EE Comms Signal Processing 1015

FEReviewCourse CommunicationsandSignalProcessing
FEReviewCourse
Communicationsand
SignalProcessing
FEEERC2015ProfessionalPublications,Inc.
ProfessionalPublications,Inc. 1
CommunicationsandSignalProcessing
LessonOverview
SignalTheory DifferenceEquations
SignalTheory zTransforms
SignalChannels DiscreteImpulseResponse
FourierTransforms AnalogSignalModulation
Convolution Demodulation
SignalEnergyandPower DiscreteSignalSamplingand
Modulation
SystemTypes
Sampling
Digital(Discrete)SignalProcessing
Filters
FEEERC2015ProfessionalPublications,Inc. 2
LessonOverview
Trigonometry Transient,Resonant,andFilterCircuits
FourierSeries Filters
DiscreteMathematics MeasurementandInstrumentation
DifferenceEquations Sampling
TransformsandConvolutionTheory
FourierTransforms
zTransforms
LearningObjectives
Youwilllearn
aboutcommunicationsandfrequency tocalculatetheconvolutionintegralof
multiplexing adiscretefunctionwithafilter
impulseresponse
tocalculateFourierseriesexpansions
tocalculatetheconvolutionintegralof
aboutFouriertransforms
twodiscretefunctionsgraphically
tocalculateFouriertransforms
tocalculatewaveformenergywith
tousetheconvolutionintegraltotake Parsevals theorem
inverseLaplacetransforms
aboutsystemtypes
tocalculatetheconvolutionintegral
graphically
LearningObjectives
Youwilllearn
tocalculatedifferenceequations tocalculatefrequencymodulation
instantaneousfrequency
tosolvedifferenceequationswithz
transforms tocalculatethemodulationindexof
frequencymodulation
tocalculatediscretesystem
convolutionwithztransforms tocalculatefrequencymodulation
rangeoffrequencies
aboutanalogsignalmodulation
aboutanalogsignaldemodulation
tocalculateamplitudemodulation
index aboutsignalsampling
aboutsignalfiltering
PrerequisiteKnowledge
Youshouldalreadybefamiliarwith
engineeringmathematics
controlsystems
SignalTheory
communicationsystem
includessource,channel,andreceiver
Thiscombinationiscalledalink.
communicationsystem
Purposeistotransmitsetofdata,{I},
fromasource,overachannel,toa
receiver.
{I} istypicallyintheformofelectric
signalscontrolledbysender.
communicationsystemwithcodinganddecoding
SignalTheory
frequencymultiplexing
sendingtwoormoresignalsoversame
channelusingdifferentfrequencybands
alsocalledfrequencydivision
multiplexing (FDM)
usedbyTV,radiostations,andsoon
guardslot:anfrequencyrangeleft
unusedbetweentheusedfrequencies
topreventoverlapofsignals
SignalTheory
frequencymultiplexing(continued)
TVstationsbroadcastvideoandaudio
onseparatecarriers.
Stereoradioisbroadcastwithsum
anddifferencechannels.
monauralreceiverusesonlysum
stereoreceiverreconstructs left
andrightchannels
SignalChannels
communicationschannel
anyphysicalmediumthroughwhicha simplexchannel:cantransmitinone
signalistransmitted,suchas directiononly
copperwire halfduplexchannel:cantransmitin
eitherdirection,butnot
fiberopticcable
simultaneously
air
fullduplexchannel:cantransmitin
bothdirectionsatonce(usually
combinestwosimplexchannels)
FourierSeries
Fourieranalysis
canbeusedtoexpressacomplicated Theprocessoffindingthisseriesof
functionintermsoflesscomplicatedsine sinusoidaltermsisFourieranalysis.
andcosinewaves
ManyFourierseriesconvergerapidly,
Anyperiodicwaveformcanbe soafinitenumberoftermsoftengives
expressedasthesumofaninfinite acloseenoughapproximationfor
seriesofsinusoidalwaveforms(a practicalpurposes.
Fourierseries).
FourierSeries
Fourierseries
Theseriesofsinusoidaltermsthatsums
toaperiodicfunctionf (t)is
Thenaturalfrequencyofthefunction,
0,isrelatedtothefunctionsperiod,T,
bytheequation
FourierSeries
Fourierseries(continued)
Theterma0 istheaveragevalueoff (t) ThemainobjectofaFourieranalysisisto
andcanoftenbefoundbyinspection. findtheFouriercoefficients,an andbn.
an =0foranoddfunction:f (t) =f (t)

bn =0foranevenfunction:f (t)=f (t)
Example:FourierSeries
WhataretheFouriercoefficientsofthe
periodicfunctionthatrepeatsf (t)?
0 5 t 2.5

f t 5 2.5 t 2.5

0 2.5 t 5
WhataretheFouriercoefficientsofthe Solution
a0 istheaveragevalueofthefunction;
0 5 t 2.5 frominspection,a0 is2.5.

f t 5 2.5 t 2.5 UseEq.5.46todeterminean.

0 2.5 t 5 T
a n 2 T f t cos n 0 t dt
0
2 2.5 2 n

10 2.5
5 cos
10
t dt
10 n
sin
n 5
WhataretheFouriercoefficientsofthe Solution
UseEq.5.47todeterminebn.
0 5 t 2.5 T
bn 2 T f t sin n 0 t dt

f t 5 2.5 t 2.5
0
2 2.5 2 n
10 2.5
5 sin t dt
0 2.5 t 5 10
5 n n
cos cos
n 5 5
0
FourierTransforms
Fouriertransform
changesafunctionoftime,f (t),toa Thewaveformmaybeperiodicor
functionoffrequency,F() nonperiodic.
allows spectralcontentofawaveform Ifperiodic,spectralcontentwillbe
tobeanalyzedinfrequencydomain linesinthefrequencydomain.
(thatis,asequivalentcontentofsine
Ifnonperiodic, spectralcontentwillbe
andcosinewaves)
adistributioninthefrequency
domain.
FourierTransforms
Fouriertransform(continued)
Anyarbitrarynonperiodicsignal,f (t),can Equation9.3givesacommonvariation.
berepresentedasacontinuoussumof TheFouriertransformofasignal,x(t),is
complexexponentials(sinesandcosines)
bymeansoftheFouriertransform,
Eq.9.1.
FourierTransforms
Fouriertransform(continued)
Theinversetransform,Eq.9.2,derives ThevariationinEq.9.4derivesthesignal
thetimedomainfunctionf (t)fromthe x(t)fromtheFouriertransformX ( f ).
FouriertransformF().
FourierTransforms
timedomain frequencydomain
impulse(delta)functionto
distributionacrossallfrequency
boxcartosyncfunction
sinewavetospectrallines
combfunctiontocombfunction
FourierTransforms
Fouriertransformpairs
solvedFourierintegralidentitiesusedtosolvetransformsforcomplicatedfunctions
FourierTransforms
FourierTransforms
Manipulationisallowedinordertousethe
transformpairs.
timedomainfunctionsmanipulatedto
simulatetransformpair
frequencydomainfunctions
manipulatedtosimulateinverse
transformpair
manipulationbyconvolutionintegral

x t h t x h t d

h t x t h x t d

FourierTransforms
evenandoddfunctions
functionf iseven(symmetric)when functionf isodd(antisymmetric)when
f ( x) f ( x) f ( x) f ( x)
sinefunctionisanoddfunction cosinefunctionisanevenfunction
FourierTransforms
evenandoddfunctions(continued)
Theintegral(orsummation)ofthe TheFouriertransformofaneven
productofanevenfunctionandan functioniseven.
oddfunctioniszero.
TheFouriertransformofanodd
TheFouriertransformofarealeven functionisodd.
functionisreal.
TheFouriertransformofarealodd
functionisimaginary.
Example:FourierTransforms
FindtheFouriertransformofthe
rectangularpulsesignaldefinedby
1 t 3 ms
x t
0 t 3 ms
(A) 3 ms sinc f 3 ms
(B) 6 ms sinc f 3 ms
(C) 6 ms sinc f 6 ms
6 ms sinc f 6 ms
(D)
f
FindtheFouriertransformofthe Solution1
Thisproblemcanbesolvedwithdirect
1 t 3 ms integration.
x t 3 ms
0 t 3 ms X f x t e j t dt
3 ms
e j t dt
(A) 3 ms sinc f 3 ms
1

j
e j 3 ms e j 3 ms
(B) 6 ms sinc f 3 ms sin 3 ms

2

(C) 6 ms sinc f 6 ms 6 ms
sin 3 ms

3 ms
6 ms sinc f 6 ms 6 ms sinc f 6 ms
(D)
f Theansweris(C).
Theproblemcanalsobesolved
1 t 3 ms recognizingthat
x t
0 t 3 ms
t
(A) 3 ms sinc f 3 ms x(t)
6 ms
(B) 6 ms sinc f 3 ms Thenapplythetransformpair.
(C) 6 ms sinc f 6 ms t
sinc f 6 ms sinc f 6 ms
6 ms sinc f 6 ms
(D)
f Theansweris(C).
Anotherwaytosolvetheproblemisto
1 t 3 ms breakthepulseintotwounitstepsand
x t
0 t 3 ms applythetransformpair.

(A) 3 ms sinc f 3 ms t
sin
2 sinc f
u t u t rrect
2 2
(B) 6 ms sinc f 3 ms
2

6 ms sinc f 6 ms
(C) 6 ms sinc f 6 ms
Theansweris(C).
6 ms sinc f 6 ms
(D)
f
Poll:FourierTransforms
Whichofthefollowingistrue?
(A)TheFouriertransformofarealeven
functionisimaginary.
(B)TheFouriertransformofarealodd
functionisreal.
(C)TheFouriertransformofaneven
functionisodd.
(D)TheFouriertransformofanodd
functionisodd.
Poll:FourierTransforms
Whichofthefollowingistrue? Solution
(A)TheFouriertransformofarealeven TheFouriertransformofanoddfunctionis
functionisimaginary. odd.
(B)TheFouriertransformofarealodd Theansweris(D).
functionisreal.
(C)TheFouriertransformofaneven
functionisodd.
(D)TheFouriertransformofanodd
functionisodd.
Convolution
convolution
mathematicaloperationthecanbeused
tomodelorpredictresultsofpassinga
signalthroughadevice
allowsdeterminationofresponseofa
linearsystemtoanyinputbasedon
thesystemsimpulseresponse
canbeperformedonbothcontinuous
anddiscretetimesignals
Convolution
impulseresponse,h(t)
theresponseofalineartimeinvariant Onceh(t) isknown,theresponse,y(t),
systemwithtransferfunctionH(s)toan toanyinputsignal,x(t),canbefound
impulse byconvolvingtheinputsignalwith
h(t):
y t h t x t
h(t) canalsobeusedtofindthe
inverseLaplacetransformfora
functionnotinthetableoftransform
pairs.
Example:Convolution
Usetheconvolutionintegraltofindthe
inverseLaplacetransformof
3
F s
s2 s2 9
1
(A) sin 3t
9
1 1
(B) t cos 3t sin 3t
3 9
t sin 3t
(C)
3
3t sin 3t
(D)
9
Example:Convolution
Usetheconvolutionintegraltofindthe Solution
F(s) canbefactoredas
3
F s 2 2 1 3
s s 9 F s F1 s F2 s 2 2
s s 9
1
(A) sin 3t AstheinversetransformsofF1(s) and
9
F2(s) aref1(t) = t andf2(t) = sin3t,
1 1
(B) t cos 3t sin 3t respectively,theconvolutionintegralis
3 9
t
t sin 3t f t t sin 3 d
(C) 0
3 t
t sin 3 sin 3 d
3t sin 3t 0
(D) t t
9 t sin 3 d sin 3 d
0 0
Example:Convolution
Usetheconvolutionintegraltofindthe Solution(continued)
Expandthesecondintegralusing
3
F s 2 2 integrationbyparts
s s 9 t
1 1 1
1 f t t cos 3 cos 3 sin 3
(A) sin 3t 3 3 9
9 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
t cos 3t sin 3t t cos 3t t t cos 3t 0 sin 3t 0
(B) 3 3 3 9
3 9
1 1
t sin 3t t sin 3t
(C) 3 9
3
3t sin 3t
3t sin 3t
(D) 9
9
Theansweris(D).
Convolution
Convolutioncanbeperformedgraphically
asfollows:
1) Fliponeofthesignalsaroundthe0axis
togetf ().
2) Shiftthef (t ) signaltowardtheother
andnotethepointwheretheymeet.
3) Oncetheymeet,beginintegratingthe
twosignals.
4) Continueintegratingastheysweeppast
eachothertoformtheresultant.
Example:Convolution
Findtheconvolution,y(t), ofthetwo
functionsh(t) andx(t) shown.Both
functionshaveunityamplitude.
y (t ) h(t ) x(t )
Example:Convolution
Findtheconvolution,y(t), ofthetwo Solution
First,drawx().
y (t ) h(t ) x(t )
Next,thefunctionx(t ) isshiftedforall
valuesoft,startingfrom andmultiply
thefunctionbyh(t).
Example:Convolution
Findtheconvolution,y(t), ofthetwo Solution(continued)
Nothinginterestinghappensuntilt =4,then
thefunctionsstarttooverlap.
y (t ) h(t ) x(t )
Example:Convolution
Solution(continued)
Theareaoftheoverlapistheconvolution
andtheareaincreasesastheoverlap
increasesuntilt =6inthex function,when
theentireareaofx iswithinh.
Theareastaysconstantat2untilt =9,then
decreasesuntilt =11,whenthereisno
overlapandfromthereuntilt =,thereis
nofurtheroverlap.
y(t) isshownatright.
Convolution
Convolutioncanbeperformedon
discretetimesignalsasoncontinuous
signals.Theconvolutionsummationis
Fordiscretetimesignals,t isreplaced
byn toindicatediscretepointsin
time.
Convolution
x(n) showncanberepresentedbya
sequenceoftermsinthefollowingform:
x(4) = 1, x(3) = 2, x(2) = 2,
x(1) = 3, x(0) = 1
Convolution
Thediscretetimeconvolutionofx(n) 2) Foreachvalueofn,computethe
withanothersignalcanbeperformed summationproductthroughoutthe
numericallyasfollows: entireselectedrangeofk.Each
summationshouldproduceasingle
1) Selectthevaluesofk forwhichthe
number.
summationwillbeperformed.Thevalues
ofk shouldrangeacrossthevaluesofthe 3) Theresultingsequenceofnumbersis
functionsbutnotbeyond. thediscretetimeconvolution.
Example:Convolution
Example:Convolution
Solution
Example:Convolution
Solution(continued)
Example:Convolution
Convolveh(n) withx(n).
Example:Convolution
Solution
Reflectx(n) abouttheyaxis.Shiftthroughincrements.Multiplyandadd.
4 1 4 3 1 4 2 5
Example:Convolution
Solution(continued)
Continuingthesameprocedure
2 1 3 2 4 1 8 1 1 2 2 3 1 6 1 2 2 1 4 1 1 1
SignalEnergyandPower
Parsevals theorem TheaveragepowerwithintheDC
componentplusthefirstN harmonicsis
statesthatthetotalenergyinasignalis
n N n N
Xn X 2 Xn
2 2
2 P 2
x t dt X f df
2
E
0
n N n 0

ForaperiodicfunctionwithFourier Thetotalaveragepowerisgivenby
transform, Parsevals theorem

x t Xe jn 2 f 0t
1 t 0 T0 n

2 2
n
n
P x(t ) dt Xn
T0 t0
n
Example:SignalEnergyandPower
Findtheenergyinthetimedomain
functionthathasthefollowingfrequency
domainfunction.
1
F ( )
j 0.5
(A)0
(B)1
(C)10
(D)
Findtheenergyinthetimedomain Solution
UseParsevals theorem.
domainfunction.
1 2
F ( )
x t dt X f df
2
j 0.5 E

(A)0
2 2
1 1
Xf
2

(B)1 j 0.5 0.5
2 2
(C)10 1
2
0.52
(D)
1 1
E X f df
2
2 2 a 2
d

Findtheenergyinthetimedomain Solution(continued)
Bysymmetry
domainfunction.
1 1 1 1
F ( )
j 0.5 E
0 2 a2
d
a
arctan
a
(A)0 1

2a
(B)1
1

(C)10 2 0.5
(D) 1
Theansweris(B).
SystemTypes
linearsystem timeinvariantsystem
Principlesofsuperpositionandscaling Ashiftedinputsignalintimeproducesan
apply. outputsignalshiftedbythesameamount
oftime.
A systemF actsonsignalssothat
x1 (t ) F y1 (t ) x2 (t ) F y2 (t ) A systemF actsonsignalssothat
x(t ) F y (t )
Thesystemislinearif
c1 x1 (t ) c2 x2 (t ) F c1 y1 (t ) c2 y2 (t ) Thesystemistimeinvariantif
x(t T ) F y (t T )
SystemTypes
lineartimeinvariant(LTI)system systemoutput
asystemthatisbothlinearandtime Theconvolutionoftheinputandthe
invariant timedomainequivalentofthesystems
Laplacetransferfunctionistheoutput
IfanLTIsysteminputisaunitimpulse
(zeroduration,amplitudeof1),then x(t ) F ( s ) x(t ) f (t )
theoutputisthetimedomain
equivalentofthesystemsLaplace
transferfunction.
(0) F ( s ) f (t )
SystemTypes
discretetimesystems linearity
Signalsareonlydefinedatdiscrete aswithtimecontinuoussystems,
samplepoints.
x1 (k ) F y1 (k ) x2 ( k ) F y 2 ( k )
Discretepointsareoftengiventhe
symbolk ratherthant fordiscrete c1 x1 (k ) c2 x2 (k ) F c1 y1 (k ) c2 y2 (k )
time.
timeinvariance
x(k ) F y (k )
x(k N ) F y (k N )
discretetimelineartimeinvariant systemoutput
(DTLTI)systems
convolutionofinputandtimedomain
bothlinearandtimeinvariant equivalentofthesystemsLaplace
transferfunctionistheoutput
IfanLTIsysteminputisaunitimpulse
(zeroduration,amplitudeof1)the x(k ) F ( z ) x(k ) f (k )
outputisthetimedomainequivalent
ofthesystemsztransformtransfer
function
(0) F ( z ) f (k )
DifferenceEquations
firstorderdifferenceequation
usedformodelingdiscretesystemsin Themostfamiliardifferenceequations
whichthereisanoutputthatdependson areinengineeringeconomics.
theinputinafinitenumberofsteps
Alldiscountfactorsfordiscrete
firstorderlineardifferenceequation: compoundingandthefactortables
arenothingmorethansolved
differenceequations.
DifferenceEquations
firstorderdifferenceequation
(continued)
Thebalanceonaloanisanexampleof P[k]: balanceafterkth period
afirstorderdifferenceequation.
P[k1]: balanceafter(k1)th period
Theprincipleisincreasedatdiscrete
intervalsbytheinterestanddecreased i: interestrate
bythepayment,sothedifference A: paymentmadeatendofkth period
equationforaloanbalanceis
P k 1 i P k 1 A
DifferenceEquations
Differenceequationsaretodiscrete Theycanbeusefulinmodeling
systemswhatdifferentialequationsare
computervariablesinaloop
tocontinuoussystems.
sequentialcircuits
economicsituations
recursiveprocesses
systemswithtimedelays
DifferenceEquations
secondorderlineardifferenceequation
Thekth outputisbasedonthetwo
previousoutputs,the(k 1)th
and(k 2)th outputs.
Problemsinvolvingdifference
equationsareoftenmosteasilysolved
byworkingbackwardfromthe
possibleanswers.
Example:DifferenceEquations
Whatisthesolutiontothislinear
differenceequation?
y[ k 1] 15 y k
15
(A) y[ k ]
1 15 k
15 k
(B) y[ k ]
16
(C) y[ k ] C 15 k C is a constant
(D) y[ k ] 15 k
Example:DifferenceEquations
Whatisthesolutiontothislinear Solution
differenceequation?
Tryoption(D)bypluggingina[k +1]for
y[ k 1] 15 y k everyk.
15 y[ k 1] 15 k 1
(A) y[ k ]
1 15 k
15 15 k
15 k
(B) y[ k ] 15 y k
16
(C) y[ k ] C 15 k C is a constant Theansweris(D)
(D) y[ k ] 15 k
DifferenceEquations
Foradiscretetime,linear,time Iftheinitialconditionsarezero,the
invariant(DTLTI)system,thestateof differenceequationcanbeusedto
thesystemisalinearcombinationof determinethetransferfunction.
previousstates.
Thetransferfunctioninthezdomainis
Thefunctionsx[n]andy[n]represent
thediscreteinputsanddiscrete
outputs,respectively.
zTransforms
solvingdifferenceequationswithz
transforms
Differenceequationscanbesolvedbya taketheinversetransform
methodsimilartothatforLaplace
transforms.
expandterms
substituteinterms(y[0],y[1],y[1],
etc.) F e j
x k e j k
k
manipulateintoaformthathasan
inversetransform
zTransforms
Table9.5zTransformPairs
Example: zTransforms
Solvethelineardifferenceequation
shown,giventhaty[0]=1,usingthez
transform.
y[ k 1] 15 y k
15
(A) y[ k ]
1 15 k
15 k
(B) y[ k ]
16
(D) y[ k ] 15 k
Solvethelineardifferenceequation Solution
shown,giventhaty(0)=1,usingthez
Converttostandardform.
transform.
y[ k 1] 15 y k y [ k 1] 15 y [ k ] 0
15 Taketheztransform.
(A) y[ k ]
1 15 k zY z zy 0 15Y z 0
15 k
(B) y[ k ] zY z z 1 15Y z 0
16
Y z z 15 z
(D) y[ k ] 15 k
Solvethelineardifferenceequation Solution
shown,giventhaty(0)=1,usingthez
RearrangetosolveforY(z).
transform.
y[ k 1] 15 y k Y z z 15 z
15 z 1
(A) y[ k ] Y z
1 15 k z 15 1 15 z 1
15 k
(B) y[ k ] Taketheinversetransform.
16
y k 15k
(C) y[ k ] C 15 k
C is a constant
Theansweris(D).
(D) y[ k ] 15 k
Convolveh(n) withx(n) using
ztransforms.
Convolveh(n) withx(n) using Solution
ztransforms.
X ( z ) 4 z 1 3 z 2 2 z 3 z 4
H ( z ) z 1 2 z 2 z 3
Multiplytoobtaintheoutput, y(n).
Y z X z H z
4 z 2 5 z 3 8 z 4 6 z 5 4 z 6 z 7
y n 4 n 2 5 n 3 8 n 4
6 n 5 4 n 6 n 7
Poll:DiscreteImpulseResponse
Discretetimesystemsareanalogousto (D)convolutionsolvesdifference
timecontinuoussystemsinallthe equationsindiscretetimesystems
followingwaysEXCEPT anddifferentialequationsin
(A)theztransformindiscretetime continuoustimesystems
systemsisanalogoustotheFourier
seriesincontinuoustimesystems
(B)differenceequationsindiscretetime
systemsareanalogoustodifferential
equationsincontinuoustimesystems
(C)theztransformindiscretetime
systemsisanalogoustotheLaplace
transformincontinuoustimesystems
Poll:DiscreteImpulseResponse
Discretetimesystemsareanalogousto (D)convolutionsolvesdifference
timecontinuoussystemsinallthe equationsindiscretetimesystems
followingwaysEXCEPT anddifferentialequationsin
(A)theztransformindiscretetime continuoustimesystems
systemsisanalogoustotheFourier
seriesincontinuoustimesystems
(B)differenceequationsindiscretetime Solution
systemsareanalogoustodifferential
equationsincontinuoustimesystems TheFourierseriesincontinuoustime
systemshasnoanalogindiscretetime
(C)theztransformindiscretetime
systems.
systemsisanalogoustotheLaplace
transformincontinuoustimesystems Theansweris(A).
DiscreteImpulseResponse
finiteimpulseresponse(FIR)filter infiniteimpulseresponse(IIR)filter
whenexposedtoaunitimpulseinput, whenexposedtoaunitimpulseinput,
hasfinitenumberofresponses hasinfinitenumberofresponses
ztransformofaFIRfilter:
Example:DiscreteImpulseResponse
Forthecausallineartimeinvariant
systemsatisfyingthedifferenceequation
shown,theimpulseresponse,h[n],is
y n x n 2 x n 2 x n 3
(A) n 1 2 n 2 n 3
(B) n 0 2 n 2 n 3
(C) 2 n 0 n 2 n 3
(D) n 0 2 n 2 3 n 3
Example:DiscreteImpulseResponse
Forthecausallineartimeinvariant Solution
systemsatisfyingthedifferenceequation Thecoefficientsofthedifference
shown,theimpulseresponse,h[n],is equationare
y n x n 2 x n 2 x n 3 y n x n 2 x n 2 x n 3
(A) n 1 2 n 2 n 3 a0 1 a1 0 a2 2 a3 1
Theimpulseresponseis
(B) n 0 2 n 2 n 3 k
h n ai n i 1 n 0 0 n 1
(C) 2 n 0 n 2 n 3 i 0
2 n 2 1 n 3
(D) n 0 2 n 2 3 n 3
n 0 2 n 2 n 3
Theansweris(B).
AnalogSignalModulation
modulation demodulation
processthataninformationsignalis processforreconstructingoriginal
putthroughtoincreaseitsfrequency informationfromreceivedmodulated
signal
combininginformationsignalwitha
carrierfrequencysothatmodulated
signalisatafrequencycompatible
withthechannelfortransmission
modulationprocess
(a)Informationsignalisatbaseband
frequency.
(b)CarriersignalisatRFfrequencyof
transmission.
(c)Basebandandcarrieraremultiplied
togetherinaprocesscallingmixing,and
theresultantsignalistransmitted
throughthechannel.
modulationprocess(continued)
Thesourcesignalisusuallyconverted
intoabasebandwaveformfor
transmission.
Onlysimpleanalogsystemsthatdirectly
modulatethecarrierdonotusea
baseband.
Themodulatortranslatesthebaseband
uptoanRFfrequencyfortransmission.
commonformsofmodulation/demodulation
Figure34.6MethodsofModulation
amplitudemodulation(AM)
carrierwavecanbemodeledasa
simplesinusoid:
x AM t AC A m t cos 2 f c t
AC 1 amn t cos 2 f c t
Ac: carrieramplitude
f :carrierfrequency
modulationindexis
1
a
A
amplitudemodulation(continued)
Themodulationindexindicateshow
muchthecarriervariesaboveor
belowitsunmodulatedlevel,andis
typicallyexpressedasapercentage.
Amplitudemodulationproducessignal
withthepowerinthecarrierandtwo
adjacentsidebands.
Thesidebandsoccuratthe
frequencies
fc fm fc fm
overmodulation
Thenormalizedmessageis Eachtimethemodulationchangessign,
m(t ) themodulatedsignalshiftsphaseby
mn (t ) radians.
max m(t )
Ifthemodulationindexisgreaterthanor
Ifthemodulationchangessignatany equalto1,thenthesignalis
time,themodulatedsignalissaidtobe overmodulated.
overmodulated.
Example:AnalogSignalModulation
AnAMsignalhastheform
B
smod t 50 cos c t cos c t mod
2
B
cos c t mod
2
Mostnearly,whatisthemaximumvalue
ofB thatwillnotproducean
overmodulatedsignal?
(A)25 (B)50
(C)75 (D)100
AnAMsignalhastheform Solution
B
smod t 50 cos c t cos c t mod Thesignalwillbeovermodulatedifthe
2
B
modulationamplitudeisgreaterthanthe
cos c t mod carrier,sothemaximumvalueoccurs
2
whenallthecosinesareequalto1.
Mostnearly,whatisthemaximumvalue
B B
ofB thatwillnotproducean smod t 50 cos c t cos c t mod cos c t mod
2 2
overmodulatedsignal? B B
50
(A)25 (B)50 2 2
B 50
(C)75 (D)100
Theansweris(B).
totalpowerinthesignal efficiency,
a2 thepercentageofthetotaltransmitted
Pt Pcarrier 1 powerthatcontainsthemessage
2
a isthemodulationindex.
InEq.34.27,themeansquaredvalueor
normalizedaveragepowerinmn(t) is
ForanAMsignalxAM(t) with
modulationm(t) thathasLaplace
transformM(f) andM(f) = 0 for |f| > W,
the bandwidthis2W.
InAM,theupperandlowersidebands
aresymmetric.
Requiredbandwidthcanbereducedby
transmittingonlyonesideband(half
thebandwidth)calledsinglesideband
AM(SSBAM).
singlesidebandAM(SSBAM)
SinglesidebandAMcanbegenerated Iftherearenolowfrequenciesof
byfilteringouttheundesired interest,filteringcanworkwell(as
sideband. withvoicecommunication).
Itcanbedifficulttoimplement Ifsomeportionofthecarrieris
becausethefiltersneedsharp retainedafterfiltering,theSSBAMis
corners,especiallywhenthesignalhas calledvestigial SSB.
lowfrequencycontent.
Thecarrieraidsindemodulation.
Imperfectlyremovedsidebandresults
indistortion.
singlesidebandAM(continued)
lowersidebandtransformedinto Ineithercase,ifM(f) = 0 for |f| > W,
frequencydomain: thenbandwidthisW.
uppersidebandtransformedinto
frequencydomain:
doublesideband,suppressedcarrier Figure34.9DoubleSidebandSuppressedCarrier
modulation(DSB)
similartoAMsignal,butcarriersignal
suppressed
allowsmorepowertobeusedto
transmitinformationsincethecarrier
ofanAMsignalgoesalongfortheride
carrieramplitudeiszero,soA =0
doublesideband,suppressedcarrier
modulation(continued)
ForanAMsignalxAM(t) with ACostasloop isa phaselocked
modulationm(t) thathasLaplace loop basedcircuitoftenusedfor
transformM(f) andM(f) = 0 for|f| > demodulatingDSB.
W,the bandwidthis2W.
DSBsignalsmustbedemodulated
withasynchronousdemodulator.
phaseanglemodulation
variestheangleofthewaveformin Bothamplitude,AC,andcarrier
proportiontotheamplitudeofthe frequency,fC,mustremainconstant,or
modulatingsignal elseinformationcontentmaybe
twotypes: distortedorevenlost.
frequencymodulation(FM) Equation34.32canalsobewritten:
phasemodulation(PM) xAng t AC cos t
generalformforanglemodulation:
informationcontentinphase
deviationfunction(t)
instantaneousfrequency instantaneousphase
frequencyofapuresinusoidattimet thephaseoffunctionxAng(t) ataninstant
oftime
i t 2 f c t t [in rad]
frequencydeviation
differencebetweeninstantaneous
frequencyandfrequencyofthecarrier
Mostnearly,whattheinstantaneous
frequencyofthefollowingfunction?

10 cos 200 t
3
(A)20Hz
(B)50Hz
(C)100Hz
(D)200Hz
Mostnearly,whattheinstantaneous Solution
frequencyofthefollowingfunction? d d
i t i t 2 fC t
dt dt
10 cos 200 t
3 t 200 t
3
(A)20Hz d t d
i 200 t 200
(B)50Hz dt dt 3
200
(C)100Hz f 100 Hz
2 2
(D)200Hz
Theansweris(C).
Examples:AnalogSignalModulation
Mostnearly,whattheinstantaneous
frequencyofthefollowingfunctionat
timet =0?
10 cos 200 t t 2
(A)20Hz
(B)50Hz
(C)100Hz
(D)200Hz
Mostnearly,whattheinstantaneous Solution
frequencyofthefollowingfunctionat
timet =0? t 200 t t 2
10 cos 200 t t 2
d
i t t 200 2 t
dt
(A)20Hz 200
f 100 Hz
(B)50Hz
t 0
2 2
Theansweris(C).
(C)100Hz
(D)200Hz
phasemodulation(PM) deviationindex
carrierwaveanglechangedinproportion
toamplitudeofmodulatingsignal
mod
phasedeviation:
Inphasemodulation,peakfrequency
deviationisproportionaltoamplitude
kP:phasedeviationconstantinradians ofmodulatingsignalandmodulating
perunitofm(t) signalfrequency
timedomainrelationforphase PMrequiresahigherbandwidththan
modulation: pureFMmodulation.
xPM t AC cos 2 f C t k P m t
frequencymodulation(FM)
Theinstantaneousfrequency instantaneousphase
deviationofthecarrierwavevariesin
proportiontoamplitudeofthe
modulatingsignal. timeexpressionfortheFMsignal:
Thedeviationis t
xFM t A cos C t k f m d

d modulationindex isratioofmaximum
k f m t frequencydeviationtomodulating
dt
frequency:
kf isthefrequencydeviationconstant
inradianspersecondperunitofm(t). mFM
mod
frequencydeviationratio Carsonsrule
IfthemessageisnarrowbandwidthFM
(D << 1),thentheapproximate
bandwidth(containing98%ofpower)is
IfthemessageiswidebandwidthFM
(D > 1), thentheapproximatebandwidth
(containing98%ofpower)is
Wis themessagebandwidth.
Asignalofvm(t) =sin(2 1000t) frequency
modulatesacarrierof vc(t) =
sin(2 500,000t). Thefrequencydeviation
ofthecarrieris7000Hz. Mostnearly,what
isthemodulationindex?
(A)5
(B)7
(C)8
(D)10
Asignalofvm(t) =sin(2 1000t) frequency Solution
modulatesacarrierof vc(t) =
Themodulationindexistheratioof
sin(2 500,000t).Thefrequencydeviation
maximumfrequencydeviationto
ofthecarrieris7000Hz. Mostnearly,what
modulatingfrequency.
isthemodulationindex?
7000 Hz
(A)5 mFM 7
mod 1000 Hz
(B)7
Theansweris(B).
(C)8
(D)10
AnFMtransmitterhasacarrierfrequency
of100MHzandamodulationindexof5.
Bandlimitedaudioof0kHzto15kHz
modulatesthetransmitter.Mostnearly,
whatistherangeoffrequenciesofthe
transmittedsignal?
(A)25,000Hzto175,000Hz
(B)25,000Hzto225,000Hz
(C)50,000Hzto150,000Hz
(D)50,000Hzto200,000Hz
AnFMtransmitterhasacarrierfrequency Solution
of100MHzandamodulationindexof5.
Usetheformulaforthemodulationindex.
Bandlimitedaudioof0kHzto15kHz

modulatesthetransmitter.Mostnearly, mFM
whatistherangeoffrequenciesofthe mod
transmittedsignal? mFMmod 5 15, 000 Hz
(A)25,000Hzto175,000Hz 75, 000 Hz
(B)25,000Hzto225,000Hz Therangeofoutputfrequenciesis
100,000Hz 75,000Hz.
(C)50,000Hzto150,000Hz
Theansweris(A).
(D)50,000Hzto200,000Hz
Poll:AnalogSignalModulation
WhichofthefollowingisNOTatypeof
analogamplitudesignalmodulation?
(A)singlesideband
(B)doublesideband
(C)vestigialdoublesideband
(D)vestigialsinglesideband
Poll:AnalogSignalModulation
WhichofthefollowingisNOTatypeof Solution
analogamplitudesignalmodulation?
Investigialamplitudemodulation,oneof
(A)singlesideband thesidebandsisfilteredoutwhile
retainingaportionofthecarrier
(B)doublesideband
frequency.Forthisreasonthereare
(C)vestigialdoublesideband neverdualsidebandsinvestigialAM,
(D)vestigialsinglesideband Theansweris(C).
Demodulation
demodulator
replicatesthebasebandsignalexceptfor
distortionandnoiseintroducedbythe
channel
Demodulation
AMdemodulation
DemodulatingofAMcanbedone
withanenvelopedetectorfollowed
byalowpassfilter.
Anidealenvelopedetectorproduces
asignalproportionaltotheenvelope
ofthemodulatedsignal.
Inpractice,envelopedetectorsare
rectifiercircuitswithlongtime
constants.
Demodulation
AMdemodulation
DemodulatingofAMcanalsobe
donewithacoherentdemodulator
(calledphasecoherentorphase
synchronizeddemodulation).
SSBsignalscanbedemodulatedwith
asynchronousdemodulatororby
carrierreinsertionandenvelope
detection.
Example:Demodulation
AnAMradiostationisbroadcastingat
30 kWand85%modulation.Mostnearly,
whatisthepowerin thesidebands?
(A)8kW
(B)10kW
(C)20kW
(D)30kW
AnAMradiostationisbroadcastingat Solution
Theequationforthetotaltransmitted
poweris
(A)8kW
a2
(B)10kW Pt Pcarrier 1
2
(C)20kW
Pt isthetotaltransmittedpowerinthe
(D)30kW sidebandsandcarrier,Pcarrier isthecarrier
power,anda isthemodulationamplitude,
whichisequalto0.85.Also,Pt = Pcarrier +
PS,wherePS isthepowerinthesidebands.
AnAMradiostationisbroadcastingat Solution(continued)
Therefore,
a2 0.85 2
(A)8kW 30 kW Pcarrier 1 Pcarrier 1
2 2

(B)10kW 1.36 Pcarrier
(C)20kW 30 kW
Pcarrier 22 kW
1.36
(D)30kW PS Pt Pcarrier 30 kW 22 kW
8 kW
Theansweris(A).
Demodulation
FMandPMdemodulation
Frequencymodulationcanbe Inphasemodulation,thefrequency
demodulatedusinganidealphase deviationratio(Eq.34.38)mustbe
detector. lessthanorequalto toavoid
ambiguityinthedemodulation.
Voltageoutputofidealphasedetector
isproportionaltophasedeviationof LimitationsmakePMlesspopularthan
theintermediatefrequencysignal. FM.
Practicalphasedetectors
involvesinewavephase
comparisons.
Demodulation
phaselockedloop(PLL)
circuitthatperformsdemodulationof islesssusceptibletovariationin
anglemodulation(eitherFMorPM) circuitparametersduetofeedback
usesfeedbacktracking(forthisreason needslesscarrierpowerfor
alsocalledphasetrackingloop) demodulationthanprevious
discriminatormethods
Demodulation
phaselockedloop(continued)
voltagecontrolledoscillator(VCO) bandpassfiltercharacteristicschosen
nominallyatintermediatefrequency toreducenoiseandlimitdistortion
(IF)
alsousedforDSBAMdemodulation
VCOoutputfrequencyproportionalto
inputvoltage
DiscreteSignalSamplingandModulation
timemultiplexing pulseamplitudemodulation(PAM)
techniqueallowingmorethanonesignal amethodforsamplingandholdingan
toshareacommunicationchannelatone analogsignal,thensendingthe
time samplesaspulses
canbeanalogordigital valuesmaybediscreteorcontinuous
usuallyreferstosignalsinwhich
amplitudeisproportionaltotheinput
samples
timemultiplexingtechniques
pulseamplitudemodulation(PAM) pulsepositionmodulation(PPM)
methodforsamplingandholding constantamplitudeandwidthof
analogsignal,thensendingsamples pulses,buttimebetweenpulse
aspulses positionsproportionatetoinput
samples
pulsewidthmodulation(PWM)
usesconstantamplitudepulses,
widthproportionaltotheinput
samples
pulseamplitudemodulation(PAM)
multipliesthemodulatingsignal,m(t),withatrainofpulsesoffixedwidthduration:
transformintofrequencydomain:
k
X N f fS sinc k f M f kf
k
S S
Themessagem(t) canberecoveredfromxN(t) withanideallowpassfilterwith

bandwidthW becausethepulsetrainisathigherfrequencythanthemessage.
pulsecodemodulation(PCM)
meansofsendingdigitallycoded binaryphaseshiftkeying(BPSK)
informationindiscretevalues
phaseshiftsofdiscretevalues
binaryonoffkeying(BOOK) represent1or0
carrierormodulationsignalcanbe binaryfrequencyshiftkeying(BFSK)
turnedonorofftorepresent1or0
frequencyshiftsofdiscretevaluesto
represent1or0
pulsecodemodulation(continued)
AdvantagesofPCMinclude
digitalwordscanhavemanysources, integratedcircuitscanbeusedfor
andareloadedinashiftregisterfor highreliabilityandstability
serialtransmission
datacompressioncanbeusedfor
handledveryeasilybycomputer fastertransmission
longdistancetransmissionwith
retransmissioncanbedonewithno
lossinsignalquality
pulsecodemodulation(continued)
Themodulatingsignalissampledat Ifm(t) hasmaximumfrequencyoffm,
fixedintervals,resultinginananalog samplingfrequencyis2fm.Ifnumber
quantizedsignal. ofbitspersampleisn,PCMsystem
willsend2nfm pulsespersecond.
Quantizedsignalisdigitizedbyan
analogtodigitalconverter.Digitalbits MinimumbandwidthforPCM
aresentovercommunicationchannel. transmissionis
Ifnbitbinarywordsareusedto
representmodulatingsignalm(t),the
numberofpossiblequantizationlevels
thatcanberepresentedisq = 2n.
Sampling
sampling
Continuoustimesignalsaresampledtoa Thesamplingrate (orsampling
discretetimesystem. frequency)is
Theanalogsignalissampledatregular
timeintervals,t.
Sampling
Shannonssamplingtheorem
Atimecontinuoussignalcanbe
completelyreconstructedfroma
sequenceofequallyspacedvalues,ifthe
samplingrateisatleasttwicethehighest
frequencycomponent,thefrequencyof
interest,fN (sometimesgivenasfI ).
Sampling
Nyquist rate,2fN
theminimumacceptablesamplingrateif WhensamplingislessthanNyquist
thesignalistobereproducedfromits rate,datawillcontainfalsespectral
samples content(calledaliasing)forany
frequenciesgreaterthanhalfthe
samplingfrequency.
SamplingattheNyquist rateisenough
formostpracticalapplications.
Example:Sampling
Asignalwiththespectralcontent
shownissampledatthefrequency
fs.Thearrowindicatesafrequency
thatispresentinthesignalbeing
sampled.Whichdiagramrepresents
thedataspectralcontent?
Example:Sampling
Asignalwiththespectralcontent Solution
Thedataspectralcontentcanneverhave
afrequencythatisgreaterthanhalfthe
samplingfrequency,sooptionsAandC
arefalse.
Thedataspectralcontentcontainsthe
samplingfrequencyifthesignalcontains
fs oranintegermultipleoffs,sooptionD
isfalse.
Example:Sampling
Asignalwiththespectralcontent Solution
Whenthesignalcontainscontentat
frequenciesgreaterthanhalfthe
samplingfrequency,thedataspectral
contentcontainsaliasfrequenciesthat
arelessthanhalfthesamplingfrequency.
Theansweris(B).
Filters
V2 1 s
filter H s [parallel circuit]
V 1 R1C s 2 s 1
acomponentthatallowsonlypartsofthe RP C LC
signaltogetthrough 1
H jL H jU H j0 [frequency response]
Anexampleistheparallelbandpass 2
RR
filteratright. RP 1 2 [parallel circuit]
R1 R2
Thevoltageacrosstheparallel R2 R
H j0 P [parallel circuit]
component,v2,isafunctionofthe R 1 R2 R1
frequency.
Thetransferfunctionisderivedfrom
KirchhoffslawsusingtheLaplace
impedance.
Filters
BW U L [3 dB bandwidth]
filter
1
Bandwidthisdifferencebetween BW [parallel circuit]
RP C
upperandlowerhalfpower R1 R2
frequencies. RP [parallel circuit]
R1 R2
Atresonance,magnitudeoftransfer 1
0 [parallel circuit]
functioninfrequencydomainispurely LC
resistive,meaninginputandoutput
voltageareinphaseandoutputpower
ismaximum.
Bandwidthoffilterdependson
resistanceandcapacitanceforcircuit.
Example:Filters
Fortheanalogfilter shown,
L 20 mH C 10 F
Theinputis v1 andtheoutputisv2.The
transferfunctionforthefilteris
1 s
H s
V2

V1 0.01 s s 2 s 1

6.67 10 s 2 10 7 s 2
3
Mostnearly,whatisthevalueofR2?
(A) 500 (B)670
(C)1.0k (D)2.0k
Example:Filters
Fortheanalogfiltershown, Solution
L 20 mH C 10 F Theformofthetransferfunctionforthis
filtercircuitis
Theinputis v1 andtheoutputisv2.The
V2 1 s
transferfunctionforthefilteris H s
V 1 R1C s 2 s 1
1 s
H s
V2 RP C LC

V1 0.01 s s 2 s 1
1 s
6.67 10 s 2 10 7 s 2
3

0.01 s s 2 s 1

Mostnearly,whatisthevalueofR2? 6.67 10 s 2 107 s 2
3
(A) 500 (B)670 Here, R1 R2

RP [parallel circuit]
(C)1.0k (D)2.0k R1 R2
Example:Filters
Solution(continued)
Inaproblemlikethisitisusefulto
considerwhatisandisntknown.C andL
areknown,R1 andR2 arenot.
ThevalueofRP isnotgiven.Calculateit
ThevalueofR1 isnotgiven.Calculateit
fromvalueofC andthetransferfunction
fromvalueofC andthetransferfunction
s terminthedenominator.
constant.
RP C 6.67 103 s
R1C 0.01 s
6.67 103 s 6.67 103 s
0.01 s 0.01 s RP
R1 6
1103 C 10 106 F
C 10 10 F
6.67 102
Example:Filters
Solution(continued)
ThevalueofR2 cannowbedetermined
fromthevalueofRP andR1.
RR
RP 1 2
R1 R2
R2
RP R1

6.67 102 1103
R1 RP 1 103 6.67 102
2003 2.0 k
Theansweris(D).
LearningObjectives
Youhavelearned
aboutcommunicationsandfrequency tocalculatetheconvolutionintegralof
multiplexing adiscretefunctionwithafilter
impulseresponse
tocalculateFourierseriesexpansions
tocalculatetheconvolutionintegralof
aboutFouriertransforms
twodiscretefunctionsgraphically
tocalculateFouriertransforms
tocalculatewaveformenergywith
tousetheconvolutionintegraltotake Parsevals theorem
inverseLaplacetransforms
aboutsystemtypes
tocalculatetheconvolutionintegral
graphically
LearningObjectives
Youhavelearned
tocalculatedifferenceequations tocalculatefrequencymodulation
instantaneousfrequency
tosolvedifferenceequationswithz
transforms tocalculatethemodulationindexof
frequencymodulation
tocalculatediscretesystem
convolutionwithztransforms tocalculatefrequencymodulation
rangeoffrequencies
aboutanalogsignalmodulation
aboutanalogsignaldemodulation
tocalculateamplitudemodulation
index aboutsignalsampling
aboutsignalfiltering
LessonOverview
SignalTheory DifferenceEquations
SignalTheory zTransforms
SignalChannels DiscreteImpulseResponse
FourierTransforms AnalogSignalModulation
Convolution Demodulation
SignalEnergyandPower DiscreteSignalSamplingand
Modulation
SystemTypes
Sampling
Filters
LessonOverview
Trigonometry Transient,Resonant,andFilterCircuits
FourierSeries Filters
DiscreteMathematics MeasurementandInstrumentation
DifferenceEquations Sampling
TransformsandConvolutionTheory
FourierTransforms
zTransforms

EE Comms Signal Processing 1015

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EE Comms Signal Processing 1015

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FEReviewCourse CommunicationsandSignalProcessing

an =0foranoddfunction:f (t) =f (t)

(B) 6 ms sinc f 3 ms sin 3 ms

Themessagem(t) canberecoveredfromxN(t) withanideallowpassfilterwith

(A) 500 (B)670 Here, R1 R2

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