Sewers and Sewer Networks

Design, Construction and Maintenance

S. Sarkar
 WASTEWATER MANUAL

http://cpheeo.nic.in/Sewerage.aspx
 TREATED WATER
RAW WATER TREATMENT PLANT
WATER

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

TEATED
WASTEWATER WASTEWATER
 Classification of Sewers

Domestic or Industrial Sewers

They are designed to carry wastewater generated from domestic
establishments or small- and medium- sized industrial establishments in a
municipal area but not storm-water

Storm Sewers
They are designed to carry off only stormwater and groundwater but excludes
sewage from domestic and/ or industrial source

Combined Sewers
They are designed to carry off stormwater, domestic and industrial
wastewater
Advantages and Disadvantages of Combined Sewers
It is initially economical to set up a combined sewer rather than
separately installing domestic sewers and stormwater sewers
During dry season lack of stormwater causes a low flow rate. Low
flow rate gives rise to low velocity of flow. At low velocities, due to
less turbulence, the deposition of sewage solids are more. Result is
siltation and consequent foul odor generation due to degradation of
the settled solids.
In contrast, during wet or rainy seasons, the flow rate is very high.
Therefore, pumping costs are more, causing high operation and
maintenance cost.

Pumps that are designed to operate at high flow rate to tackle the
wet season flow, runs in low flow condition in dry season which is an
inefficient operation that consumes more power than usual.

Due to the above reasons, combined sewers are not generally

recommended by the manual of sewerage and sewage treatment,
Government of India
 Estimation of Quantity of Sanitary Sewage

The sewers are designed to carry:

Spent water from a community

Some groundwater
Fraction of the stormwater
Industrial wastewater for small establishments

The sanitary sewers are designed to carry the wastewater from the above
sources to a sewage/wastewater treatment plants

Carrying capacity of the sewers depends on: 1. Present and 2. Future

quantities of flow rate expected.

Thus, it is important to estimate the design flow rate for the sewers to be
constructed.
 Estimation of Sewage Flowrate

Two Parameters:
Both of these
quantities depend
1. The contributing population, and
on the design
2. Per capita (per person) flowrate of
period
sewage

Design period: The length of the time up to which the capacity of a sewer will
be adequate is called a design period.
Normally design period for a sewerage system is considered as 30 years

But, mechanical rotating equipment such as pumps are designed for 15 years
 Forecasting the Population
Prospective population of the project area (may be a city, town or a
metropolitan area)
Methods:
Demographic population projection
Arithmetical increase method
Incremental Increase method
Geometrical Increase method
Growth rate
Graphical method
Logistic method
Method of density

Where is the forecast found for design purposes?

Normally for a city, population growth forecasts are found from the
master-plan prepared by town planning or other relevant authorities.

What to do when masterplan or planners documents are unavailable?

 Floor-Space Index Based Calculation

1. From the city-plan find out the % of the total area available for residential
development

2. Actual total floor area = Area for residential development X Floor Space
Index (FSI)

3. Find out floor area required for one person or assume it depending on
the available data from the city. Normally it is 9 sqm/ person.

4. Find out the density of population per hectare

5. Multiply the density with the total area of the city to find out the total
population

This total population can be used for estimating the quantity of total sewage
flow.
Example: Finding out population density based on Floor Space Index method
A well-planned city has following areas earmarked for its development in the planning
stage: Roads- 20%; Gardens- 15%; Schools 5%; markets and Commerical places 2%;
Hospital and medical facilities 2% and rest is residential area. The Floor Space Index
(FSI) for the city is fixed at 2. If the floor area is 9 sqm/ person, find out the projected
population density of the city in numbers/ hecatare.

Residential Area (%) = 100 (20+15+5+2+2) = 56

Actual Floor Area = Area of the land X FSI

Population that can reside in the area= Actual Floor area / Area required by a person
= 0.56X2 /9 numbers / sqm

Population density (numbers / hectare) = 0.56X2X10000/9 = 1244

 Per Capita Sewage Flow rate
Ideally the entire amount of water used by a community should appear as the total
flow in a sanitary sewer

Water is lost due to:

Evaporation Loss
Seepage into ground
Leakges
The dry weather flowrate is slightly less than the per capita water consumption
For very dry and arid regions,
Average sewage flowrate 40% of water consumption rate
In well-paved and well-developed areas,
Average sewage flowrate 90% of water consumption rate
Conservative estimate is 80% of water consumption rate

Design water consumption in India = 130 LPCD (litre per capita per day)

Design minimum wastewater flow in India = 100 LPCD

 Variations in Flow and Peak Factor

Water consumption varies from hour to

hour. Along with daily variations, there

Flow rate
also are seasonal variations.
Average
For design purpose, sewers are always
designed to carry maximum or peak flow
rates, rather than designing it for average
flowrate. 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time of the day
Maximum wastewater flow rate
Peak Factor (PF) =
Average flow rate of wastewater

Population Peak factor

< 20,000 3.0
20,000 50,000 2.5
50,000 7,50,000 2.25
> 7,50,000 2.0
 Groundwater Infiltration into Sewer lines
The sewers have joints. Some groundwater runoff may also seep into the
sanitary sewers.
The extent of groundwater infiltration into the sewers depend on the
workmanship and the level of the groundwater table with respect to the sewers.

Usually, for a sanitary sewer below the groundwater table the following
values are taken,
Minimum Maximum
Liters/ha.d 5000 50000
Liters per day/ 250 500
manhole

In addition, commercial and industrial contributions are to be considered

into the total flow rate.

PEAK FLOW RATE or MAXIMUM FLOW RATE

Maximum sanitary flow rate = Average domestic flow rate X PF + infiltration flow rate
 Area with Sufficient Urbanization
Area with little or no urbanization

RAINFALL
High volume of water on the surface,
More paved surface, higher
High runoff, needs quick evacuation
imperviousness, less absorption by soil
to avoid flooding/ inundation
How to evacuate this increased runoff?
BUILD EFFICIENT STORM SEWER SYSTEM
 Finding Out of Runoff
Runoff quantity depends on:
Rainfall Characteristics (Intensity, Duration and space-
time distributions)
Characteristics of the watershed surface (nature,
permeability, slope, and landscaping)
Time of concentration (time required for flow to reach
the sewer)

Storm sewers are designed for a rainfall with particular frequency or return
period. The design rainfall is fixed after economic considerations involving
the Intensity-duration and frequency (IDF) curves in an area.

The design should be adequate to carry from a basin or watershed the

maximum runoff caused by the design rainfall.
 t1 t1 t0 t
t 2 t 2 t0 2t
t n t n t0 nt

Case I Rainfall duration is t

Time Runoff
Rainfall over a watershed draining at a single
t0= 0 Q0 = Q(t=0) =0
discharge point
t1= t Q1=A1IC1
t2=2t Q2=A2IC2 I = Intensity of the rainfall
A = Area
tn=nt Qn=AnICn C= Run-off coefficient
Case II Rainfall duration is 2t

Time Runoff
t0= 0 Q0 = Q(t=0)= 0
t1= t Q1=A1IC1
t2=2t Q2=A1IC1+A2IC2
t3=3t Q3=A2IC2+A3IC3
tn=nt Qn= An-1ICn-1+AnICn
tn=(n+1)t Qn+1 =AnICn
tn+2 =(n+2) t Qn+2 =0
 Case III Rainfall duration is nt
Time Runoff
t0= 0 Q0 = 0
t1= t Q1=A1IC1
j
tj=jt Q j Ak ICk
k 1
n
tn=nt Qn Ak ICk
k 1
n
Qn 1 Ak ICk
tn+1=(n+1)t
k 2

T2n-1=(2n-1)t Q2n-1=A1IC1
t2n =2nt Q2n =0
 A Few Observations
If the duration of the rainfall is tn and tn is the time necessary for the water
droplet to reach to the basin outlet from the hydraulically most distant place
in the basin, the entire surface area of the basin contributes to the flow rate
or the runoff observed from the basin.
If the duration of the rainfall is longer than tn, the runoff value remains equal
to the same as the case above, from the time tn until the end of the rainfall
duration.

If the duration of the rainfall is shorter than tn, the maximum runoff occurs at
the end of the rainfall and is smaller than the runoff obtained for a
precipitation of duration tn.
The maximum runoff flow is always reached at the latest by the end of the
rainfall.
The maximum runoff due to a precipitation of uniform intensity I falling all over the
drainage basin, and of duration tn (the longest time for water to travel to the
outfall from the basin), is thus given by n n
Qn Ak ICk I Ak Ck
k 1 k 1
 Rational Equation
n n
Qn Ak ICk I Ak Ck
k 1 k 1

In familiar terms, the above equation is thus given by,

Q AIC

Q = Run-off in cum/hr
C= coefficient of run-off
I= Intensity of design rainfall, mm/hr
A = Area of drainage basin in hectares

Q = 10 CIA

Values of C
Absolutely impervious basin.1.0
Paved Areas0.9
Lawn and Gardens.0.15
Water-bound macadem roads0.45
Time of Concentration (tc)
DRAINAGE BASIN
The period of time after which the entire
basin area starts contributing to the run-off is
called the time of concentration. Varies from
3 to 30 minutes
tC
Maximum run-off is obtained from a rain having a
duration equal to the time of concentration. SEWER
OUTFALL
The duration of such a rainfall is called critical rainfall duration and the intensity of
such rainfall is known as critical rainfall intensity.

Sub-basin
tc te t f
te
te= time of entry
tf= time of flow tf
SEWER
OUTFALL
Time of entry is the longest time required for a water droplet in an urban sub-basin
to travel to a street inlet.

Kirpichs model: 0.77

L= maximum distance travelled by
0.0195L F the water on the surface
te
s 0.385 s= average slope of the route
F = friction factor
travelled by water
Surface type F
Rural watershed (flat ground) 1.0
Grass surface 2.0
Concrete or Asphalt surface 0.4
Concrete channel 0.2

Time of flow is the time required for water to travel to a sewage outfall from the street
inlet in the urban sub-basin. It is always computed considering that the pipe is running
full. 1 2 3 12
v R s tf
L
n v
Rainfall Intensity, mm/hr Typical Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves The curves can vary
from place to place
and the shape of
the curve follows
different patterns.
a
I
tk
a
I n
t k
CN x
I
(b t ) n

Duration, minutes

I ( rainfall intensity) and T (duration) are variables; other terms are constants that can be
found out from fitting the curve with the field data obtained.
 How to find out the
design maximum run-off
of a basin?

1. Decide on the frequency

of rainfall on which the
design will be based on.
Lets assume it is twice in a
year (that means we shall
allow flooding to occur on
average twice in a year).

2. From the contour map of the area find out the time of concentration of the basin (say 15
minutes)
3. Find out the rainfall intensity corresponding to the time of concentration. (TOC = duration
of rainfall )
4. Apply Rational Formula to find out the maximum or design runoff
 Find out the maximum design runoff at
/1.2 ha
the discharge point
Assume: C = 0.3 (Entire area), 5-year frequency, vel.
In sewers = 0.6 m/s

200
/120 m
175

Rainfall Intensity, mm/hr

150

/2.4 ha 125

100

75

50

/180 m 25

/1.8 ha
Flow time in sewer from MH 1 MH 2
= (120 m)/ (0.6 m/s) (60 s/ min) = 3.3 min

Flow time in sewer from MH 2 MH 3

= (180 m)/ (0.6 m/s) (60 s/ min) = 5.0 min

Time of concentration from remote points of 3 separate areas to MH 3:

Area 1: 5.0 + 3.3 + 5.0 = 13.3 min
Area 2: 5.0 + 3.3 = 8.3 min
Area 3: 8.0 min (inlet time only)

Max. time conc. = Duration of rainfall = 13.3 min

I = 110 mm/hr. for 5-year frequency

Sum of CA values = 0.3 (1.2 + 2.4 + 1.8) = 1.62

Q = 10 x 110 x 1.62 = 1782 m3/hr.

 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF SEWERS

Design of sewers are done assuming steady-state conditions. Steady-state

means that the discharge or flow-rate at a point remains time-invariant.

Objectives:

1. Carry the peak flow rate for which the sewer is designed
This is directly connected with the maximum achievable velocity in
the sewers. We do not want the sewage pipe materials to get worn
out. The wastewater manual recommends a maximum velocity of
3 m/s.

2. Transport suspended solids in such a manner that the siltation in

a sewer is kept to a minimum

This condition gives us an idea about the minimum velocity that

has to be maintained inside a sewer during a low flow period.
 Sewers versus Treated Water Conduits

SEWER WATER CONDUITS

1. They are never designed to run full; there is 1. They are always
always an empty space provided at the top. designed to run full.
Reasons: a) Biodegradation causes
generation of gases like methane, hydrogen 2. It is pressurized.
sulfide, ammonia etc. which can get Normally, we do not
dissolved if running under pressure. worry about the slope of
b) At same slopes, the velocity and carrying the water mains or lines
capacity is more when it runs partially full. when we lay them.

2. It is unpressurised. It maintains a gravity flow; It

is laid in gradients or slopes.
Minimum Velocity in a Sewer
The velocity should be such that:

A) It will not allow the particles to settle inside

the sewer

B) Even if there is a deposition, it will promote

scouring of the particles so that it can self-cleanse
itself

The generation of Self-cleansing velocity should occur within the sewer for at
least once in a day.
 SELF-CLEANSING VELOCITY
Submerged Weight
submrged
Volume
1 W sin
(Vs * d * g buyoancy)
V
1
[(V - nV) * d * g (V nV ) w )]
V
(1 n)[ d w ] (1 n) w [ S s 1] W W cos

Drag Force w RS R= Hydraulic mean radius S= Slope of the channel

From the force balance, when the particle is on the verge of slipping down the plane,
W sin
If the block (Particle) has a unit length and unit width and thickness is dp , then
W sub *1*1* d p
w RS w (1 n)[S s 1]d p sin
k
S [ S s 1]d p Where, k (1 n) sin
R
1 2 3 12 1 2 1
vs R S R 3 k ( S s 1)d p 1 16
n n 1
R 2 vs R k ( S s 1)d p
n
 Self-Cleansing Velocity

1
1 6
VS R k ( S S 1) D p
n
n = roughness coefficient
A
R = Hydraulic Mean Radius =
P
A= Area of the channel
P= Wetted perimeter of the channel

Ss = Specific gravity of the particle

k = Dimensionless constant, 0.04 for granular particles, 0.8 for organic

matters
DP = Diameter of the particle for which the sewer will be designed, this
is the maximum particle size the sewer can safely carry

Sewers are always designed to attain the self cleansing velocities

JAPAN
 /2 /2 D

D D d 1
d [ cos ] [1 cos ]
2 2 2 D 2 2
1 D D
A D2 a D . 2
2 * * sin * cos
4 4 360 2 2 2 2 2

sin sin
a
[ a D [ 2
]
A 360 2
] 4 360 2
 P D

/2 /2 D p D *
360
d
D *
p
360
P D 360
D 2
A 4 D a D 360 sin
R r [1 ]
P D 4 p 4 2

r 360 sin
[1 ]
R 2
 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R S
n
/2 /2 D
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
v r s
d n

360 sin
2/3 2/3
r
2/3
v r
2/3 1
V R R 2

q a.v a v sin 360 sin

2/3

* 1
Q A.V A V 360 2 2
 d 1
[1 cos ]
D 2 2
r 360 sin
[1 ]
/2 /2 D R 2
v 360 sin
2/3

1
d V 2
q sin 360 sin
2/3

1
Q 360 2 2

In all the above expressions, is the only variable, all other

parameters are constant. Thus at different values of , the above
proportional elements can be easily calculated
d/D a/A v/V q/Q
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.9 0.949 1.124 1.066
0.8 0.858 1.140 0.988
0.7 0.748 1.120 0.838
0.5 0.5 1.000 0.500
0.4 0.373 0.902 0.337

Capital Letters denote the situation

when the sewers run full

Maximum velocity is achieved

when the sewers are designed
to run at 80% of the full depth.
Designing Sewer Systems

Sewers are designed taking consideration of 30 years.

Population in the initial years of the design period are low compared to the
design population at the end of design period

Peak flow rate in the initial years is low compared to the designed peak flow
rate (ultimate peak flow)

Sizing should be such that it will attain the self-cleansing velocity at the
average design flow rate or at least at the maximum flow rate at the beginning
of the design period.
 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
v r s
n

a D 360 sin
r [1 ]
p 4 2

s
1000
v 360 sin
2/3
Velocity at partially full flow
1
Velocity at full flow V 2

For Partially-full flow v is not influenced by the diameter of the

pipe, rather is much influenced by the slope of the channel
FROM THE SEWAGE TREATMENT MANUAL, GOI

After finding the minimum slope required, the pipe size is decided on the basis
of ultimate design peak flow rate and the permissible depth of flow. Adoption
of the above slopes would ensure minimum flow velocity of 0.6 m/s

Minimum size for a public sewer is 150 mm diameter

Minimum size for a public sewer in hilly terrain is 100 mm diameter

 Gravity Sewer: Minimum Pipe Slope for Attaining Vmin= 0. 6 m/s
Diameter Discharge Slope (m/m) A slope below 0.0008
(mm) (lps) n= 0.013 n= 0.015 becomes practically
200 19 0.0033 0.0044 difficult for construction
250 30 0.0025 0.0033 purposes
300 40 0.0019 0.0026 Sewers with flat slopes
400 75 0.0013 0.0017
may be required to avoid
excessive excavation
450 95 0.0011 0.0015 where surface slopes are
500 115 0.001 0.0013 flat or change in the
600 170 0.0008 0.0010 elevation is small.
700 230 0.0006* 0.0008
900 380 0.0004* 0.0006*

The slope and size of the sewer should be such that the velocity of flow shall
increase progressively or shall remain steady throughout the length of the sewer.
Sewers shall have slope steeper than or equal to the ground slope, otherwise the
minimum ground cover may not be maintained through out the length of the
sewer.
What will be the diameter of the sewer designed with the following
conditions:
a) Population to be served: Present = 50,000; Design= 100,000;
b) Water consumption: Present = 130 lpcd; Design = 180 lpcd
c) 80 % of supplied water appears as wastewater
d) Self-cleansing velocity to maintained in the sewer = 0.6 m/s;
e) Maximum velocity in the sewer 3 m/s;
f) Minimum size of the sewer = 150 mm;
g) Peak factor = 2.5
h) n=0.015 i) Average Ground Slope = 1 in 5000

d/D a/A v/V q/Q

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.9 0.949 1.124 1.066
0.8 0.858 1.140 0.988
0.7 0.748 1.120 0.838
0.5 0.5 1.000 0.500
0.4 0.373 0.902 0.337
STEP 1. Find out the average flowrate and maximum flow rate at present and after the
design period
Time Average flowrate Peak factor Peak flowrate
Present 50,000* 130*0.8 L/d=0.06 cum/s 2.5 0.15 cum/s
Design 100,000* 180*0.8 L/d= 0.167 cum/s 2.25 0.375 cum/s
STEP 2. Find out the optimum slope to be provided
Slope to be provided = s=0.8 in 1000 = 0.8/1000 = 0.0008 (from the table)
STEP 3. Find out the size based on the ultimate peak flowrate.
We want the sewer to run 80% full at its ultimate peak flowrate so that maximum possible
velocity can be attained). From the chart q/Q = 0.988 when d/D =0.8
Q = 0.375/0.988 = 0.380 2
D 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Q = A.V A V R s
4 n
D 2
A D
R 4
P D 4
D
2/3
1D 2
Q A.V * * s1/ 2
4 n 4
 Q=0.380 m3/s S= 0.0008 n =0.015

D
2/3
1 D 2
Q A.V * * * s1/ 2
4 n 4

D
2/3
D
2
1
* * * (0.0008)1/ 2 0.380 D = 849 mm
4 0.015 4
Take D = 900 mm (next available size)
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R s
1
0.900 / 4 (0.0008)1/ 2 0.697 m/s
2/3

n 0.015
(0.85) 2
Q A.V * 0.697 0.395 cum/s
4
At ultimate peak flow,
q 0.375 d v
0.949 0.77 1.135
Q 0.395 D V
v 1.135 * 0.697 0.791 m/s >0.6 m/s [OK]
For a circular channel running under gravity,
Velocity is maximum when the depth of flow d = 0.8 D
At d/D = 0.8, v/V = 1.140
Hence, vmax = 1.140*0.697 m/s = 0.794m/s < 3 m/s (Maxm. Velocity allowable)
O.K.
At the ultimate average flow rate q,
q/Q =(0.167/0.395)=0.42

From the proportionality chart, extrapolating, v/V = 0.97

Hence, v = 0.97* 0.697 m/s = 0.676 m/s >0.6 m/s O.K.
At the peak present flowrate q1,
q1/Q =(0.15/0.395)=0.38

From the proportionality chart, extrapolating, v/V = 0.93

Hence, v = 0.93* 0.697 m/s = 0.65 m/s >0.6 m/s OK

NOTE: If the velocity at the present peak flow rate is found to be below 0.6 m/s, then a
slight increase in the slope with the same diameter may help attain the minimum
required velocity of 0.6 m/s
Sewerage System
 Preliminary Requirements

It is meant for the transport stormwater and wastewater from the generation
point to the treatment plant. So it should be laid as deep as possible so that all
wastewater or storm water flow can be collected and transported.

Erosion and corrosion resistant. Should be structurally strong enough to resist

impact loads or overburden and live loads
Size and slope to be designed to carry the peak load as well as to carry average
flow in such a manner that the deposition shall be minimized.

Maintenance should be easy, economical and safe for the workers.

Aims of the design are: a) make the system operational and b) Economical to build
and c) make the system durable through out its entire design life
 Layout of Sewer Lines
Steps followed for making the layout:
Selection of an outlet or disposal points
Fixing limits to the drainage area or zone boundaries

Finalizing the location of Trunk and Main sewers

Finalizing the location of Pumping stations wherever necessary

Trunk sewer is the sewer in the network

with the largest diameter that extends
farthest from the sewage outfall
Trunk Sewer
Outfall
All other sewers are considered as
branches

Whenever two sewers meet at a point, the

incoming one with larger diameter is called the
main sewer.
 Nomenclature System Followed in Sewer Systems

Network
L.3.1

Trunk Sewer
4
Outfall L1.R.3.1.2
2 3
L1.R.3.1.1
manhole
R.3.1
L2.R.3.1.1 L2.R.3.1.2

R.3.2
NOMENCLATURE IN CASE OF DESIGN OF SEWER
NETWORK USING COMPUTER PROGRAMME
In case of design of sewer
network using computer
programme, there is no
restriction in the
nomenclature of the sewers
and manholes as required
for the manual design.

It is sufficient to give node

numbers as well as pipe
(link) numbers in any
manner in the sewer
network for design of the
network for using computer
software.
 House
Most common location of laying sanitary
sewer is along the center of the streets Sewer

The individual domestic connections

can be from either side of the streets
Street
Slope of the sewers generally follow the
natural slope of the ground or the street House
House
For very wide streets the sewers are
laid on each side of the streets in the Sewer
curb or under the sidewalk

To avoid any contamination sewer

lines are never laid near to the water Street
mains. If it is unavoidable, the sewers
are encased in concrete
Sewer

House
Design Approach

1. On a map of the area locate all the sewer lines and measure the contributory
area to each of the sewer lines or points.

2. Also, draw the longitudinal section or profiles of the sewer lines. Mark on the
profile view the critical points such as basements of the low lying houses, levels
of existing sewers, disposal points, etc.

3. Design all the branch sewers, main sewers and trunk sewers, starting from
the farthest point in the network and based on the following considerations:

a) A self cleansing velocity is maintained at present peak flow

b) The sewer should run 0.8 full at the design ultimate peak flow
c) Minimum velocity of 0.6 m/s is obtained
d) Maximum velocity should not be beyond 3 m/s
Example of a Profile of a Sewer Line
A view inside a sewer in London
 Sewer Appurtenances
These are devices necessary (except pipes and conduits) for proper functioning
of the sanitary, storm and combined sewers

The appurtenances include:

1. Manhole
2. Drop Manhole
3. Lampholes
4. Gully-traps
5. Intercepting chambers
6. Flushing tanks
7. Street Inlets
8. Siphons
9. Grease traps
10. Side-flow weirs
11. Leaping weirs
12. Venturi flumes
13. Outfall structures
 Sewer lines

Brickwork sewer line HDPE sewer pipe

RCC sewer pipes

MANHOLES
Manholes are RCC or masonry chambers, constructed at suitable intervals along the
sewer lines, for providing access to the inside of the sewers.
Helps in: a) Joining the sewer pipes; b) Inspection and cleaning of pipes; c) mainte-
nance; d) Ventilation if manholes are perforated

Between two adjacent manholes, the sewer

line runs straight with constant slope

Manholes are provided at every transition points:

bend junction Change in gradient
Change in sewer diameter At regular intervals

Gutter manhole Curb

Sewer Electric Water

cable main
 Manholes

Brickwork HDPE

RCC precast RCC precast

 TYPES OF BRICKWORK MANHOLES

Rectangular manhole (900x800 mm) Rectangular manhole for (1200 900mm)

SHALLOW MANHOLE:
depth less than 0.9 m
Suitable for branch sewers or
places with no heavy traffic
It is also called an inspection
chamber
NORMAL OR MEDIUM MANHOLES:
depth 0.9 m to 2.5 m
Heavy cover is provided at the top
May be either square or rectangular
(900mm X900mm and 1200mm X 900
mm)
 TYPES OF BRICKWORK MANHOLES

Typical circular manhole Arch type manhole for (1400 mm 900 mm)
DEEP MANHOLES
deeper than 2.5 m
Heavy cover is provided at the top
Size in the upper portion is reduced by offset: May be either square
or rectangular or circular
Access shaft: Minimum size is
0.75 X 0.6 m

Steps or ladders: for accessing

Working chamber: Provides working

space for inspection and cleaning
operations, Minimum size 1,2 m X
0.9 m or 1.2 m dia; minimum height
is 1.8 m
Benching: concreted portion sloping
towards semicircular or U -shaped
bottom part of the main sewer, the
slope facilitates the entry of sewage
into the main sewer
 RCC AND COMBINATION MANHOLES
Advantages over brickwork manholes:
better quality control in raw materials and
workmanship
easier fixing in the field with maximum speed and
minimum disturbance to traffic
Concerns:
The concrete corrosion of the inside by sulphide gas
and the soil side by sulphate in soil water.
Solution:
The use of high alumina cement is advisable in
manufacture itself or sulphate resistant cement with
extra lining of 25 mm thickness over inner wall with
high alumina cement.
 RCC AND COMBINATION MANHOLES
Two types of RCC manholes can be used
Manholes with vertical shaft in RCC and the
corbelled cone portion in brickwork
Entire manhole in RCC and corbelled cone portion
separately precast and jointed
The entries and exits of main sewers as well as
house service sewers requires careful detailing
because the issue of puncturing the walls for
insertions of especially house service sewers
later on is impossible.
 HDPE MANHOLES
HDPE manholes with EN 13598-2: 2009 and ISO
(ISO 9001: 2008) specifications are recent
entrants. (Indian std. not yet brought out by BIS)
Advantages:
Speedy construction as compared to brickwork
manholes as these come ready made.
Site-specific precautions:
To be safeguarded against uplift pressure due to high
GW level and crushing under heavy traffic load.
 DROP MANHOLE

It is used when a branch sewer joins a main sewer at a height more than 600 mm above the
main sewer or the drop is more than 600 mm.
Advantages: 1) Steep gradients in the branch sewer can be avoided ; 2) The sewage from
the branch sewers may fall on the person working; This is avoided.

Inspection Arm
Plug
 FLUSHING MANHOLE

Provided where it is not possible

to gain enough flow so as to
maintain a self-cleansing velocity.

Often such condition is prevalent

at the beginning of the branch
sewers.

Generally provided at the head

of the sewers where enough
storage is provided to
generate a high velocity to
flush out the obstructions
Automatic Flushing Tanks
Automatic Flushing Tanks
 Curb Inlet

Gratings
 Different Types of Street Inlets

GUTTER TYPE

CURB TYPE INLETS

COMBINATION MULTIPLE TYPE INLETS

 CATCH BASINS

A Type of Street Inlet

The basin helps in settling the grit,

sand, debris, etc. before the
storm water enters the sewer line

Hood prevents the escape of the

foul gases into the sewer line and
SEWER network
 Oil and Grease Trap

Generally located near the sources which can generate oil and grease-
contaminated wastewater. Restaurants, garages, automobile repair workshops

Oil and grease in the sewer system can : a) sticks to the inner surface of sewers
and reduces the sewer capacity; b)entraps suspended matter, further reducing
the capacity; c) adversely affect the performance of wastewater treatment
plants
 REGULATOR OR OVERFLOW DEVICES OR STORM-RELIEF WORKS

The regulators are provided to avoid overloading of sewers, pumping stations,

treatment plant or disposal arrangements by diverting excess flow to relief
sewers or overflow stream.

The overloading is caused by excess flow coming in a pipeline due to heavy

rainfall or excess stormwater. As they are not expected to carry huge pollutant
load, the excess stormwater can be safely disposed of to natural streams
without any treatment.

Three types of Regulator devices:

a) Leaping Weir
b) Side-flow or Overflow weir
c) Siphon spillway
 Leaping Weir

INCOMING FLOW

Intercepting Sewer

Arrangement consists of an opening at the invert of a storm drain through which

the normal storm flow is taken into an intercepting sewer and excess flow leaps
over the combined sewer to flow to a neighboring stream
Overflow or Side-flow Weir
Excess water is allowed to overflow the
combined sewer in the manhole, from
where it is taken to another channel that
leads to stormwater drain or manhole.

The weir length has to be sufficiently

long for effective regulation
 Siphon Spillway

Air Line

Spillway

Sewer Receiving Stream

 Different Cross-sectional Shapes of Sewers

Most widely used cross-sectional shape is a circular-section sewer.

The reasons behind the preferences are:
a) A circular section provides the maximum area of flow for a given
perimeter, therefore higher value of hydraulic mean radius.

A
R
P
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R s
n
It is the most efficient section, among all possible variations

b) It uses the minimum amount of materials for is manufacture, therefore it is

economical to use such a section
c) Manufacture is easy and convenient

d) Structurally more stable (without any corners, hence load is evenly distributed all
around
e) Chances of deposition is less
d/D a/A v/V q/Q
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.9 0.949 1.124 1.066
0.8 0.858 1.140 0.988
0.7 0.748 1.120 0.838
0.5 0.5 1.000 0.500
0.4 0.373 0.902 0.337
0.3 0.252 0.776 0.196
0.2 0.143 0.615 0.088

Advantages of a circular sewer diminishes when the sewer is not running at least half-full
Lesser the discharge, poorer is the performance
 OVOID OR EGG-SHAPED SEWER

At low discharges 2- 15%

higher velocities are available
for these type of sections
compared to Hydraulically
Equivalent Circular Sections

Standard Oval Shaped Sewers d/D v/V

Ovoid circular
0.25 0.7 0.698
0.20 0.62 0.61
0.10 0.44 0.4
0.05 0.29 0.25

Hydraulically Equivalent Section: Two sewers of

different shape (i.e. different sections) are said to be of
hydraulically equivalent when they carry the same
discharge when running full at the same slope.
New Type Oval Shaped Sewers
 Design of Ovoid-Shaped Sewers

1. Calculate the approximate diameter of a hydraulically equivalent circular sewer that

would carry the same discharge at the same slope as the ovoid-shaped sewer.

2. Top horizontal diameter of the Ovoid-sewer = 0.84 X Diam. of the circular sewer

3. Find out the other dimensions from the following figures, according to the type of
sewer to be designed
Horse-Shoe Type of Sections
Open-Drain Sections

A
R
P
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R s
n
Q A *V
Design a gravity flow trunk sanitary sewer for
the area . The trunk sewer is to be laid
along Peach Avenue starting at 4th Street and
ending at 11th Street. Assume that the
that the following design criteria have been
developed based on an analysis of local
conditions and codes:

1. For design period use the saturation

period.
2. For population densities use the data given
in the table.

3. For residential WW flows use the data given in

the table.
4. For commercial and industrial flows (average):
a. Commercial 20 m3 /ha . d
b. Industrial - 30 m3 /ha . d
5. For institutional flows (average):
College - 400 m3 / d (5330 students x 75 L/ student . d)/ (1000 L/ m3 )
6. For infiltration allowance:
a. For residential areas, obtain the peak infiltration values from the fig. (b):

b. For commercial, industrial, and institutional areas also obtain the peak
infiltration values from the fig. (b). However, to take into account that the
total length of sewers in these areas will generally be < that in residential areas,
use only 50% of the actual area to compute the infiltration allowance.
 7. For infiltration allowance Assume steady flow
8. Peaking Factors:
a. Residential Use the curve, fig. (c)
b. Commercial 1.8
c. Industrial 2.1
d. Institutional (school) 4.0
Peaking Factor

9. Hyd. Design Eq. Manning Eq. , n = 0.0013, Use Fig. 6 -10 (Nomogram)
10. Min. pipe size As per local Bldg. Code, 200 mm
11. Min. velocity 0.75 m/s
12. Min cover As per local Bldg. Code, 200 mm, 2.0 m
Solution:

1. Lay out the trunk sewer. Draw a line to

represent the proposed sewer [Fig. (a)].

2. Locate the no. of MHs:

(a) Change in direction
(b) Change in slope
(c) Pipe junctions
(d) Upper end of sewers
(e) Intervals: 90 120 m or less (As per Code)
Identify each MH with a no.
In Fig. (a),
only MHs at major junctions numbered.
In an actual design,
intermediate MHs to be located and numbered.
3. Prepare design tables. Comments:
a. Column 1 5, Identify lines, Summarize data
b. Column 6 13, Obtain cumulative peak domestic flows

Table 1
c. Column 14 18, Obtain cumulative peak commercial flows
d. Column 19 23, Obtain cumulative peak industrial flows

Table 2
e. Column 24 26, Obtain cumulative peak institutional flows
f. Column 27 28, Obtain cumulative average and peak flows
g. Column 29 32, Obtain infiltration allowance
h. Column 33 Total Cumulative Peak Design Flow Columns 28 + 32

Table 3
i. Columns 35 38 , Sewer Design, Mannings Eq., n = 0.013 , v > 0.75 m/s
j. Columns 39 42, Layout Data
Column s 39/40 Ground surface elevations obtained by interpolation from Fig. (a)
Column s 41/42 Sewer invert elevations (By Trial and Error from Work Sheet)

Table 4
0.0018
m/m

0.0009
m/m

0.330
0.121

m3/s
m3/s
Line 2-3:
q/Q=0.313/0.330
=0.95
d/D=0.86
v/V=1.04
 WORK SHEET
(1) Plot ground surface elevations, working backwards
(2) Sketch invert and crown
(3) Line 1: Locate the invert of the upper end of the pipe

Upper Invert Elevation=Ground surface depth of cover pipe wall thickness pipe dia.
= 20.00 m - 2.00 m - 0.05 m - 0.45 m
=17.5 m
Lower Invert Elevation= Upper Invert Elevation-(Slope of sewer)x(Length of sewer)
17.5 m - (0.0018 m/m) x (707 m)
=16.23 m
Check: Depth of Cover Adequate/ Not adequate ?
=19.00 m (16.23 m + 0.45 m + 0.05 m)
= 2.27 m OK

If Depth of Cover Not adequate / too shallow

Two alternatives:
(1) Repeat with a lower invert elevation, or
(2) A steeper slope
Ground surface

Depth of cover

Wall thickness
Inside top Crown
Inside bottom Invert
Bottom
 Some Other Important Considerations
(1) When a MH is located at a sewer junction:
Outlet sewer invert elevation is fixed by the invert level of the lowest inlet sewer

Sewer junction

(2) If the pipe size increases:

The crowns of the two pipes must be matched at the MH
To avoid the backing up of WW in to the smaller pipe.
An example: Increase in size from 450 mm 750 mm at MH 2
450 mm dia.
750 mm dia.

16.23 m
16.23 m +0.45 m 15.93 m
-(0.0009 m/m)x(707 m)
-0.75 m
=15.29 m
=15.93 m
Example of a Profile of a Sewer Line
 Small Bore Sewer System

They are designed to carry only the liquid part of the domestic sewage generated
for off-site treatment or disposal

Solids are separated at a septic tank or at the

aqua-privies before the sewage reaches the
sewers

The advantages:
Sewer a) The sewer can have less velocity and flowrate
Septic Tank or as it receives only settled wastewater
interceptor tank b) Economic as it requires less cost of
excavation, material and treatment
c) Upgradation from on-site treatment system to
conventional treatment system is easily done
d) Maintenance of strict sewer gradients is not
required as there is no self-cleansing velocity
requirement

Minimum diameter of the sewer pipes is recommended to be 100 mm

 Small Bore Sewer System

The small bore sewer system outfall can be any of the following:
a)The conventional sewer system
b) Waste stabilization ponds
c) Any other low cost treatment systems followed by fish ponds or land-
based disposal with precautions

Limitations:
a) Interceptor tank requires periodical cleaning and disposal of solids
b) Any illegal connection without any interceptor tank shall ruin the
system. So, strict vigilance is required.
 Shallow Sewer System

These are modification of surface drain with covers and consist of a network of
pipework laid in the areas away from the places where heavy sewage loads are
expected.

Pipes are laid in flat gradients following the natural slope of the ground. The
minimum depth is 0.4 m
System contains:
a) House connections
b) Inspection
chambers
c) Laterals
d) Street-collector
sewers
e) Pumping stations

The laterals are minimum diameter 100 mm

The street collectors have a minimum diameter of 150 mm
 Shallow Sewer System

Suitability of the system:

1. High density habitats such as slums or squatter settlements ( with population

density more than 170 per hectre)
2. Ground-condition is adverse and on-site disposal is not possible
3. Sewage has to be disposed of and minimum water consumption is 25 lpcd.

Limitations:
a) It is suitable when suitable ground slope is available
b) Unless flushed out at peak flowrates, there is a possibility of solids
deposition if there is not enough ground slope available
c) May require frequent cleaning