FACULTY OF GEOINFORMATION

SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SGS 1523
REMOTE SENSING APLICATIONS ON
TOPOGRAPHIC AND LAND COVER MAPPING

Dr. BAHARIN BIN AHMAD

MOHD FARID BIN FAUZI

AG090090
900707-03-5463
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INTRODUCTION

TOPOGRAPHY

Topography is come from Greek words topo-, which mean place, and graphia,
thats bring the meaning of writing. Based on this word, topography mean the study of Earth's
surface shape and features or those of planets, moons, and asteroids. It is an art or practice of
graphic delineation in detail usually on maps or charts of natural and man-made features of a
place or region especially in a way to show their relative positions and elevations. Topography
specifically involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the
surface, and the identification of specific landforms. In modern usage,it been generate in
electronic form and presented on a map by a variety of techniques, including contour lines,
Hypsometric tints and relief shading.

Topographic maps usually portray both natural and manmade features. They show and name
works of nature including mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers, and vegetation. They also
identify the principal works of man, such as roads, boundaries, transmission lines, and major
buildings. The wide range of information provided by topographic maps make them extremely
useful to professional and recreational map users alike. Topographic maps are used for
engineering, energy exploration, natural resource conservation, environmental management,
public works design, commercial and residential planning, and outdoor activities like hiking,
camping, and fishing.

LAND COVER MAPPING

Land cover is important for many scientific, resource management and policy purposes and for
a range of human activities. It can be define as key for environmental information. It is an
important determinant of land use and thus of value of land to the society. Land cover varies at
a range of spatial scales from local to global, and at temporal frequencies of days to millennia.
As the need for environmental planning and management became important, an accompanying
call for land cover information emerged in parallel.

Land cover actually is a product of remote sensing, initially through aerial photography. We can
find the population of plant in certain place through land cover mapping. Usually, people use
land cover mapping to see the change in population and growth in certain place. We can also
determine the effect of land use or human activities to the environment especially the plant
population.

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REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing can be defined as the acquisition and recording information about an object
without being in direct contact with that object. Based on that definition, we can conclude that
aerial photogrametry, sounders(used in ocean topography) and even data from satellite are also
remote sensing. Mapping process actually use remote sensing technique long time ago. The
modern remote sensing started in 1858 when Gaspard-Felix Tournachon first took aerial
photographs of Paris from a hot air balloon.

It is actually very simple method in remote sensing like in photography, but as we want to
determine in detail on spatial, spectral and other properties, many innovation have been added
to get and ideal instrument to give more data to us. Nowadays, remote sensing mostly used the
data from the satellite. This is because the data is very easy to get. The development of artificial
satellites in the latter half of the 20th century allowed remote sensing to progress to a global
scale as of the end of the cold war. Instrumentation aboard various Earth observing and weather
satellites such as Landsat, the Nimbus and more recent missions such as RADARSAT and UARS
provided global measurements of various data for civil, research, and military purposes. Space
probes to other planets have also provided the opportunity to conduct remote sensing studies in
extraterrestrial environments, synthetic aperture radar aboard the Magellan spacecraft provided
detailed topographic maps of Venus, while instruments aboard SOHO allowed studies to be
performed on the Sun and the solar wind, just to name a few examples.

Figure 1: Operation date for different remote sensing platform. A mark change occurred about 1960
when spaceborne platform become operational.

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PREVIOUSLY IN TOPOGRAPHIC AND LAND COVER

Previously in topographic and land survey mapping, surveyor use direct or terrestrial
survey technique which need them to go to the field to make survey. They use
traversing, triangulation and trilateration for horizontal positioning and for vertically,
they use geodetic levelling, trigonometric heighting, barometric levelling and tilting.

Diagram 1 : traversing technique which

been used in terrestrial survey. Traverse
networks involved placing the survey
stations along a line or path of travel, and
then using the previously surveyed points
as a base for observing the next point.

Diagram 2: Geodetic labeling for vertical Diagram 3: Vertical positioning by using

positioning. trigonometrical heighing

Diagram 4: Long ago, surveyors totally use triangulation technique in making map. They take the data
from benchmark (point that surveyors made into which an angle-iron could be placed to bracket ("bench")
a leveling rod, thus ensuring that the leveling rod can be repositioned in exactly the same place in the
future.) and then bring it to their temporary benchmark and their field study.

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In terrestrial survey, they use many instrument such as theodolite, electronic distance
metre (EDM), total station, dumpy level and other instrument. Surveyor take long time
to finish their surveying job because of the physical aspect on the place. For example; it
is hard to find the coverage of Bruguiera sp. In mangrove swamp due to the difficulties to
go to that place and how to use all those equipment at that place. The other thing is
surveying project on that time need a lot of many because it is costly. They need to
consider for the food, petrol or diesel and other important thing that needed during
making the project.

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TECHNOLOGY OF REMOTE SENSING

Coarse-spatial resolution meteorological satellite data have been available since the
1960s but civilian remote sensing of the Earths surface from space only began in 1972.
This is after the launcing of Earth Series Satellite which conduct the data of earth
obvservation for remote sensing. On that time, the satellite image only produce data at
medium spatial resolutions which is only 250 metres spatial resolution.

Year by year, we can see the improve in satellite remote sensing. We can now get data
from satellite platforms with a large number of sensor such as in Terra and ENVISAT
and data with higher spatial resolution like from IKONOS and Quickbird. The
production of satellite being increasing and it is being estimate that about 100 new
satellite now been launced between 1996 and 2006. Even develop country just like our
country have launched their own remote sensing satellite for their own reason.

Most of the people get the data from Landsat series(multispectral and thematic
mapper), SPOT, MODIS and IKONOS. That is because this satellite have the latest
technology and given better data for spatial resolution, spectral resolution, temporal
resolution, and radiometric resolution. The most popular satellite data is from French
satellite SPOT(Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre) that was initiated by the CNES
(Centre national d'tudes spatiales the French space agency) in the 1970s and was
developed in association with the SSTC (Belgian scientific, technical and cultural
services) and the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB). Instead of having good
resolution (10 metre spatial resolution), it also have two sensor which can scanning two
images on the same time. It is good for those who want to get real-time data but you
must pay for it.

That is believed that there is satellite which is more ideal than that and being used by
certain country for their military and other function only for them.

Diagram 4: SPOT 5 satellite for remote sensing Diagram 5: IKONOS satellite which give until
studies 0.6 metre spatial resolution.

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REMOTE SENSING IN
TOPOGRAPIC MAPPING

Previously, we have been told about

the definition of topography. As we
know, mapping shows the detail of
the physical geography of the ground
data. It shows not only naturally
covered object but also human-made
features. The important thing in a
topographic map are imaginary
latitude and longitude that is important to determine the place of object on the ground.
The cross point between both latitude and longitude is call coordinate. Due to the
latitude and latitude coordinate system, each point will have only one coordinate. This
coordinate can easily been found by using Global Positioning System (GPS) which is
also categorized as remote sensing.

The other usage of remote sensing is to draw a map correct to the ground. There will be
some error due to carelessness of the surveyor who conduct the project. By using
remote sensing, the data shows correctly the position of certain object on the ground.

The data from satellite or aerial photogrammetry can gives us the differences of height
on the ground. This differences shown clearly in those data obtained.

In case of difficulties of field study, remote sensing can

help to determine and study the dangerous place or
place that cannot been reach by the human. From
above, we can take all the data including places that is
not easy to determine. There is many ways to studied
certain place data such as by using geometrical
correction. The data from the satellite been corrected by
using polynomial formula.
X1=a0+a1x1+a2y1+a3x1y1+a4
y12+a5x12
Diagram 3: the image that being captured by using Y1=b0+b1x1+b2y1+b3x1y1+b4
aerial photogrammetry (above) is then being change
to topographic map (below). It gives exact position
of the point or object on the ground.

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The coordinate of the point is determined using GPS by going to field study. Minimum
point or known as ground control point (GCP) is three; but for more accurate
geometrical correction, there need more GCPs as we can reduce the error using 2 nd,3rd,4th
and so on degree of polynomial formula. From this, we can get true to scale data and of
course, the area, length and other information can easily get.

In distance area, it is not easy to find the accurate distance between the places especially
from the mainland to the island. By remote sensing, we can get almost accurate distance
from the data obtained from the satellite and have been corrected by using those
formula above.

As the satellite or aerial photogrammetry images are being captured or scanned far
above the earth surface, it covered larger area; and for the satellite data, although it
covered larger area, but it also give out the higher resolution data that can determine
easily by researcher.

Actually, the remote sensing for topography is by using Light Detection and
Ranging (LIDAR). Aircraft is the best platform to use this method. LIDAR
is an optical remote sensing technology that measures range or other information of a
distant target by measuring the properties of scattered light. The distance to an object or
surface being determined by using the laser pulses. Similar to radar technology which
uses radio waves, which is light but not in the form of visible spectrum, the range to an
object is determined by measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse and
detection of the reflected signal.

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR). This geodetic method uses two or
more synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images to generate maps of surface deformation or
digital elevation using differences in the phase of the waves returning to the satellite. It
is categories as active remote sensing as the antenna transmits radiation which is then
reflected from the target, as opposed to passive sensing where the reflections detected
come from ambient illumination.

Topographic mapping is not only mean for the land shapes, elevation and height but
also covered volcano topographic and ocean topographic.

Ocean topography is not easy to find without using remote sensing technique. In remote
sensing, we use sounder to determine the distance between the sounder to the sea-floor.

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The sounder transmit sound wave to the sea-floor and receive it back. Thats mean the
sounder has both transmitter and receiver.

The distance between the sounder and sea-floor distance is determine based on the
delay time for the sound wave to reflected back to the sounder. The wave velocity is
fixed but the delay time is based on its distance travel.

Not only sounder has this function. Ship also have this distance measurement
equipment. They use SONAR as to determine the sea-floor shape and elevation. Beside
that, those ship also use SONAR whether for fishing or military uses. (determining the
present of submarines)

Why the ocean topography is important?

It is nothing to use for those who did not use the ocean; but for those who relate with
ocean, ocean topography is very important. They can prevent the collision between their
ship and the rock or sea-floor. Not only that, they also use it to control the type of fish
that they want to catch. It is actually based on the habitat of the fish whether in deep or
shallow sea.

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REMOTE SENSING IN LAND COVER MAPPING

Land cover mapping is play a big role to the earth. As modern world has been created,
the natural resources management should be handle by human. Human life is related to
nature and nature also relate to human. It is like one interaction between all living
organism on the earth.

As a consequence of steady population growth, commercial and residential

development in the

We do land cover mapping to manage our resources, manage the land use, plan what to
do with the resources, town planning and the most impotant thing maintain the balance
of nature.

How remote sensing helps us in land cover mapping?

By using remote sensing, we can easily classify

the resources on the ground for which the
area covered with. We can determine the land
cover due to digital number (DN)
classification technique. Digital number of
different object might have different number.
It is based on how the electromagnetic
radiation from the sun (passive remote
sensing) or satellite(active remote sensing)
itself being reflected back by the object.

If you using data of Landsat TM, you can use

seven different bands to study the differences
between object on the ground. For example;
when you studied about plant or vegetative
covering, you can use band 3,4 and 5. Those
bands can easily differentiate the different
type of vegetative.
Diagram 7: it is good if using satellite image to
make the land cover mapping because it cover
larger area and with higher spatial resolution.
Yokohama picture by IKONOS satellite with 1
metre spatial resolution

The differences also can be determine by using certain combination of RGB(red, blue
and green combination). It gives different colour of the studied are if it is not the same

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type of object or species. This process is important to determine the differences between
one covering area with another.

Table 1: The function of different wavelength in order to differentiate area.

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DIAGRAM 8: how to classify object due to its digital number. We can determine the class of object by
minimum distance to means classified survey(top-left), nearest neigbour classification (bottom-right),
maximum likehood classification strategy(bottom-left) and parallelepiped classification strategy (top-
right). The three point will easily classify.

We can use false-colour composite in determining the covered area of certain species or
type of land cover because there is only a little bit different between species especially
for vegetation if we use the true-colour composite. In true-colour, it will show green and
light green but in false-colour it will show different solor light dark green and pink.

Figure 2: false-colour image Figure 3: true-colour image

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The are other factor that can help us in determination of vegetation species:
1. Size
2. Shape
3. Texture
4. Colour
5. Shadow

If we know the angle of the sun, we can also measure the height of the tree just from
satellite data without go to the field study.

Remote sensing is important in land cover mapping because it can decrease the cost for
the project. As we know, this project is costly if did not use remote sensing technology.
Previously, people take long time to discover the population of vegetation in the forest
because they need to every inch of the jungle but by using remote sensing, you just go to
certain place on that jungle and then you can get the whole land covered of the jungle.

To make sure the land cover mapping is in a perfect condition, the characteristic of the
remote sensed data should be suitable and matching with the study area. A land cover
classification system which can effectively employ orbital and high altitude remote
sensor data should meet the following criteria

1. The minimum level of interpretation accuracy in the identification of land use and
land cover categories from remote sensor data should be at least 85 percent.

2. The accuracy of interpretation for the several categories should be about equal.

3. Repeatable or repetitive results should be obtainable from one interpreter to another

and from one time of sensing to another.

4. The classification system should be applicable over extensive areas.

5. The categorization should permit vegetation and other types of land cover to be used
as surrogates for activity.

6. The classification system should be suitable for use with remote sensor data obtained
at different times of the year.

7. Effective use of subcategories that can be obtained from ground surveys or from the
use of larger scale or enhanced remote sensor data should be possible.

8. Aggregation of categories must be possible.

9. Comparison with future land use data should be possible.

10. Multiple uses of land should be recognized when possible.

LIMITATION IN REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is not magic. We also need to go to the field to find certain data. That
because we can classify thing but do not know what is it, so we need to know what is it.

Remote sensing also can have error due to atmosphere that surround around the earth.
Those particle cause scattering and reflection of EMR that will cause error. The EMR
reflected or scattered from the neighboring place also effect the image.

The satellite also can uncalibrated when being used for a long time. So, the image
produce might be not the same in ratio or image might be poor. The mistake in choosing
data will also increase the cost for each project.

CONCLUSION

We must choose the ideal way to do something. As in topographic and land cover
mapping, it is shown that is easy if we use the remote sensing technique so why should
we ignore it. But, if we making mistakes in choosing data then our project will cost more
than traditional way.

We must combine the remote satellite data and land survey data because each data
should have their own error. Combination of data will make our result is more accurate.
REFERENCE

Books:

Lillesand, T.M & R.W. Keifer, 1987. Remote sensing and image interpretation. Second edition. J.
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Buiten, H.J. & J.G.P.W. Clevers, 1993. Land observation by remote sensing: Theory and
Applications. English version. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers
Gibson, P.J. & C.H. Power, 2000. Introductory remote sensing: principles and concepts.
Routledge,NY

Journal:

Riffat Naseem Malik & Syed Zahoor Hussain, 2006. Land-cover mapping: a remote sensing
approach. Department of Biological Sciences, Quad-i-Azam University, Islamabad,
Pakistan.
Thurston Regional Planning Council, July 2001. Land cover mapping of Thurston county:
methodology and applications
International Journal of Remote Sensing, November 2008. Volume 29, Issue 22

Website:

http://www.remotesensing.gov.my/tmsPUBLISHER/images/default/publication_3rd
microwave/3rdmicrowave_paper9.pdf (27 August
2009)
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/ip/techip011.htm (27 August 2009)
http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/ProgramElements/land.ht (27 August
2009)
http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/38(3)/PJB38(3)559.pdf (27 August
2009)
http://www.trpc.org/resources/landcoverreport02_02_05.pdf (27 August 2009)
http://www.trpc.org/resources/sample.pdf (27 August
2009)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation (1 September
2009)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography (1 September 2009)
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/topography (1 September
2009)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPOT_(satellites) (6 September 2009)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing (6 September 2009)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_registration (7 September 2009)