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COLLABORATIVEVERSUSCOOPERATIVELEARNINGACOMPARISONOFTHE
TWOCONCEPTSWHICHWILLHELPUSUNDERSTANDTHEUNDERLYING
NATUREOFINTERACTIVELEARNING
ByTedPanitz

IhavebeensearchingformanyyearsfortheHolyGrailofinteractivelearning,adistinctionbetween
collaborativeandcooperativelearningdefinitions.Iamgettingclosertomyelusivegoalallthetime.Ibelieve
confusionariseswhenpeoplelookatprocessesassociatedwitheachconceptandseeacertainamountofoverlap
orinterconceptusage.Iwillclarifythedefinitionsofcollaborativeandcooperativelearningfirstbypresenting
mydefinitionsofthetwotermsandreviewingthoseofotherauthorswhohavehelpedclarifymythinkingand
secondbypresentingandanalyzingtheeducationalbenefitsofcollaborative/cooperativelearningtechniques.

Theunderlyingpremiseforcollaborativeandcooperativelearningisfoundedinconstructivistepistemology.
Johnson,Johnson&Smith(1991)havesummarizedtheseprinciplesintheirdefinitionofanewparadigmof
teaching."First,knowledgeisconstructed,discovered,andtransformedbystudents.Facultycreatethe
conditionswithinwhichstudentscanconstructmeaningfromthematerialstudiedbyprocessingitthrough
existingcognitivestructuresandthenretainingitinlongtermmemorywhereitremainsopentofurther
processingandpossiblereconstruction.Second,studentsactivelyconstructtheirownknowledge.Learningis
conceivedofassomethingalearnerdoes,notsomethingthatisdonetothelearner.Studentsdonotpassively
acceptknowledgefromtheteacherorcurriculum.Studentsactivatetheirexistingcognitivestructuresor
constructnewonestosubsumethenewinput.Third,facultyeffortisaimedatdevelopingstudents'
competenciesandtalents.Fourth,educationisapersonaltransactionamongstudentsandbetweenthefaculty
andstudentsastheyworktogether.Fifth,alloftheabovecanonlytakeplacewithinacooperativecontext.
Sixth,teachingisassumedtobeacomplexapplicationoftheoryandresearchthatrequiresconsiderableteacher
trainingandcontinuousrefinementofskillsandprocedures"(p1:6)

Thefollowingwillserveasastartingpointforthisdiscussion.Abasicdefinitionofthetermscollaborativeand
cooperative,reducedtotheirsimplestterms,ispresented:

Collaborationisaphilosophyofinteractionandpersonallifestylewhereindividualsareresponsiblefortheir
actions,includinglearningandrespecttheabilitiesandcontributionsoftheirpeers

Cooperationisastructureofinteractiondesignedtofacilitatetheaccomplishmentofaspecificendproductor
goalthroughpeopleworkingtogetheringroups.

Beforeweproceedwiththetheoreticalunderpinningofeachmethoditwouldbehelpfultodescribethe
differencesbetween
thetwoparadigmsintermsofanactualclass.

Inthecooperativemodeltheteachermaintainscompletecontroloftheclass,eventhoughthestudentswork
ingroupstoaccomplishagoalofacourse.Thecooperativeteacherasksaspecificquestionsuchas,Whatwere
thefivecausesofthestartofWorldWarII?Theteacherprovidesadditionalarticlesforthestudentstoread
andanalyze,beyondthetext,andthenasksthestudentstoworkingroupstoanswerthequestion.Thegroups
thenpresenttheirresultstothewholeclassanddiscusstheirreasoning.Afollowupquestionmaythenbeposed
tothegroupstoanalyzetheUnitedNationstodetermineifthishasbeenaneffectiveorganizationtoprevent
worldwarsandtomakerecommendationsonpossiblechangesneededtomaketheUNmoreeffective.The
teachermightusespecificstructures,suchasaJigSawmodel,tohelpfacilitatethegroupinteractions.He/she
mightrequireaspecificproductsuchasatermpaperorreport,classpresentations,andanexamattheendofthe
topic.Thestudentsdotheworknecessarytoconsiderthematerialbeingcoveredbuttheteachermaintains
controloftheprocessateachstage.

Inthecollaborativemodelgroupswouldassumealmosttotalresponsibilityforansweringthequestion.The
studentsdetermineiftheyhadenoughinformationtoanswerthequestion.Ifnottheyidentifyothersources,
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suchasjournals,books,videos,theinternet,tonameafew.Theworkofobtainingtheextrasourcematerial
wouldbedistributedamongthegroupmembersbythegroupmembers.Thegroupwoulddecidehowmany
reasonstheycouldidentify.Thecollaborativeteacherwouldnotspecifyanumber,butwouldassesstheprogress
ofeachgroupandprovidesuggestionsabouteachgroupsapproachandthedatagenerated.Itmightalsooccur
tothestudentstolistthereasonsinorderofpriority.Theteacherwouldbeavailableforconsultationsandwould
facilitatetheprocessbyaskingforfrequentprogressreportsfromthegroups,facilitategroupdiscussionsabout
groupdynamics,helpwithconflictresolution,etc.Thefinalproductisdeterminedbyeachgroup,after
consultationwiththeteacher.Themeansofassessmentofthegroupsperformancewouldalsobenegotiatedby
eachgroupwiththeteacher.SomegroupsmightdecidetoanalyzetheUN,asthecooperativegroupwas
directedtodo,ortheymighttrytocomeupwithacompletelyneworganization.Theymightgobackthrough
historytodeterminehowotherperiodsofpeacewerecreated.Theprocessisveryopenendedwhileitmaintains
afocusontheoverallgoal.Thestudentsdevelopaverystrongownershipfortheprocessandrespondvery
positivelytothefactthattheyaregivenalmostcompleteresponsibilitytodealwiththeproblemposedtothem
andtheyhavesignificantinputintotheirassessment.

Theunderlyingpremiseforbothcollaborativeandcooperativelearningisfoundedinconstructivisttheory.
Knowledgeisdiscoveredbystudentsandtransformedintoconceptsstudentscanrelateto.Itisthen
reconstructedandexpandedthroughnewlearningexperiences.Learningconsistsofactiveparticipationbythe
studentversuspassiveacceptanceofinformationpresentedbyanexpertlecturer.Learningcomesaboutthrough
transactionsanddialogueamongstudentsandbetweenfacultyandstudents,inasocialsetting.Studentslearnto
understandandappreciatedifferentperspectivesthroughadialoguewiththeirpeers.Adialoguewiththe
teacherhelpsstudentslearnthevocabularyandsocialstructureswhichgovernthegroupsstudentswishtojoin,
suchashistorian,mathematician,writer,actor,etc.

KenBruffee(1995)identifiestwocausesforthedifferencesbetweenthetwoapproaches.Hestates:"First,
collaborativeandcooperativelearningweredevelopedoriginallyforeducatingpeopleofdifferentages,
experienceandlevelsofmasteryofthecraftofinterdependence.Second,whenusingonemethodortheother
method,teacherstendtomakedifferentassumptionsaboutthenatureandauthorityofknowledge."(p12)These
differentassumptionswillbeexploredthroughoutthepaper.Theageoreducationlevelsasadistinctionhave
becomeblurredovertimeaspractitionersatalllevelsmixthetwoapproaches.However,whatdetermineswhich
approachisuseddoesdependuponthesophisticationlevelofthestudentsinvolved,withcollaborativerequiring
moreadvancedstudentpreparationworkingingroups.Otherdeterminingfactorsarethephilosophyand
preparationoftheteacher.

Brufeeseeseducationasareacculturationprocessthroughconstructiveconversation.Studentslearnaboutthe
cultureofthesocietytheywishtojoinbydevelopingtheappropriatevocabularyofthatsocietyandby
exploringthatsociety'scultureandnorms(i.e.thatofmathematician,historian,journalist,etc.).Brufee
identifiestwotypesofknowledgeasabasisforchoosinganapproach.Foundationalknowledgeisthebasic
knowledgerepresentedbysociallyjustifiedbeliefsweallagreeon.Correctspellingandgrammar,mathematics
procedures,historyfacts,aknowledgeofthecontentsoftheconstitution,etc.,wouldrepresenttypesof
foundationalknowledge.Brufeecontendsthatthesearebestlearnedusingcooperativelearningstructuresinthe
earlygrades.Hestates:"Themainpurposeofprimaryschooleducationistohelpchildrenrenegotiatetheir
membershipinthelocalcultureoffamilylifeandhelpthemjoinsomeoftheestablishedknowledge
communitiesavailabletothemandencompassingthecultureweholdincommon.Animportantpurposeof
collegeoruniversityeducationistohelpadolescentsandadultsjoinsomemoreoftheestablishedknowledge
communitiesavailabletothem.Butanother,andperhapsmoreimportantpirposeofcollegeoruniversity
educationistohelpstudentsrenogotiatetheirmembershipintheencompassingcommonculturethatuntilthen
hascircumscribedtheirlives."(p15)

Brufeedefinesnonfoundationalknowledgeasthatwhichisderivedthroughreasoningandquestioningversus
rotememory.Hewrites:"Itismorelikelytoaddressquestionswithdubiousorambiguousanswers,answersthat
requirewelldevelopedjudgmenttoarriveat,judgmentthatlearningtoanswersuchaquestiontends,inturn,to
devlop."(p15)Theotherwayinwhichnonfoundationaleducationdiffersfromfoundationalisthatitencourages
studentsnottotaketheirteacher'sauthorityforgranted.Studentsshoulddoubtanswersandmethodsforarriving

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atanswersprovidedbytheirprofessors,andperhapsmoreimportantlytheyneedtobehelpedtocometoterms
withtheirdoubtsbyparticipatingactivelyinthelearningandinquiryprocess.Outofthisprocessknew
knowledgeisoftencreated,somethingnotlikelytooccurwhendealingwiththefactsandinformation
associatedwithfoundationalknowledge.Collaborativelearningshiftstheresponsibilityforlearningawayfrom
theteacherasexperttothestudent,andperhapsteacher,aslearner.Brufeeseesthetwoapproachesassomewhat
linearwithcollaborativelearningbeingdesignedtopickupwherecooperativelearningleavesoff.Ineffect,
studentslearnbasicinformationandprocessesforinteractingsociallyintheprimarygradesandthenextend
theircriticalthinkingandreasoningskillsandunderstandingofsocialinteractionsastheybecomemore
involvedandtakecontrolofthelearningprocessthroughcollaborativeactivities.Thiswriterbelievesthatthe
transitionisbetterviewedasacontinuimfromacloselycontrolled,teachercenteredsystemtoastudent
centeredsystemwheretheteacherandstudentsshareauthorityandcontroloflearning.

Collaborativelearning(CL)isapersonalphilosophy,notjustaclassroomtechnique.Inallsituationswhere
peoplecometogetheringroups,itsuggestsawayofdealingwithpeoplewhichrespectsandhighlights
individualgroupmembers'abilitiesandcontributions.Thereisasharingofauthorityandacceptanceof
responsibilityamonggroupmembersforthegroupsactions.Theunderlyingpremiseofcollaborativelearningis
baseduponconsensusbuildingthroughcooperationbygroupmembers,incontrasttocompetitioninwhich
individualsbestothergroupmembers.CLpractitionersapplythisphilosophyintheclassroom,atcommittee
meetings,withcommunitygroups,withintheirfamiliesandgenerallyasawayoflivingwithanddealingwith
otherpeople.

Cooperativelearningisdefinedbyasetofprocesseswhichhelppeopleinteracttogetherinordertoaccomplish
aspecificgoalordevelopanendproductwhichisusuallycontentspecific.Itismoredirectivethana
collaborativesystemofgovernanceandcloselycontrolledbytheteacher.Whiletherearemanymechanismsfor
groupanalysisandintrospectionthefundamentalapproachisteachercenteredwhereascollaborativelearningis
morestudentcentered.

SpencerKagan(1989)providesanexcellentdefinitionofcooperativelearningbylookingatgeneralstructures
whichcanbeappliedtoanysituation.Hisdefinitionprovidesanumbrellafortheworkcooperativelearning
specialistsincludingtheJohnsons,Slavin,Cooper,GravesandGraves,Millis,etc.Itfollows:"Thestructural
approachtocooperativelearningisbasedonthecreation,analysisandsystematicapplicationofstructures,or
contentfreewaysoforganizingsocialinteractionintheclassroom.Structuresusuallyinvolveaseriesofsteps,
withproscribedbehaviorateachstep.Animportantcornerstoneoftheapproachisthedistinctionbetween
"structures"and"activities".Toillustrate,teacherscandesignmanyexcellentcooperativeactivities,suchas
makingateammuraloraquilt.Suchactivitiesalmostalwayshaveaspecificcontentboundobjectiveandthus
cannotbeusedtodeliverarangeofacademiccontent.Structuresmaybeusedrepeatedlywithalmostany
subjectmatter,atawiderangeofgradelevelsandatvariouspointsinalessonplan."

JohnMyerspointsoutthatthedictionarydefinitionsof"collaboration",derivedfromitsLatinroot,focusonthe
processofworkingtogethertherootwordfor"cooperation"stressestheproductofsuchwork.Cooperative
learninghaslargelyAmericanrootsfromthephilosophicalwritingsofJohnDeweystressingthesocialnatureof
learningandtheworkongroupdynamicsbyKurtLewin.CollaborativelearninghasBritishroots,basedonthe
workofEnglishteachersexploringwaystohelpstudentsrespondtoliteraturebytakingamoreactiverolein
theirownlearning.Thecooperativelearningtraditiontendstousequantitativemethodswhichlookat
achievement:i.e.,theproductoflearning.Thecollaborativetraditiontakesamorequalitativeapproach,
analyzingstudenttalkinresponsetoapieceofliteratureoraprimarysourceinhistory.Myerspointsoutsome
differencesbetweenthetwoconcepts:"Supportersofcooperativelearningtendtobemoreteachercentered,for
examplewhenformingheterogeneousgroups,structuringpositiveinterdependence,andteachingcooperative
skills.Collaborativelearningadvocatesdistruststructureandallowstudentsmoresayifformingfriendshipand
interestgroups.Studenttalkisstressedasameansforworkingthingsout.Discoveryandcontextualapproaches
areusedtoteachinterpersonalskills.Suchdifferencescanleadtodisagreements....Icontendthedisputeisnot
aboutresearch,butmoreaboutthemoralityofwhatshouldhappenintheschools.Beliefsastowhatshould
happenintheschoolscanbeviewedasacontinuumoforientationstowardcurriculumfrom"transmission"to
"transaction"to"transmission".Atoneendisthetransmissionposition.Asthenamesuggests,theaimofthis

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orientationistotransmitknowledgetostudentsintheformoffacts,skillsandvalues.Thetransformation
positionattheotherendofthecontinuumstressespersonalandsocialchangeinwhichthepersonissaidtobe
interrelatedwiththeenvironmentratherthanhavingcontroloverit.Theaimofthisorientationisself
actualization,personalororganizationalchange."

RockyRockwooddescribesthedifferencesbyacknowledgingtheparallelstheybothhaveinthattheybothuse
groups,bothassignspecifictasks,andbothhavethegroupsshareandcomparetheirproceduresandconclusions
inplenaryclasssessions.Themajordifferenceliesinthefactthatcooperativedealsexclusivelywithtraditional
(canonical)knowledgewhilecollaborativetiesintothesocialconstructivistmovement,assertingthatboth
knowledgeandauthorityofknowledgehavechangeddramaticallyinthelastcentury.Rockwoodstates:"Inthe
idealcollaborativeenvironment,theauthorityfortestinganddeterminingtheappropriatenessofthegroup
productrestswith,first,thesmallgroup,second,theplenarygroup(thewholeclass)andfinally(butalways
understoodtobesubjecttochallengeandrevision)therequisiteknowledgecommunity(i.e.thediscipline:
geography,history,biologyetc.)Theconceptofnonfoundationalknowledgechallengesnotonlytheproduct
acquired,butalsotheprocessemployedintheacquisitionoffoundationalknowledge.Mostimportantly,in
cooperative,theauthorityremainswiththeinstructor,whoretainsownershipofthetask,whichinvolveseithera
closedoraclosable(thatistosayfoundational)problem(theinstructorknowsorcanpredicttheanswer).In
collaborative,theinstructoroncethetaskissettransfersallauthoritytothegroup.Intheideal,thegroup's
taskisalwaysopenended.Seenfromthisperspective,cooperativedoesnotempowerstudents.Itemploysthem
toservetheinstructor'sendsandproducesa"right"oracceptableanswer.Collaborativedoestrulyempowerand
bravesalltherisksofempowerment(forexample,havingthegrouporclassagreetoanembarrassingly
simplisticorunconvincingpositionorproduceasolutioninconflictwiththeinstructor's).Everyperson,Brufee
(1995)holds,belongstoseveral"interpretativeorknowledgecommunities"thatsharevocabularies,pointsof
view,histories,values,conventionsandinterests.Thejoboftheinstructoristohelpstudentslearntonegotiate
theboundariesbetweenthecommunitiestheyalreadybelongtoandthecommunityrepresentedbytheteacher's
academicdiscipline,whichthestudentswanttojoin.Everyknowledgecommunityhasacoreoffoundational
knowledgethatitsmembersconsiderasgiven(butnotnecessarilyabsolute).Tofunctionindependentlywithina
knowledgecommunity,thefledglingscholarmustmasterenoughmaterialtobecomeconversantwiththe
community."Rockwoodconcludes:"Inmyteachingexperience,cooperativerepresentsthebestmeansto
approachmasteryoffoundationalknowledge.Oncestudentsbecomereasonablyconversant,theyarereadyfor
collaborative,readytodiscussandassess,...."

Myerssuggestsuseofthe"transaction"orientationasacompromisebetweentakinghardpositionsadvocating
eithermethodology."Thisorientationviewseducationasadialoguebetweenthestudentandthecurriculum.
Studentsareviewedasproblemsolvers.Problemsolvingandinquiryapproachesstressingcognitiveskillsand
theideasofVygotsky,Piaget,KohlbergandBrunerarelinkedtotransaction.Thisperspectiveviewsteachingas
a"conversation"inwhichteachersandstudentslearntogetherthroughaprocessofnegotiationwiththe
curriculumtodevelopasharedviewoftheworld."

BrodyandDavidson(1998)lookatthedifferencesbetweenthetwoparadigmsepistomologicly.Inthe
early1970ssomeeducatorswereformulatingmethodsbaseduponstudiesofhumansocialinteractionandgroup
learning.Thesestudiesleadtocooperativelearningstrategiesbaseduponsocialinterdependencetheory,
cognitivedevelopmentaltheoryandthebehaviorallearningtheory.Anothergroupofeducatorsbasedtheir
frameworkforgroupworkontheoriesderivedfromstudiesaboutthesocialnatureofhumanknowledge.The
differentrootsofconstructivismformedthebasisofcollaborativelearning.

Johnson,Johnson,andSmith(1998)clarifythedifferencesbetweenthecooperativelearningstrategies."Social
interdependencetheoryassumesthatcooperativeeffortsarebasedonintrinsicmotivationgeneratedby
interpersonalfactorsandajointaspirationtoachieveasignificantgoal.Behaviorallearningtheoryassumesthat
cooperativeeffortsarepoweredbyextrinsicmotivationtoachieverewards.Socialinterdependencetheory
focusesonrelationalconceptsdealingwithwhathappensamongindividuals(forexamplecooperationis
somethingthatexistsonlyamongindividualsnotwithinthem),whereasthecognitivedevelopmentperspective
focusesonwhathappenswithinasingleperson(forexample,thedisequilibrium,cognitivereorganization).The
differencesacrossthesetheoreticalassumptionshaveyettobefullyexploredorsolved."(p29)

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BrodyandDavidson(1998)identifyaseriesofquestionsforteachingandlearningintheclassroomwhichhelp
distinguishbetweentheapproaches.(p8)

"Questionsteachersaskfromthecooperativelearningperspective

1.Howdoweteachsocialskills?

2.Howcanwedevelopselfesteem,responsibility,andrespectforothers?

3.Howdoessocialstatuseffectlearninginsmallgroups?

4.Howdoyoupromoteproblemsolvingandmanageconflict?

5.Areextrinsicorintrinsicrewardsmoreeffective?

6.Howcanweprovethatcooperativelearningincreasesacademicachievement?

7.Howdoweteachchildrentotakeonvariousroles?

8.Howdowestructurecooperativeactivities?

Questionsteachersaskfromacollaborativeperspective

1.Whatisthepurposeoftheactivity?

2.Whatistheimportanceoftalkinlearning?

3.Towhatextantisgettingofftopicavaluablelearningexperience?

4.Howcanweempowerchildrentobecomeautonomouslearners?

5.Whatisthedifferencebetweenusinglanguagetolearnandlearningtouselanguage?

6.Howcanwenegotiaterelevantlearningexperienceswithchildren?

7.Howdoweinteractwithstudentsinsuchawaythatweaskonlyrealquestionsratherthanthoseforwhichwe
alreadyknowtheanswers?

8.Howcanweuseourawarenessofthesocialnatureoflearningtocreateeffectivesmallgrouplearning
environments?"

Johnson,Johnson&Holubec(1991)haveestablishedadefinitionofcooperativelearningwhichidentifiesfive
basicelementsnecessaryforaproceduretobeconsideredcooperative.Theyalsodefinestructuresand
evaluationprocedureswithinwhichanycontentmaybetaught,ratherthandefiningproceduresbasedupon
specificcurriculum.Theyhavedevelopedanextensivesetofworksheetsforteachersandstudentstousein
establishingthefiveelements.TheJohnson'sfiveitemsareasfollows.

"PositiveInterdependenceStudentsperceivethat
theyneedeachothertocompletethegroup'stask
("sinkorswimtogether").Teachersmaystructure
positiveinterdependencebyestablishingmutual
goals(learnandmakesureallothergroupmembers
learn),jointrewards(ifallgroupmembersachieve
abovecriteria,eachwillreceivebonuspoints),
sharedresources(onepaperforeachgrouporeach
memberreceivespartoftheinformation),and
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assignedroles(summarizer,encouragerof
participation,recorder,timekeeperetc.).
FacetoFacePromotiveInteractionStudents
promoteeachother'slearningbyhelping,sharing,
andencouragingeffortstolearn.Studentsexplain,
discuss,andteachwhattheyknowtoclassmates.
Teachersstructurethegroupssothatstudentssit
kneetokneeandtalkthrougheachaspectofthe
assignment.

IndividualAccountabilityEachstudent'sperformance
isfrequentlyassessedandtheresultsaregiventothe
groupandtheindividual.Teachersmaystructure
individualaccountabilitybygivinganindividualtest
toeachstudentorrandomlyselectingonemember
ofthegrouptogivetheanswer.

InterpersonalAndSmallgroupSkillsGroupscannot
functioneffectivelyifstudentsdonothaveandusethe
neededsocialskills.Teachersteachtheseskillsas
purposefullyandpreciselyasacademicskills.Collaborative
skillsincludeleadership,decisionmaking,trustbuilding,
communication,andconflictmanagementskills.

GroupProcessingGroupsneedspecifictimetodiscuss
howwelltheyareachievingtheirgoalsandmaintaining
effectiveworkingrelationshipsamongmembers.Teachers
structuregroupprocessingbyassigningsuchtasksas
(a)listatleastthreememberactionswhichhelpedthegroup
besuccessfuland(b)listoneactionthatcouldbeaddedto
makethegroupmoresuccessfultomorrow.Teachersalso
monitorthegroupsandgivefeedbackonhowwellthe
groupsareworkingtogetherandtheclassasawhole.(p1:33)

TheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMath(NCTM)hasasimilardefinitionaspresentedbyAliceArtztand
ClaireNewman(1990)intheirbook"Howtousecooperativelearninginamathclass."Cooperativelearning
involvesasmallgroupoflearners,whoworktogetherasateamtosolveaproblem,completeatask,or
accomplishacommongoal.Therearemanydifferentcooperativelearningtechniqueshowever,allofthem
havecertainelementsincommon.Theseelementsaretheingredientsnecessarytoinsurethatwhenstudentsdo
workingroups,theyworkcooperatively.First,themembersofagroupmuctperceivethattheyarepartofa
teamandthattheyallhaveacommongoal.Second,groupmembersmustrealizethattheproblemtheyareto
solveisagroupproblemandthatthesuccessorfailureofthegroupwillbesharedbyallmembersofthegroup.
Third,toaccomplishthegroup'sgoal,allstudentsmusttalkwithoneanothertoengageindiscussionofall
problems.Finally,itmustbecleartoallthateachmember'sindividualworkhasadirecteffectonthegroup's
success.Teamworkisofutmostimportance."

Manyoftheelementsofcooperativelearningmaybeusedincollaborativesituations.Forexamplestudents
workinpairstogetherinaThinkPairShareprocedure,wherestudentsconsideraquestionindividually,discuss
theirideaswithanotherstudenttoformaconsensusanswer,andthensharetheirresultswiththeentireclass.
Theuseofpairscanbeintroducedatanytimeduringaclasstoaddressquestionsorsolveproblemsortocreate
varietyinaclasspresentation.TheJigSawmethod(Aronson1978)isagoodexample.Studentsbecome
"experts"onaconceptandareresponsibleforteachingittotheothergroupmembers.Groupssubdivideatopic
andmembersworktogetherwiththosefromothergroupswhohavethesametopic.Theythenreturntotheir
originalgroupsandexplaintheirtopic.SlavindevelopedtheSTADmethod(StudentTeamsAchievement

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Divisions)wheretheteacherpresentsalesson,andthenthestudentsmeetinteamsoffourorfivemembersto
completeasetofworksheetsonthelesson.Eachstudentthentakesaquizonthematerial,andthescoresthe
studentscontributetotheirteamsarebeaseduponthedegreetowhichtheyhaveimprovedtheirindividualpast
averages.Thehighestscoringteamsarerecognizedinaweeklyclassnewsletter.Inanothermethoddeveloped
bySlavinTGT(TeamsGamesTournaments)insteadoftakingquizzesthestudentsplayacademicgamesas
representativesoftheirteams.Theycompetewithstudentshavingsimilarachievementlevelsandcoacheach
otherpriortothegamestoinsureallgroupmembersarecompetentinthesubjectmatter.Otherstructures
include:Coop,Coop(Kagan),CIRCCooperativeIntegratedReadingandComparison(Madden,Slavin,
Stevens),GroupInvestigation(Sharan,Aharan),IssuesControversy,LearningTogether(Johnson,Johnson),
JigsawII(Slavin),TAITeamAssistedIndividualization(Slavin,Leavy,Madden),StructuredControversy
(Johnson,Johnson).

OPTIONSINCOOPERATIVELEARNING(Lee1997)
Therearemanywaysthatcooperativelearningcanbeimplemented.Aneducator'sphilosophyplaysakeyrole
indetermininghowcooperativelearningisused.Thetablebelowdisplaysanumberofissuesineducation.
Followingthetable,implicationsofvariouschoicesarediscussed.Pleasebearinmindthatthechoicesinthe
tablearenoteitherorchoices.Instead,theyrepresentcontinua,andtheviewsofeducatorslieatmanydifferent
pointsalongthesecontinua.Further,agiveneducator'sviewsareaffectedbythestudentsthearecurrently
teaching.

1.studentcenteredteachercentered

2.intrinsicmotivationextrinsicmotivation

3.knowledgeconstructionknowledgetransmission

4.loose,trustingstudentstodostructured,

itrightsocialengineering

Issue1.StudentcenteredTeachercentered

Theissuehereistheroleofstudentsinshapingtheclassroom.Studentcentered,alsocalledlearnercentered,
meansthatstudentsprovideinputintowhattheclassdoesandhowitdoesit.Thisincludesdecisionsaboutwhat
tostudy,howtostudyit(e.g.,byreading,fieldtrips,discussion,lecture),choiceofgroupmates,howoftento
usegroups,whichgroupactivitiestodo,howassessmentisconducted,andwhatrewardsandpunishmentsif
anyaregiven.

Inateachercenteredsituationtheabovedecisionsaremadeexclusivelybytheteacher.Teachersarethebosses,
leaders,andcreators,whilestudentsaretheemployees,followers,andusers.Thewhatandhowoflearningare
preplannedbytheteacher.Whenstudentsareingroups,theyarestudyingmaterialchosenbytheteacher.The
teacherdecideswhoisinwhichgroup,givesgroupstimelimitsforfinishingtheirtasks,anddoesallthe
assessment.

Issue2.IntrinsicmotivationExtrinsicmotivationTheissuehereishowstudentsbecomemotivatedtolearn
andcooperate.Intrinsicmotivationcomesfromwithinstudents.Forexample,theywanttolearnforthejoyof
learning,becausetheyareveryinterestedinthetopic,ortoimprovethemselves.Helpingotherstudentsflows
fromthedesiretobealtruisticandtheenjoymentofcollectiveeffort.Studentslearntogetherwithouttheuseof
grades,teamawardcertificates,andotherrewardsorpunishmentstoencouragethem.

Ontheotherhand,extrinsicmotivationcomesfromoutsidethestudents.Forexample,theylearninorderto
receivepraise,gradesorotherrewardsfromteachers,parents,classmates,andothers.Theymaynothelpone
anotherlearniftherearenooutsideincentives.Whenrewardsorthreatsofpunishmentarenotthere,students
maybelesseagertolearnandtohelponeanother.

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Issue3.KnowledgeconstructionKnowledgetransmission

Thisissueinvolvestheprocessbywhichstudentslearn.Knowledgeconstruction,aconceptfromcognitive
psychology,istheideathatlearnersconstructtheirownnetworksofknowledgebyconnectingnewinformation
withtheirpastknowledgeandinterests.Eachpersonisdifferentweeachwillcomeawayfromthesamelesson
withdifferentconstructionsoftheideaspresented.Teacherscanfacilitatethisconstructionwork,butthekeyis
whathappensineachindividual'smind.Theuseofopenendedquestionsisconsistentwithknowledge
construction.Inthisview,collaborativeinteractioningroupsprovidesstudentswithmanyopportunitiestobuild
andtryouttheirdevelopingknowledge.

Knowledgetransmission,aconceptfrombehavioristpsychology,seesknowledgeflowingdirectlyfromthe
teachertothestudent,justliketheteacherispouringknowledgeintothestudents'heads.Whattheteacher
teachesshouldgointoeachlearner'sheadwithoutbeingfilteredbywhatisalreadythere.Closeendedquestions
tendtopredominateinthistypeofinstruction.Themainroleofgroupsfromthisperspectiveistomakesure
groupmembersmasterthematerialtransmittedbytheteacher.

Issue4.LooseStructured

Thisissuereferstotheextentwhichteachersbelievegroupsofstudentswillworktogetherwellwithoutteacher
intervention.Teachersmaystartbyusingmorestructureandasstudentsbecomefamiliarwiththegroupprocess
andproficientatworkingtogethertheyeventually,maybelooseraboutstructuringgroupactivitiesandteaching
collaborativeskillsinordertoencourageeffectivegroupinteraction.Ontheotherhand,otherteachersfeelthat
theyneedtobelikesocialengineers,structuringgroupinteraction,orelsestudentswillnotreapthebenefitsof
workingtogether.Theissuesdiscussedabovearealsoheardwhensomepeoplecontrasttheterms"collaborative
learning"and"cooperativelearning".Atthesametime,itshouldbepointedoutthatothereducatorsusethetwo
termsinterchangeably.

CollaborativeLearning(Orr1997)

Frequently,whenstudentsorteachershearthephrasecollaborativelearning,theyautomaticallyassumeawork
groupcontext,harkenbacktotheirownunpleasantexperienceswithworkorstudygroups,anddismissthe
notionofcollaborationasanunworkableapproachthatattemptstotransfertheburdenofteachingfromteacher
tostudent.Suchanxietyisworthnotingbecauseitrepresentsanacutemisunderstandingofwhathasbecomea
mostviableapproachtoteachingandlearning.

Collaborativelearningisbaseduponthefollowingprinciples:

1.Workingtogetherresultsinagreaterunderstandingthanwouldlikelyhaveoccurredifonehadworked
independently.

2.Spokenandwritteninteractionscontributetothisincreasedunderstanding.

3.Opportunityexiststobecomeaware,throughclassroomexperiences,ofrelationshipsbetweensocial
interactionsandincreasedunderstanding.

4.Someelementsofthisincreasedunderstandingareidiosyncraticandunpredictable.

5.Participationisvoluntaryandmustbefreelyenteredinto.

CooperativeLearningisverysimilarexceptthatitintroducesamorestructuredsettingwiththeteacherintotal
controlofthelearningenvironment.Interactivelearningreliesontheapplicationofcomputertechnologyasthe
collaborativemediumbetweenstudentandteacher.Butallthreelearningapproachesrecognizethatlearningis
indeedatwowaystreetwithteachingandlearningbeingtwocomponentsofthesameeducationalsystem.The
approachesdivergeintheamountoffreedomallowedtheparticipantscollaborativelearningstrategiesarethe
mostopen.

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10/27/2016 coop/collabdefinition

Inmyclasses,Iviewstudentteacherandstudentstudentcollaborationasessentialtosuccessfullearning.Thus,
Iwillseekeveryopportunitytoencouragecollaborativeexperiences.Thisdoesnotimplythattherewillbeno
traditionallectureformats.Somelecturingisnecessaryeithertoclarifycomplexinformationalideasorto
presentmaterialnotreadilyavailable.Butstudentswillexperienceavarietyofinstructionalmethodsandthey
willbeactivelyinvolvedinthelearningexperience

REFERENCES

Artzt,A.F.,Newman,C.M.,(1990)HowToUseCooperativelearningintheMathematicsClass,National
CouncilofTeachersofmathematics:Reston,VA

Brody,C.M.,(1995),"Collaborationorcooperativelearning?Complimentarypracticesforinstructionalreform",
TheJournalofStaff,Program&OrganizationalDevelopmentv12,n3,Winter1995,p133143

Brody,C.M.,&Davidson,N.,(1998),"Introduction:ProfessionaldevelopmentandCooperativelearning"in
BrodyandDavidson(Eds.),ProfessionalDevelopmentforCooperativeLearningIssuesandApproaches,State
UniversityofNYPressAlbanyNY

Bruffee,K.,(1995),"SharingourtoysCooperativelearningversuscollaborativelearning".Change,Jan/Feb,
1995pp1218

Johnson,D.W.,Johnson,R.T.,Holubec,E.J.,CooperationinTheClassroom,(1991),InteractionBookCo:
Edina,MN

Johnson,D.W.,Johnson,R.T.,Smith,K.A.,(1998),Change,July/Augustp2735

_____,(1991),ActiveLearning:CooperationintheCollegeClassroom,InteractionBookCo.:Edina,MN

Kagan,S.,EducationalLeadership(Dec/Jan1989/1990)

Lee,G.S.,Internetcommunication,InstituteforDistanceEducation

UniversitiPertanianMalaysia

Myers,M,(1991),CooperativeLearningvol11#4,July

OrrR.,Internetcommunication,IUPUIProfessorofComputerTechnology

Rockwood,R.,NationalTeachingandLearningForumvol4#6,1995part1

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