Kinetic theory of gases

The arrangements of particles in solids, liquids and gases

A simple view of the arrangement of the particles in solids, liquids and gases looks like this:

Solids

- are touching, and the only vibrate.

- may be arranged regularly (in which case, the solid is crystalline), or at random (giving
waxy solids like candles or some forms of polythene, for example).
- are held in the solid by forces which depend on the actual substance - ionic bonds,
covalent bonds, metallic bonds, hydrogen bonds or van der Waals attractions.
- Solids have strong composition of molecular attraction giving them definite shape and
mass,

Liquids

- are mainly touching, but some gaps have appeared in the structure. These gaps allow the
particles to move, and so the particles are arranged randomly.
- The forces hold the solid particles together are also present in the liquid
- The particles in the liquid have enough energy to prevent the forces holding them in a
fixed arrangement.
- For most liquids, the density of the liquid is slightly less than that of the solid,
- Therefore, the particles in the liquid are almost as close together as they are in a solid.
- liquids take the form of their container since the molecules are moving that corresponds
to one another
-

Liquids

- The intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to hold molecules close together
- Liquids are more dense and less compressible than gasses
- Liquids have a definite volume, independent of the size and shape of their container
 - The attractive forces are not strong enough, however, to keep neighboring molecules in a
fixed position and molecules are free to move past or slide over one another
- Enough kinetic energy to stretch the intermolecular forces of attraction.
- Thus, liquids can be poured and assume the shape of their containers

Gases

The particles

- are entirely free to move.

- At ordinary pressures, the distance between individual particles is of the order of ten
times the diameter of the particles.

- At that distance, any attractions between the particles are fairly negligible at ordinary
temperatures and pressures, allows a gas to expand to fill its container

- particles have enough kinetic energy to break all intermolecular forces of attraction.

- If attractive forces become large enough, then the gases exhibit non-ideal behavior

- Gases are diffused on air since the molecules are moving freely. The characteristics of
gases are very distinct. There are gases that are strong enough to react with other matter,
there are even with very strong odour, and some can be dissolved in water.

Changes of state

Melting

The temperature at which a solid, given sufficient heat, becomes a liquid (under a fixed
pressure, usually standard pressure).

- The heat energy required to convert 1 mole of solid into a liquid at its melting point is
called the enthalpy of fusion.

Freezing

The temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid; the same temperature as the
melting point (under a fixed pressure, usually standard pressure).

- As the new bonds are formed, heat energy is evolved.

Condensation
Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and
is the reverse of evaporation.

Vaporization (vaporisation)

- A phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor. There are two types of vaporization:

1. Boiling is a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase that occurs at or above
the boiling temperature ( is the rapid vaporization of a liquid). Boiling, as opposed to
evaporation, occurs below the surface. Boiling occurs when the equilibrium vapour
pressure of the substance is greater than or equal to the environmental pressure. For this
reason, boiling point varies with the pressure of the environment. Evaporation is a surface
phenomenon whereas boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
- the boiling point of a liquid depends on atmospheric pressure.
- The boiling point becomes lower as the external pressure is reduced.
- The boiling point is the same temperature as the condensation point.
- The heat energy required to convert 1 mole of liquid into a gas at its boiling point is
called the enthalpy of vaporisation.

2. Evaporation is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor (a state of substance below
critical temperature and critical pressure) that occurs at temperatures below the boiling
temperature at a given pressure.

Evaporation usually occurs on the surface.

Sublimation

The process of changing from a solid to a gas without passing through an intermediate liquid
phase or vice versa.

Examples naphthalene, solid carbon dioxide.

Phase Changes refers to the change of the state of matter. Every phase change is accompanied
by a change in the energy of the system.
The graph above called a heating curve, representing the changes that occur when 1.00 mole of
water is heated from 25 oC to 125 oC at a constant pressure of 1 atm.
Blue lines show the heating of one phase from a lower temperature to a higher one.
Red lines show the conversion of one phase to another at constant temperature.

Temperature does not increase during a phase change because the added energy is used to
overcome the attractive forces between the molecules rather than increase their kinetic energy.

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram is a graphical way to summarize the conditions under which equilibria exist
between the different states of matter.

Important Lines on a Phase Diagram:

 Line AB is the liquid-vapor line, showing the vapor pressure of the liquid. It represents
the equilibrium between the liquid and gas phase.

Line AC is the solid-vapor line, representing the variation in the vapor pressure of the
solid as it sublimes at different temperatures.

Line AD is the solid-liquid line, representing the change in melting point of the solid with
increasing pressure. This line usually slopes slightly to the right as pressure increases,
because the solid phase of a substance is usually more dense than the liquid phase.

On a phase diagram, a dotted line is drawn across the graph representing standard
atmospheric pressure. The generalized graph here does not have that line.

Important Points on a Phase Diagram:

The point where the dotted line representing 1 atm crosses the liquid-vapor line is the
normal boiling point of the substance.

The liquid-vapor line ends at the critical point (B), which is the critical temperature and
critical pressure of the substance. Beyond the critical point, the liquid and gas phases
become indistinguishable from one another.

The melting point of a substance is identical to its freezing point. The two differ only in
the direction from which the phase change is approached. The melting point at 1 atm is
the normal melting point.

Where the three lines intersect (A), is known as the triple point. All three phases are in
equilibrium at this temperature and pressure.

The Ideal Gas Equation

This equation is important in its ability to connect together all the fundamental properties of
gases. The ideal gas equation is:

pV = nRT

Pressure, p

SI Units - pascals, Pa. information given in kPa (kilopascals), must be converted.

Example

150 kPa is 150,000 Pa. You must make that conversion before you use the ideal gas equation.

Pressure is also sometimes expressed as newtons per square metre, N m-2. These mean exactly
the same thing.

Other pressure measurements:

1 atmosphere = 101,325 Pa

1 bar = 100 kPa = 100,000 Pa

1 torr = 1 mm Hg = 133.322368 Pa

Volume, V

SI unit - cubic metre, m3 (not cm3 or dm3).

1 m3 = 1000 dm3 = 1,000,000 cm3

If given values of volume first convert them into cubic metres. You would have to divide a
volume in dm3 by 1000, or in cm3 by a million. Conversely, to determine a volume using the
equation, always convert cubic metres into dm3 or cm3, by multiplying by a 1000 or a million.

Number of moles, n

mass in grams/the mass of one mole in grams.

Applied to the ideal gas equation gives:

The gas constant, R

The SI value for R is 8.31441 J K-1 mol-1.

A value for R will be given you if you need it, or you can look it up in a data source.

The temperature, T

Units kelvin
The Kelvin temperature scale is similar to the Celsius temperature scale in the sense that there
are 100 equal degree increments between the normal freezing point and the normal boiling point
of water. However, the zero-degree mark on the Kelvin temperature scale is referred to as
absolute zero and is 273.15 units cooler than it is on the Celsius scale. So a temperature of 0
Kelvin is equivalent to a temperature of -273.15 C. Observe that the degree symbol is not used
with this system. So a temperature of 300 units above 0 Kelvin is referred to as 300 Kelvin and
not 300 degree Kelvin; such a temperature is abbreviated as 300 K. Conversions between Celsius
temperatures and Kelvin temperatures (and vice versa) can be performed using one of the two
equations below.

C = K - 273.15

K = C + 273.15

Practice - Convert from C to Kelvin or vice versa.

1. 20C 293K
2. -10C 263K
3. 300K 27C
4. 100C 373K
5. 150K 123C
6. 1500K 1227C
7. -100C 173K
8. -273C 0K
9. 273K 0C
10. 25C 298K

The molar volume at stp

If you have done simple calculations from equations, you have probably used the molar volume
of a gas.

1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at stp (standard temperature and pressure, taken as 0C and
1 atmosphere pressure). You may also have used a value of 24.0 dm3 at room temperature and
pressure (taken as about 20C and 1 atmosphere).