CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
Research: Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
Objectives of Research:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known
as hypothesis-testing research studies).
Motivations in doing Research:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

Categories of research methods

Quantitative: answers are found through numerical data.
Qualitative: answers are found through textual data
Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be immediately
utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress and development in different fields.
Applied Research Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help practitioners
accomplish tasks. Theory is less central to them than seeking a solution on a specific problem for
a limited setting. Applied research is frequently a descriptive research, and its main strength is its
immediate practical use. Applied research is conducted when decision must be made about a
specific real-life problem. Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer
questions about specific problems or to make decisions about a particular course of action or
policy. For example, an organization contemplating a paperless office and a networking system
for the companys personal computers may conduct research to learn the amount of time its
employees spend at personal computers in an average week.
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive research seeks to determine the
answers to who, what, when, where, and how questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population Census,
and Educational Census are examples of such research. Descriptive study offers to the researcher
a profile or description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest.
Explanatory Research When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description
of it, we might begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know why, to
explain, is the purpose of explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research
and goes on to identify the reasons for something that occurs. Explanatory research looks for
causes and reasons.

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Action research: The applied research that treats knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the
line between research and social action. Those who are being studied participate in the research
process; research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge; research focuses on power with a
goal of empowerment; research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness; and research
is tied directly to political action. The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by
expanding public awareness. They are explicitly political, not value neutral. Because the goal is to
improve the conditions of research participants, formal reports, articles, or books become
secondary. Action researchers assume that knowledge develops from experience, particularly the
experience of social-political action. They also assume that ordinary people can become aware of
conditions and learn to take actions that can bring about improvement.
Observation studies are primarily part of qualitative research. Observation studies can be
participant or non-participant. In participant observation the researcher directly observes and
participates in small scale social settings in the present time. Such a study is also referred to as
field research, ethnography, or anthropological study. Here the researchers: Study people in their
natural settings, or in situ. Study people by directly interacting with them. Gain an understanding
of the social world and make theoretical statements about members perspective. The people could
be a group who interact with each other on regular basis in a field setting: a street corner, a tea
shop, a club, a nomad group, a village, etc.
Non-participant studies are such where the research tries to observe the behavior of people
without interacting with them. It could be observing the behavior of shoppers in a departmental
store through a mirror or on a closed circuit TV. Some body might be counting the number of
vehicles crossing a particular traffic light.
Field researchers study people in a location or setting. It has been used to study entire
communities. Field research has a distinct set of methodologies. Field researchers directly observe
and interact with community members in natural settings to get inside their perspectives. . Two
modern extensions of field research, ethnography and ethno-methodology. Ethnography comes
from cultural anthropology. Ethno means people or a folk distinct by their culture and graphy refers
to describing something. Thus ethnography means describing a culture and understanding another
way of life from the native point of view. It is just an understanding the culture of people from
their own perspective.
Ethno-methodology implies how people create reality and how they interpret it. Ethno-
methodologists examine ordinary social interaction in great detail to identify the rules for
constructing social reality and common sense, how these rules are applied, and how new rules are
created. They try to figure out how certain meanings are attached to a reality.
Experimental Research: builds on the principles of positivist approach more directly than do the
other research techniques. Researchers in the natural sciences (e.g. chemistry and physics), related
applied fields (e.g. engineering, agriculture, and medicines) and the social sciences conduct
experiments. The logic that guides an experiment on plant growth in biology or testing a metal in
engineering is applied in experiments on human social behavior. Although it is most widely used
in psychology, the experiment is found in education, criminal justice, journalism, marketing,
nursing, political science, social work, and sociology.
The purpose of experimental research is to allow the researcher to control the research situation so
that causal relationships among variables may be evaluated..
Survey Research: Surveys require asking people, who are called respondents, for information,
using either verbal or written questions. Questionnaires or interviews are utilized to collect data
on the telephone, face-to- face, and through other communication media. The more formal term

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sample survey emphasizes that the purpose of contacting respondents is to obtain a representative
sample of the target population. Thus, a survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data
based on communication with a representative sample of individuals.
Interviews
Face-to-face interviews
Expensive and time-consuming
Telephone interviews
Need to use random-digit dialing to reach both listed and unlisted numbers.
Mail
Advantage - Comprehensive, ensure participant understands the question, minimizes missing
data, enables clarification of unclear responses
Disadvantage expensive, people more like to refuse participation, can be risky for interviewer,
interviewer may bias the responses.
Historical Research
History has several meanings; one of which could refer to the events of the past. Historiography
is the method of doing historical research or of gathering and analyzing historical evidence.
Historical-Comparative research focuses on:
Tracing the development of social forms (patterns) overtime as well as its broad its broad
historical processes, and
Comparing those forms and its developmental processes across cultures (countries/nations).
Case Studies Research
Empirical investigation of particular phenomenon Unit of analysis could be individual, group,
organization, community, country, etc.
Cross-Sectional Research. In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in time.
Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and least costly alternative. Its disadvantage is
that it cannot capture the change processes. Cross-sectional research can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most consistent with a descriptive approach to research. b.
Longitudinal Research. Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of people or
other units at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross-sectional
research but it is also more powerful, especially when researchers seek answers to questions about
change.

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THE RESEARCH PROCESS
For a research there are two important decisions to make-
1) What to find out about
or what research questions (problems) you want to find answers to;
2) How to go about finding their answers.
There are practical steps through which one must pass in research journey in order to find answers
to research questions.
The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology.
At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of
methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help to achieve objectives.
Steps in Research Process:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Review

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3. Developing the objectives
4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Analysis of Data
7. Generalization and Interpretation
8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of conclusions reached.

Chapter 2
Problem formulation
Hypothesis and testing

Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in research. Its main function is to
suggest new experiments and observations. Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or
a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of
phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or
accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is a
predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent
variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the following ones:
Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not
receiving counselling Or the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B. These are
hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested.

Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.. Some prior study may be done by researcher
in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis is testable if other deductions can be
made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational
hypothesis.
(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember
that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is
easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis
has nothing to do with its significance.
(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as being
the most likely.
(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use
even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend
a life-time collecting data to test it.
(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means
that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able to
deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to
explain; it should have empirical reference.

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BASIC CONCEPTS CONCERNING TESTING OF HYPOTHESES
(a) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis: In the context of statistical analysis, we often
talk about null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method
B about its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good,
then this assumption is termed as the null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method
A is superior or the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as alternative
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative hypothesis as
Ha.
The set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is referred to as the alternative hypothesis. If we
accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0, then we are accepting Ha. For

,
we may consider three possible alternative hypotheses as follows:

(b) The level of significance: This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing.
It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and
reason. In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that H0 will be rejected
when the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if
H0 is true. In other words, the 5 per cent level of significance means that researcher is willing to
take as much as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true.
Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true
and is usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.
(c) Decision rule or test of hypothesis: Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis Ha,
we make a rule which is known as decision rule according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha)
or reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha). For instance, if (H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very few
defective items in it) against Ha) that the lot is not good (there are too many defective items in it),
then we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting
the hypothesis. We might test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none
or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H0 otherwise we will reject H0 (or accept
Ha). This sort of basis is known as decision rule.
(d) Type I and Type II errors: In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two types
of errors we can make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true and we may accept H0 when in fact H0
is not true. The former is known as Type I error and the latter as Type II error. In other words,
Type I error means rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted and Type II error
means accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error is denoted by a

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(alpha) known as a error, also called the level of significance of test; and Type II error is denoted
by b (beta) known as b error. In a tabular form the said two errors can be presented as follows:

The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the level of
significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5 per cent, it means that there are
about 5 chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true.
(e) Two-tailed and One-tailed tests: In the context of hypothesis testing, these two terms are quite
important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the
sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the
population.
Such a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value and the alternative
hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of the null hypothesis. Symbolically, the two

tailed test is appropriate when we have and which may mean

or . Thus, in a two-tailed test, there are two rejection regions, one on each tail
of the curve which can be illustrated as under:

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If the significance level is 5 per cent and the two-tailed test is to be applied, the probability of the
rejection area will be 0.05 (equally splitted on both tails of the curve as 0.025) and that of the
acceptance region will be 0.95 as shown in the above curve. If we take = 100 and if our sample
mean deviates significantly from 100 in either direction, then we shall reject the null hypothesis;
but if the sample mean does not deviate significantly from , in that case we shall accept the null
hypothesis.
But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would
be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean is either lower than or higher than
some hypothesised value. For instance, if and , then we are interested
in what is known as left-tailed test (wherein there is one rejection region only on the left tail) which
can be illustrated as below:

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If = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from100 in the lower direction, we shall
reject H0, otherwise we shall accept H0 at a certain level of significance. If the significance level
in the given case is kept at 5%, then the rejection region will be equal to 0.05 of area in the left tail
as has been shown in the above curve.

In case , we are then interested in what is known as one tailed

test (right tail) and the rejection region will be on the right tail of the curve as shown below:
If = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from 100 in the upward direction, we
shall reject H0, otherwise we shall accept the same. If in the given case the significance level is
kept at 5%, then the rejection region will be equal to 0.05 of area in the right-tail as has been shown
in the above curve.
It should always be remembered that accepting H0 on the basis of sample information does not
constitute the proof that H0 is true. We only mean that there is no statistical evidence to reject it,
but we are certainly not saying that H0 is true (although we behave as if H0 is true).

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 Chapter 3
Data collection

Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research
instrument and selected a sample, collect the data from which the researcher will draw inferences
and conclusions for study. Depending upon research plans, the researcher might commence
interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations.

Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data

Primary Data collected for the first time
Secondary Datathose which have already been collected and analysed by someone else.
Methods of Primary Data Collection
(a)OBSERVATION METHOD:
Commonly used in behavioural sciences. It is the gathering of primary data by investigators own
direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent.
Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to provide.
Types of Observation:
1. Structured In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of observation
and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured
observation.
2. Unstructured But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be
thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation.
3. Participant Observation- If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member
of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience,
the observation is called as the participant observation.
4. Non- participant observation-But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without
any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this
type is often termed as non-participant observation

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5. Disguised observation.- (When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence
may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised
observation.)
Limitations:
- feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behaviour and infrequent behaviour cannot
be observed.
- expensive method

(b)SURVEY METHOD
Approach most suited for gathering descriptive information.
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way.
Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview according to
their answers.
ADVANTAGES:
-can be used to collect many different kinds of information
-Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental method.
LIMITATIONS:
-Respondents reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about things they
consider private.
-Busy people may not want to take the time
-may try to help by giving pleasant answers
-unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a thought to what they do and why
-may answer in order to look smart or well informed.

Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
Personal Interviewing:
It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information.
Trained interviewers are can hold the respondents attention and are available to clarify difficult
questions.
They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation requires.
Personal interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly.
Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements, packages and observe and record their
reactions and behaviour.
This takes two forms-
Individual- Intercept interviewing
Group - Focus Group Interviewing
Mail Questionnaires:
Advantages:
-can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.
-respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail questionnaire
-no interviewer is involved to bias the respondents answers.
-convenient for respondents who can answer when they have time
- good way to reach people who often travel

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Limitations:
-not flexible
-take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
-response rate is often very low
- researcher has no control over who answers.
Telephone Interviewing:
- quick method
- more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
- depending on respondents answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
- allows greater sample control
- response rate tends to be higher than mail
Drawbacks:
-Cost per respondent higher
-Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
-Interviewers manner of speaking may affect the respondents answers
-Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
-under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing
Intercept interviewing:
Widely used in tourism research.
-allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.
- only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown
-involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls.
-interviewer must gain the interviewees cooperation
-time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours( for longer surveys compensation
may be offered)
--involves the use of judgmental sampling i
Drawbacks:
-Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to correctly judge age,
race etc.
-Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.
Focus Group Interviewing:
It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tool to understand peoples thoughts and feelings.
At the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group interviewing.
-often held to help determine the subject areas on which questions should be asked in a later,
large-scale, structured-direct interview
Comments are recorded through note taking or videotaped and studied later to understand
consumer buying process.
Drawbacks:
-Cost: may cost more than telephone survey
-Sampling: group interview studies keep small sample size to keep time and cost down, therefore
it may be difficult to generalize from the results.
- Interviewer bias.

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TOOL FOR DATA COLLECTION (RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS)
The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important asp of a
research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based upon the
type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the questions
that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about computers- garbage in garbage out-
is also applicable for data collection. The research tool provides the input into a study and
therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent on it.
Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:
The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of
instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of your study.
Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research Questions for
study.
Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions to answer through
study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information required to answer
it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.
The Questionnaire:
Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers.
The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers
themselves.
It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if necessary, explain
them) and record the respondents reply on the interview schedule.
Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible.
Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being used on a large scale.
There are three basic types of questionnaire:
Closed ended
Open-ended
Combination of both

1.Closed ended Questionnaire:

-Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten response categories, and
respondents are asked to choose among them.
-e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions
- Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
- As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily into a computer for ease
of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.
2. Open-ended Questionnaire:
-Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.
-Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank section for the respond to
write in an answer.
-Whereas closed ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many people use a serv
open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people think about a service.
-As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is more complex.

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- As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be
distributed.
3. Combination of both
-This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and what they think of the
service in the same form.
-Begins with a series of closed ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then
finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then
he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not
confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are
available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various
publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organizations;
(c) technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications
of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f)
reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g)
public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information. The
sources of unpublished data are many;
They may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may
be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus and other public/
private individuals and organizations.
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny because
it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the context of
the problem which the researcher wants to study.
The researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using
proper methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) What level of accuracy was desired?
(f)Was it achieved ?
2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not
be used by the researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinize the
definition of various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the
primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also
be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the
present enquiry and should not be used.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose
of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the
researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may
be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

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DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN
Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample.
A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole.
Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates
of the thoughts and behavior of the larger population.
Designing the sample calls for three decisions:
Who will be surveyed? (The Sample)
The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely to have
it.
How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However it is not necessary to
sample the entire target population.
How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population ( probability sample)
The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from (nonprobability
sample)
The needs of the research project will determine which method is most effective

Types of Samples

Probability samples
Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a known and equal chance of being
selected.
Stratified random sample: Population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as age
groups and random samples are drawn from each group.
Cluster (area) sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as blocks,
and the researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.

Nonprobability samples
Convenience sample: The researcher selects the easiest population members from which to obtain
information.
Judgment sample: The researcher uses his/her judgement to select population members who are
good prospects for accurate information.
Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each of
several categories.

Sampling Procedures and Considerations

Sample design:
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers
to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size
of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample
designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier
to apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and
appropriate for his research study.
Steps in sample design

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While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction unit
such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an
individual.
Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a
sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively
large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the
specific population parameters which are of interest.
Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he
must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.

Types of sampling Design

Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not
afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being
included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as
deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as random sampling or chance
sampling. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion
in the sample.
Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample selection which
gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each item in
the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. This applies to
sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is selected for the sample, it cannot appear in the
sample again (Sampling with replacement is used less frequently in which procedure the element
selected for the sample is returned to the population before the next element is selected.

Scaling:
In research we quite often face measurement problem especially when the concepts to be
measured are complex and abstract and we do not possess the standardized measurement tools.
Meaning of Scaling

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 Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion,
attitude and other concepts. This can be done in two ways viz., (i) making a judgment about some
characteristic of an individual and then placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in
terms of that characteristic and (ii) constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of
individuals responses assigns him a place on a scale. It may be stated here that a scale is a
continuum, consisting of the highest point (in terms of some characteristic e.g., preference,
favorableness, etc.) and the lowest point along with several intermediate points between these two
extreme points.

Important Scaling Techniques

Rating scales: The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of
a thing or of a person.
Rating scale may be either a graphic rating scale or an itemized rating scale.
(i) The graphic rating scale is quite simple and is commonly used in practice. Under it the various
points are usually put along the line to form a continuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply
making a mark (such as tick) at the appropriate point on a line that runs from one extreme to the
other.

(ii) The itemized rating scale (also known as numerical scale) presents a series of statements from
which a respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation.
Suppose we wish to inquire as to how well does a worker get along with his fellow workers? In
such a situation we may ask the respondent to select one, to express his opinion, from the
following:
He is almost always involved in some friction with a fellow worker.
He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow workers.
He sometimes gets involved in friction.
He infrequently becomes involved in friction with others
He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow workers.
Ranking scales: Under ranking scales (or comparative scales) we make relative judgments against
other similar objects. The respondents under this method directly compare two or more objects
and make choices among them. There are two generally used approaches of ranking scales viz.
(a) Method of paired comparisons: Under it the respondent can express his attitude by making a
choice between two objects, say between a new flavour of soft drink and an established brand of
drink.
(b) Method of rank order: Under this method of comparative scaling, the respondents are asked
to rank their choices. This method is easier and faster than the method of paired comparisons stated
above. For example, with 10 items it takes 45 pair comparisons to complete the task, whereas the
method of rank order simply requires ranking of 10 items only.

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Different Scales for Measuring Attitudes of People

Arbitrary Scales
Arbitrary scales are developed on ad hoc basis and are designed largely through the researchers
own subjective selection of items. The researcher first collects few statements or items which he
believes are unambiguous and appropriate to a given topic.

Differential Scales (or Thurston-type Scales)

Under such an approach the selection of items is made by a panel of judges who evaluate the items
in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in implication.

Summated scales consist of a number of statements which express either a favorable or

unfavourable attitude towards the given object to which the respondent is asked to react. The
respondent indicates his agreement or disagreement with each statement in the instrument. Each
response is given a numerical score, indicating its favorableness or unfavourableness, and the
scores are totaled to measure the respondents attitude. In other words, the overall score represents
the respondents position on the continuum of favourable-unfavourableness towards an issue.
Most frequently used summated scales in the study of social attitudes follow the pattern devised
by Likert. For this reason they are often referred to as Likert-type scales. In a Likert scale, the
respondent is asked to respond to each of the statements in terms of several degrees, usually five
degrees (but at times 3 or 7 may also be used) of agreement or disagreement. For example, when
asked to express opinion whether one considers his job quite pleasant, the respondent may respond
in any one of the following ways: (i) strongly agree, (ii) agree, (iii) undecided, (iv) disagree, (v)
strongly disagree.

Each point on the scale carries a score. Response indicating the least favourable degree of job
satisfaction is given the least score (say 1) and the most favourable is given the highest score (say
5).
These scorevalues are normally not printed on the instrument but are shown here just to indicate
the scoring pattern. The Likert scaling technique, thus, assigns a scale value to each of the five
responses

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Cumulative scales: Cumulative scales or Louis Guttmans scalogram analysis, like other scales,
consist of series of statements to which a respondent expresses his agreement or disagreement. The
special feature of this type of scale is that statements in it form a cumulative series.
The technique developed by Louis Guttman is known as scalogram analysis, or at times simply
scale analysis. Scalogram analysis refers to the procedure for determining whether a set of items
forms a unidimensional scale. A scale is said to be unidimensional if the responses fall into a
pattern in which endorsement of the item reflecting the extreme position results also in endorsing
all items which are less extreme. Under this technique, the respondents are asked to indicate in
respect of each item whether they agree or disagree with it, and if these items form a
unidimensional scale, the response pattern will be as under:
Table: Response Pattern in Scalogram Analysis
X = Agree
= Disagree

A score of 4 means that the respondent is in agreement with all the statements which is indicative
of the most favorable attitude. But a score of 3 would mean that the respondent is not agreeable to
item 4, but he agrees with all others. In the same way one can interpret other values of the
respondents scores. This pattern reveals that the universe of content is scalable.

Factor Scales
Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on the basis of inter correlations of items
which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationships between items. Factor scales
are particularly useful in uncovering latent attitude dimensions and approach scaling through the
concept of multiple-dimension attribute space.5 More specifically the two problems viz., how to
deal appropriately with the universe of content which is multi-dimensional and how to uncover
underlying (latent) dimensions which have not been identified, are dealt with through factor scales.
An important factor scale based on factor analysis is Semantic Differential (S.D.) and the other one
is Multidimensional Scaling.
Semantic differential scale: Semantic differential scale or the S.D. scale developed by Charles E.
Osgood, G.J. Suci and P.H. Tannenbaum (1957), is an attempt to measure the psychological
meanings of an object to an individual. This scale is based on the presumption that an object can
have different dimensions of connotative meanings which can be located in multidimensional
property space, or what can be called the semantic space in the context of S.D. scale. This scaling
consists of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually of 7 points, by which one or more respondents
rate one or more concepts on each scale item. For instance, the S.D. scale items for analysing
candidates for leadership position may be shown as under:

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Candidates for leadership position (along with the conceptthe ideal candidate) may be
compared and we may score them from +3 to 3 on the basis of the above stated scales.

A scale is a measure in which a researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a
variable construct. It arranges responses or observations on a continuum or in series of categories.
A scale can use a single indicator or multiple indicators

Types of measurement scales:

Measurement is central to any enquiry.
The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a variable, the greater the confidence,
other things being equal, one can place in the findings.
S.S.Stevens has classified the different types of into four categories:
Nominal or classificatory scale
Ordinal or ranking scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale
The nominal or classificatory scale:
A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses into subgroups based
on a common/shared property or characteristic.
A variable measured on a nominal scale may have one, two or more subcategories depending upon
the extent of variation.
For example, water or tree have only one subgroup, whereas the variable gender can be
classified into two sub-categories: male and female. The sequence in which subgroups are listed
makes no difference as there is no relationship among subgroups.
The ordinal or ranking scale:
Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into subgroups on the basis of
common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a certain order.

19
They are arranged either in ascending or descending order according to the extent a subcategory
reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable.
For example, income can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees and paise) or qualitatively
using subcategories above average, average and below average. The distance between these
subcategories are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of measurement.
Socioeconomic status and attitude are other variables that can be measured on ordinal scale.

The interval scale:

An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it uses a unit of
measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points.
For example,
Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C
Fahrenheit scale: 32*F to 212*F
The ratio scale:
A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own property:
the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the difference
between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this scale can be used for mathematical
operations.
The measurement of variables like income, age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A
person who is 40 year old is twice as old as one who is 20 year old.

Chapter 4
PROBLEM DEFINITION, RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND REPORT WRITING

Problem Definition
After the interviews and the literature review, the researcher is in a position to narrow down the
problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. It is critical
that the focus of further research be unambiguously identified and defined. Problem definition or
problem statement is a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be
investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution. For example the problem could pertain
to (1) existing business problems where the manager is looking for a solution,(2) situation that
may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have scope for improvement, (3)
areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory building, or (4) situations in which
a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the topic.
The Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document that presents a plan for a project to reviewers foe evaluation.
It can be a supervised project submitted to instructors as part of an educational degree (e.g. a
Masters thesis or a Ph.D. dissertation) or it can be a research project proposed to a funding agency.
Its purpose is to convince reviewers that the researcher is capable of successfully conducting the
proposed research project. Reviewers have more confidence that a planned project will be
successfully completed if the proposal is well written and organized, and carefully planned.
The proposal is just like a research report, but it is written before the research project begins. A
proposal describes the research problem and its importance, and gives a detailed account of the
methods that will be used and why they are appropriate.

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A proposal for quantitative research has most of the parts of a research report: a title, an abstract,
a problem statement, a literature review, a method or design section, and a bibliography. It lacks
results, discussion, and conclusions section. The proposal has a plan for data collection and
analysis. It frequently includes a schedule of the steps to be undertaken and an estimate of the
time required for each step.
Research Proposal Sections
Introduction - Background of the study - Objectives - Significance
Research Design - Data collection technique (survey, experiment, qualitative technique) -
Population - Sample - Tool of data collection - Data Gathering - Data processing and analysis
Report writing
Budget
Time Schedule
Team of Researchers

REPORTING THE FINDINGS:

Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process. The
report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you
have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style. Language
should be formal and not journalistic.

Written Research Project Report Format

Traditional written reports tend to be produced in the following format.
Title Page
-Title of the Research Project,
-Name of the researcher,
-Purpose of the research project, e.g. A research project submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of National Council for Hotel Management and Catering Technology, New Delhi for
the degree of B.Sc Hospitality and Hotel Administration
-Date of Publication
Table of Contents
In this section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings e.g.
Contents Page No
Introduction 1
Chapter I Theoretical Framework and
Review of Related Literature 3
Chapter II Research Design 30
Chapter III Data Analysis and Interpretation 35
Chapter IV Summary and Conclusion 70
Suggestions for Further Research 75
References/ Bibliography
Appendices
Appendix I Questionnaire for Employees
Appendix II Questionnaire for Managers
List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables e.g.
Table No. Title Page No.

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1 Income levels of Respondents 31
2 Age distribution of Respondents 35
List of Figures
This section contains title and page number of all graphs, pie charts etc. e.g.
Figure No. Title Page No
1. Pie Chart showing age distribution of respondents 33
2. Bar Graph showing popularity of menu items 37
Acknowledgements
Here the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide-both research guide and
technical guide, research participants, friends etc.
Introduction
This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives.
It includes a rationale for the research.
Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature
In this section is included all your background research which may be obtained from the literature
review. You must indicate from where all the information
Has come, so remember to keep a complete record of everything you read. If you do not do this,
you could be accused of plagiarism which is a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring
to a particular book or journal article, use the Harvard system.
Research design:
This section includes all practical details followed for research . After reading this, any interested
party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods used for data collection, how
many people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data collection, how the data
was analyzed etc.
Data Analysis and Interpretation:
If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie
charts and associated statistics..
Summary and Conclusion:
sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to other research or
literature.
Recommendations
If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this section
could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations which have been
developed from the research is included- sometimes this section is included at the beginning of the
report.

Suggestion for Further Research

It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section which shows
how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the research
has thrown up many more research questions which need to be addressed. It is useful to include
this section because it shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you are not trying to
cover up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.

List of References /Bibliography

- List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.

22
- A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text but which are relevant to the subject.(larger
dissertations or thesis)
- Small research projects will need only a reference section. This includes all the literature to which
you have referred in your report. The popular referencing system Harvard System lists books and
periodicals in the following manner:
Appendices:
If you have constructed a questionnaire or Interview schedule for your research, it may be useful
to include them in your report as an appendix.
Appendices do not count towards your total number of pages/words. It is a useful way of including
relevant material so that the examiner can gain a deeper understanding of your work by reading it.
REFERENCING
There is a general mix up or referencing with bibliography; though the purposes are different. A
bibliography is the listing of the works that are relevant to the topic of research interest arranged
in alphabetical order of the last names of authors. A reference list is a subset of the bibliography,
which includes details of all the citations used in literature survey and elsewhere in the report,
arranged again, in the alphabetical order of the last names of authors. These citations have the
goals of crediting the author and enabling the reader to find the works cited.
Specimen Format for citing different Types of References
Book by a single author
Leshin, C. B. (1997). Management on the World Wide Web. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
Book by more than one author
Cornett, M., Wiley, B. J., & Sankar, S. (1998). The pleasures of nurturing. London: McMunster
Publishing. It is the same as the previous one except there is the use & separating the last author
from its preceding one. See it is not written and but being used as symbol &.
Journal Article
Jean quart, S., & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management models.
Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3), 72-85.

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 Chapter 5
Management aspect of Research and Development (R&D) works and outputs:
Intellectual property rights

Two-stage approach to R&D project management

Project life-cycle according to Stuckenruck

Project concept (initiation) what is to be done;

24
 Project planning (growth) what and how to do;
Project implementation (production);
Project completion (shut-down).

R&D product and project life cycle by Kerzner

Project cycle of R&D projects oriented to the creation of new product or process.
This project starts from a scientific investigation phase which corresponds to the first project
management phase Initial scoping. The next phase is very short: it is the decision moment. Then
full scale product development begins with some elements of planning day-to-day activities. The
fifth phase is implementation/ launching of the developed product or process and the project is
completed with a post-launch management and control phase

Project cycle of R&D product or technology enhancement

This type of project is focused on improving a particular product or technology characteristic with
the specific purpose to enter the market (for instance, to reduce production cost, or to elaborate the
product). With the specific purpose of product and technology enhancement, individual project
management is less essential with regard to the whole project portfolio.

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Intellectual Property Rights
The following are the types of intellectual property that may be considered by an R&D institution
in its development of an intellectual property policy:
patents;
utility models;
industrial designs;
copyright in literary works;
trade and service marks;
trade secret
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a product or a process that
provides a new way of doing something, or offers a new technical solution to a problem. The
protection is granted for a limited period, usually 20 years. The patent is a title of ownership.
A utility model is an invention that does not meet all the requirements of patentability but has an
industrial use. The inclusion of utility models into the intellectual property system in some
countries has the primary objective of nurturing the rapidly evolution of indigenous
innovativeness, particularly in small and medium-scale enterprises and among private persons.
An industrial design is the ornamental or aesthetic appearance. When an industrial design is
protected, the owner - the person or entity that has registered the design - is assured of an exclusive
right against unauthorized copying or imitation of the design by third parties, like a patent against
unauthorized use by others.
A trademark is a distinctive sign that identifies certain goods or services as those produced or
provided by a specific person or enterprise. The system helps consumers identify and purchase a
product or service because its nature and quality, indicate d by its unique trademark, meets their
needs. A trademark affords protection to the owner of the mark by ensuring his exclusive right to
use it to identify goods or services, or to authorize another to use it against payment.
Copyright is a legal term describing rights given to creators for their literary works. The creators
of original works protected by copyright, and their heirs, have certain basic rights. They have the
exclusive right to use or authorize others to use the work on agreed terms.
Trade secrets consist of confidential data, information or compilations used in research, business,
commerce or industry. The information may include confidential scientific and technical data and
business, commercial or financial information not publicly known that is useful to an enterprise
and confers competitive advantage on one having a right to use it. The secrecy of the information
must be maintained to conserve its trade secret status.

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