discovery of the
major oil resources in carbonate rocks in the Middle
East after World War 1 has made carbonate
reservoir very important to the petroleum industry.
Carbonate reservoirs are made of by permeable and
porous rock. According to Afifi(2005) carbonate
reservoir that has undergone clastic sediment infill
or karstification can be found worldwide. The
porosity of the carbonate rocks includes three
genetic categories which is purely fractured
porosity, purely diagenetic porosity and purely
depositional porosity and each porosity type
distinctly represents different geological process
(Ahr, 2012). Carbonate reservoirs are largely
affected by secondary porosity (purely fractured
porosity and purely diagenetic porosity).
Mazzullo(2004) states that cavernous and vuggy
porosity are the major contributors in hydrocarbon
accumulation such as in Arbuckle Group reservoir
in Kansas.
Fluid flow in the carbonate reservoir are totally
different from fluid flow in clastic reservoir as fluid
in the carbonate reservoir flow through cavernous ,
vugular and fractured limestone in carbonate
reservoir and this is due to carbonate which have
more complex pore system compared to other types
of rocks Dominguez(1992). Besides that, carbonate
reservoirs with cavernous structure have better
permeability compared to clastic reservoir model.
METHODOLOGY
Throughout the area of study, field works are
conducted. Rock samples were collected during the
field work and were used for analysis later on.
3.1 FIELD OBSERVATION
Karst features and factors affecting karstification
process were determined through the field
observation. Photographs are taken to aid the
interpretation of the karst features.
3.2 X-RAY DIFFRACTION (XRD) ANALYSIS
XRD analysis was used for mineral identification
in order to determine the purity of the limestone.
When X-ray radiation passes through the matter,
diffraction where X-rays are emitted at a certain
angles are based on the spaces between the atoms
organized in crystalline structures called planes. The
XRD analysis required crushed rock sample taken
from the outcrop in powder form.
3.3 PETROGRAPHY ANALYSIS
Pore shape and pore types were determined
through the comprehensive petrography analysis.
All samples are stained with blue dyed epoxy using
the vacuum technique to facilitate the recognition of
pore spaces.
3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
In carbonate, SEM is used for analysis of
original depositional textures, structures, and
secondary features generated during diagenesis.
Back scattered electron mode is particularly well
suited to the study pore shape and to measure the
pore size.
3.5 MERCURY INJECTION
POROSIMETRY (MIP)
In carbonate, mercury injection porosimetry
analysis was used to determine porosity and the
permeability level generated during the dissolution carbonate rock is affected by the purity of the rock.
process. This analysis provides precise porosity and As the purity of carbonate rock (limestone or
permeability level in the rock sample, dolomite) increase the better the development of
karst morphology.
Base on the XRD result of two rock sample from
the study area, the carbonate rock at study area can
RESULT AND DISCUSSION be considered to have high purity level. From the
XRD peaks generated as shown in (figure 2) rock
samples consists mainly carbonate compounds. The
4.1 KARST DESCRIPTION AND
major peaks in the graph represents calcite and
CATEGORIZATION
dolomite compounds. Both samples have one
calcite peak at 29.43 and the rest major peaks
Table 1: Karst features in Kinta Valley
represents dolomite compound. Carbonate
Karst Stalactites Shawls Sinkholes
compounds counts makes up the major counts of
Tower
rock samples and this indicates the carbonate rock
Cave Stalagmite Flowstone Notches
at the study area have high level purity
s
Limestone Column Cave Rimstone .
Curtains pearls

The Karst features determined throughout field

observation at Gua Kek Lok Tong are summarized
in Table 1. Total of 12 karst features have
determined from the field observation. 11 of them
are categorized into torpical surface karst features Figure 2: XRD result of sample 1
and the remaining 1 is categorized as sub-surface
karst feature.

4.2 FACTORS AFFECTING KARSTIFICATION

PROCESS
IN KINTA VALLEY
Figure 3: XRD results of sample 2

Factors affecting karstification in Kinta Valley

Limestone are determined from the field
observation and laboratory analysis.
4.2.1 Purity of the carbonate rock
Due to the solubility properties, limestone and
dolomite are the major rock types that are subjected
to karstification process. Karstification process on
4.2.2 Structure
Structure mainly fracture plays important
role in karst formation at study area. Granite
intrusion on the west and the east side of Kinta
Valley contributes fracture formation at the study
area. Kinta Valley is intruded by Main Range at east
while Kledang Range intrudes at the west side of
Kinta Valley. The granite intrusion on the west and
east side of Kinta Valley, has resulted tectonic
deformation on the Kinta Valley Limestone. The
intrusion has caused the uplift and fracturing to the
Kinta Valley Limestone.
The fracture formation has enhances
dissolution as it create new opening for the water to
diffuse through the limestone. As the dissolution
process continues the size of fracture gradually
increase until it forms cave structure. Most of the
mega fracture that has formed at the study area has
been developed to cave at this present time.
Fracture creates new passages for the water to
follow through the limestone. About 50 fracture
readings have been taken from the study area Kek
Lok Tong, the reading is then used to construct rose
diagram (figure 4). The constructed rose diagram
proves the sigma 1 forces are in the direction NE
and SW direction. This proves the granite intrusion
is the primary factors for fracture formation in
Kinta Valley. The cave at Kek Lok Tong is also is
the direction of sigma 1 and this indicates the cave
have been developed from the formed fracture.
Figure 4: Rose diagram of the study area.
4.2.3 Hydrogeology
The dissolution of carbonate rock in Kinta
Valley is also resulted from allogenic water and
autogenic water. Allogenic water is from granite
hills of Kledang and Main range while autogenic
water is derived from rainwater. These waters cause
extensive dissolution on Kinta Valley Limestone.
Allogenic water played important role in the
development of karst features at the study area.
Rivers at the study which starts to flow from Main
Range Granite Hills in the direction of SW of Kinta
Valley denudes the limestone at the study area. The
rivers denude the Kinta Limestone by dissolution
and by mechanical erosion which later on produces
karst morphology.
The effect of hydrology factor on Kinta
Valley Limetone mainly results in cave formation
and this statement is supported by cave formation at
the study area. Along with the cave formation,
effect of hydrology on karst formation is also
supported by notches features at Gua Kek Lok
Tong. Notches (figure 5) are clear indication of
paleo-river flow at the study which has resulted in
cave formation at the study area. The action of
rivers on karst morphology formation can be clearly
seen at certain part of Kinta Valley apart from the
study area and among the area is Gua Tempurung,
where the allogenic water of river still denudes the
limestone.
Figure 5: Notches at Gua Kek Lok Tong
4.2.4 Climate
Apart from lithology, structure and
hydrologeology, karst development at the study area
are also affected by climate factor. The ideal climate
for karst development will be tropical climate.
Malaysia which is located in equatorial region
Tropical climate is the best environment for
karst development apart from arid environment.
This environment is conducive for karst
development due to the high amount of rainfall all
over the area and high amount of carbon dioxide
produced from soil due to high temperature of the
region. The carbon dioxide produced in soil which
is largely by microbial activities, which later
dissolves in autogenic water (rainfalls) to produce
carbonic acid which dissolves the limestone at the
study area.
4.2.5 Vegetation
Vegetation plays important role karst formation.
Vegetation denudes the limestone in Kinta Valley by
mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.
Vegetation contributes surface and subsurface
karstification at the study area. Chemical
weathering by vegetation occurs when plant root
system and plant remaining decays. These two
processes introduce biogenic carbon dioxide into
soil which later on contributes to solution erosion of
limestone at the study area.
Vegetation also contributes karst development by
mechanical erosion process. The roots of plants
especially on the wall of steep limestone penetrate
deeply into the limestone, widens the fracture or
create new fracture on the wall as the the plant
grows bigger as shown in figure 4.3.8. This will
increase the intensity of dissolution process as new
water passages are created in the limestone hills.
Figure 6: Mechanical weathering at Gua Kek Lok
Tong
.
4.3 IMPLICATION ON RESERVOIR QUALITY
4.3.1 Pore analysis
The dissolution of limestone at Kinta Valley has
induced secondary porosity in the limestone
formation. This secondary porosity has enhanced
the porosity and permeability level of the karstified
limestone surface at study area.
The dissolution processes that have taken place
on Kinta Limestone have induced non-fabric
selective pore types in the limestone formation. The
non-fabric selective pores that have been indentified
base on the petrography analysis and field
observation are vuggy pores (figure 7) and cavern
pores (figure 8). Vuggy pores are formed through
dissolution of large features in the carbonate rocks.
Cavern (figure 8) is an excellent pore type due to
its size which is in megascopic scale. Large amount
of fluid can be stores in this type of pore type. Apart
from the storage capacity, cavern also has excellent
permeability where the fluid can flow with ease
along the pore. Overall the dissolution process has
induced porosity by generating secondary porosity
at study area. The pore size is measured through
SEM (figure 9) and the size of the pores in ranges
mostly in micrometer scale and dispersed all over
the surface of the sample.

Figure 7: Vuggy pores
Figure 8: Cavern pore
Figure 9: Pore size measurement
4.3.2 Mercury Injection Porosimetry
Rock sample where subjected for mercury
injection porosimetry test to determine the porosity
and the permeability level. Samples tested from the
study area indicate the porosity levels in the rocks
are in the fair quality reservoir range. A fair quality
reservoirs porosity level ranges from 10-15% and
the permeability is less than 1 millidarcy(figure 11
and 12). The permeability level is relatively is low,
might probably due to the presence of calcite
cement blocking the pore space in the rock sample.
Figure 11: Porosity level in the rock sample.
Figure 12: Permeability level in the rock sample.
CONCLUSION
Karst can be defined as a distinctive topography
in which the landscape is largely shaped by
dissolving action of water on carbonate rocks. This
process took about thousands of years to produce an
unusual surface and subsurface features. Base on
the field observation, karst features at the study area
can be categorized into surface karst features and
tropical karst features. Total of 12 karst morphology
have been discovered and described. Most of the
karst feature discovered falls in cave deposit karst
features. Factors as lithology, structure,
hydrogeology, climate and vegetation have a strong
influence on the karst formation. The dissolving
action of water on carbonate rock has induced
fabric selective and non fabric selective secondary
porosity in the karst features. Mercury Injection
Porosimetry results shows that porosity and
permeability level of the karstified limestone are in
fair level range, thus the reservoir quality of the
Kinta Limestone could be consider as potentially
fair quality and this results can be utilized as
analog for Paleozoic limestone reservoir that has
undergone same deformational pattern as Kinta
Limestone.
FURTHER STUDY
In future, more research on karstification has to
be conducted at the study area. This is to understand
more about karstification in Kinta Valley. Besides
that, analysis on calcite cement inside the secondary
pores should be conducted. This is to study the
impact of calcite cement on the permeability and
the porosity of the secondary porosity. Besides that,
more understanding about karstification in Kinta
Valley is very important to preserve karst features
and also to maintain Kinta Valley as a national
heritage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr.Haylay
Tsegab for the opportunity to conduct this study and
their guidances and supports they provided
throughout the course of my final year project. My
sincere appreciation also goes to Mr Choong Chee
Meng and Mdm Syazwani for their advices and
helpful comments on my works. Not to forget, my
gratitude to all the lab technologists in assisting me
with the lab works. Last but not least, I would like
to thank all my family and friends for their endless
moral support.
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