Copyrightett Material LOOKING AT A GUIDE TO TECHNICAL TERMS REVISED EDITION GORDON BALDWIN AND MARTIN JURGENSLOOKING AT A GUIDE TO TECHNICAL TERMS. GORDON BALDWIN AND MARTIN JORGENS. THE J. PAUL GETTY MUSEUM « Los ANGELES(© 2005 J. hal Gey Tot Fin ton pubis 99 Revd eition 2009 Published bythe J. Pal Gey Maem Gary Pbleions 1290 Geay Coe Dive, Ste s20 Los Angee, California 900468 ne genedlpubions Gregory M, Briton, Pabier Mark Greenberg, Elion if vary of Congres Calogingn-ubation Dasa Baldwin, Gordon, “Leong photographs a gue wo technical erm / Gordon Fallin sd Mert Jrgene.— and em Includes bibliographical refeeces nd index. ISBNgr¥o-533697¢3 (pbk) 1, Photgaghy —Teminalogy. 1 Jngens Marin CI. Ti, “TRB35 2009 rroty— des roakoyss6 Price in Chine dough Oceanic Graphic Printing, Ine ‘The publishes would ike wo acknowledge ht the ile Loking a Phas ves fist used bythe Masur of Modern Act, New Yak n 974, fora ak by Jon Sarkovshi Me Saas ivaluale ui he athe of| phoxograpy is wholly deren: rn the pent sos of eh ems. Goer artrk: Dad Hockey (Bry b 93), ear Hy, sn Apri gt (Seon Veron (Sei. Sep 96. 2 # Lon Peion French sis) Miplon andthe Prince baer 39. Albumen ring 2.41552 Bie Gain). ro, 84304705 ie G.G.Klucs (Reson, 1895-c. 1938, Pj fre Puer fe Sale larg (deal), See p38. 2. Aa Bros (Areca 19 Her His See Park, Monte, New irk 1991-94 ee. Se p16 In the cptins thinly ae ued fr he J Pal Gatty Musa ache Gh). POM. 84 xA7E54, HaND-CoLORED PHOTOGRAPH ‘Various means have been used since the days of the Dacusrarorres to add color manually t0 the surface of black-and-whice phocographs, including watercolor, ‘other paints, and dyes. Brushes, cotton swabs, and aigbrushes are used for applica- tion, Hand-colored photographs are to be distinguished from TINTED ones. HELIOGRAVURE See pHOTOGRAVURE Hotocram A hologram (from Greek holes: whole) is an image in three dimensions made on a photographic plate, but icis generally no sticy viewed as a photograph. Although hofograms and photographs share the quality of being images and the characteristic ‘of being made by the exrosus of an envtst0N surface co light directed by LENSES, in other respects they differ: The principle of ehe hologram was invented by Dennis Gabor (1900-1979) in 1947 but became practical only in the carly 1960s wich the advent of lasers. ‘The technology and vocabulary for holography are complex, and several kinds of images are called holograms; what follows is a simplified sketch. One kind of hologram, a ransmision hologram, is made by directing one of ewo parts ofa laser- generated beam of light toward an emulsion on a Gtass pate. The other part ofthe beam is directed toward the subject of the hologram and reflected from the subject toward the emulsion. The coincidence of the two beams of light on the emulsion produces a mixture of the patterns each provides. The emulsion records the similasi- tes and differences of light. (This isa litle as if yellow and blue paint weze mixed on «surface to produce green, but at each point on the surface the differences berween yellow and blue as wel as the resultant green were apparent.) If the finished glass place i illuminated, agiin using a laser, the original recording of the light reflected from the subject becomes visible as an image that appears to have three dimensions and is produced in a space set up to receive it. A reflection hologram is made some What differently and can be viewed by reflected light without projection. Its image is concained in the many thin layers of which ie is made. Reflection holograms are often to be found on present-day credit cards and the like. Inver PRINT Inkjet has become one of the most popular bicrrat. praw processes for printing almose any «ype of digial file on any type of support, be it an expiration date on product packaging, simple text on papet, a photographic-quality DIGITAL MACE on a zEsIv-coxrED pave, ot large-format advertising signage. A large numberof process variants have been developed, many of them only for specific applications. This wide range of applications isin part due to the process fundamental simplicity: minute droplets of liquid ink ate sprayed onto a support. Although the ftse practical inkjet printers appeared on the market in che 19505, colot printing of photographic-quality images became feasible only in the early 4990s. In the fine art sector, inkjer printing on etching.type papers became widely popular in the 1990s and these prints became known as cicuée prints. Since 2000, professional photographers especially have purchased inkjet printers that produce ptines in color and black-and-white that easily reach, even surpass, traditional pho- ‘ographic prints in tonal range, sharpness, and, for color, in permanence. These prints may be marketed as piezo runs or can carry similar Inkjet princers are very sophisticated devices. Ink is sprayed by means of print- heads, which contain technology on a microscopic level and are basically made up of two principal components: an ink reservoir that supplies the ink and a nozzle through which the ink is propelled. Ic is common for printheads to have a large number of nozzles packed closely cogether. To cover the whole width of the paper with dots, the printhead shuttles back and forth. Because che printed ink dots on the substrate may be as small as about five micrometers (millionths of « mete) in diameter, they are below the resolution limit of the human eye, resulting in a per- czived continuous tone. Inks come in many ‘orms; for printing photographic images, water-based inks holding dyes or pigments are most common, For color prints, yellow, magenta, cyan, and black inks are used, although a number of additional colors have become common. Black and diluted gray inks are used for black-and-white inkjet prins ‘The substrates (often called media) typically consist of high-quality papers, whichner om Mack Kl (Ameen, ‘isa and yon Wolf (Ames 1967) Law Wier ermal Fl, 200 Inkjer ng 504% emt © Nac Ke and Byron Wall The magnified deel reve an ela aey of dos four a mone oles forming aten ‘opie fe ine peat have a matte surface, of esn-coated papers with glosy or semiglossy surfaces. Both spes have an ink receptor ayer that retains the ink dots close to the surface and _makes them less sensitive to DETERIORATING agents such as water or light. The qual- ity of the princed image and the variation in substrate and surface characteristics may be so high that ofien only a tained eye can distinguish an inkjec print from a traditional photograph e print or other forms of digital prints (vcar Gusta Render Bish Shen, 3-189 Te fs Phra Giving Piste an Adina ‘Brash ex 88. Albumen pi wich acibe ele, 6 71cm (8 29h i). rem, 44834 INSCRIPTION ‘Anything written or atherwise marked on the front or back (necro / vEnso) of photograph, its moun, of, less frequently, its war, isan émcription, Inscriptions can ‘consist ofthe photographer’ signature or BLIND- or WeTsTaMt, or they can be made by someone else entirely, for example, a dedication of the photograph by one friend to another, See also tc illustration accompanying LANTERN SLIDE.) Instant PRINT / OYE CIFFUSION PnINT Instant prin macerials ae characterized by the fact that they appear directly, within a matter of seconds or minutes, afer the picture has been taken with a camera, with- cou the necessity of external chemical processing, The Polaroid proces, invented by alin Land (1909-1991) is an example ofthis technology. From 1948 onvvard, s~ ‘ver sattbased blackcand-whice instanc process was marketed in which a NEGATIVE film was pesled off a nostri prine material. The first color instant prin process, introduced in 1965, also relied on the peeLspart system. In 1973 the integra instant print system was intoduced, in which all of the processing chemicals and layers ‘were embedded in one single print material. Instant prins are unique Instant color prints are called dye difsion pring. They contain three important cements the negative EMtLSION layers a DEVELOMING pase, and the positive recep-Andy Wathol American, 5), Sl Pras, 6. Dye difon ne (Poli, 208 86 em Gv 03% in) on, 80153. The Andy ‘Warkel Foundation for the Viel Ar, Ine tor layer. The emulsion of the print materi tized with silver halides to one of the three primary colors of light: red, green, oF blue. The layers are interleaved with associated layers containing both a dye recip- rocal to the primary color and a developing agent. These layers plus a final back 1s three principal layers, each sensi ing layer comprise both the positive and negative and are contained in a sandwich that also holds a pod of developing chemicals. After Exposune, the sandwich is cxpelled from the camera, passing under pressure chrough two rollers that break ‘open the internal pod, thereby evenly spreading the developer throughout. As each layer develops, yellow, magenta, and cyan dyes diffuse 0 form the final image. In peel-apart materials, the negative layers ae then stripped avay from the postive. In integral packs, i is no Longer necessary to stip away the negative materials, which remain embedded but not visible in che finished princ. In black-and-white instant prints, it is nor dyes thar diffuse bur rather silver salts, which are chen developed, forming an image made up of metallic silver. Since the rapid development of piGrrAL maciNG systems and cameras in the mide1990s, the use of traditional instant print materials, such as those produced by Polaroid, has diminished greatly. New instane DicrTAL erin materials have been introduced thac print by heat instead of light. (Ina strict sense, they dfer from tra- dliciona instane prints in thar they ate not dependent on exposure just beforehand) Iris Print “he Iris Graphics printer was an mayer device solely used for making rxoors for commercial printing until, in 199, i¢ was adapted by the musician, photographer, and collector Graham Nash for printing graphic fine art marker. A g including papers, plastics, and textile, giving the photographer a high degree of control over the resultant aesthetic and haptic quality of the picrTaL. pRrwT. Most in eprvions for che photo- eat variety of substrates could be used on an Iris printer, popular were fine art, etching-type papers thar, in combination with the precise ‘conctol of ink placement and the resulting fine tonal values, created an aesthetic for prints of photographic images char had not been possible with traditional, ‘chemistry-based phocographic print materials. Although they have been marketed under the cicuée, often these ivxjer prints are simply called Iris prints, Duc to their technical complexity and the advent of newer prince that offered higher sophistication and ease, the use of Iris printers has diminished greatly since about 2005. Iris prints are known to be highly sensitive © DETERIORATION. See also P1Ez0 paint IRON saurs ‘A numberof iron salts have been used in photographie processes to render the mate- als LicHrT-SENSITIVE, In contrast to the processing of siLvER Sats, which render final images that consistof silver particles, in most iron-based processes (such as the PLATINUA pRutT and the KALLITYPE), the iron salts ac as catalysts for chemical reac- tions (generally a reducton ofa ferric to a ferrous salt) chat reduce other meta salts to metalic particles suck as platinum and silver. An exception is the CYANOTYEE, in which blue iron-based p gmenes are formed. KALLITYPE / VAN DYKE PRINT ‘The kalliype is an KON sar photographic process devised about 1899 by W. W. J. ‘Nicol and derived from the work of Sir John Herschel (1792-1871) in the 1840s, The process is analogous to that of the pLarivuM PRiwT, and the results can look simi- lar. A thick stock of paper was bru with a solution of ferric oxalate, which isan iron sal, oxalic acid, and silver nitrate. This LiGHT-seNsITIVE paper Was CONTACT pauvTeD under a NEGATIVE, usually in sunlight, until the image began to appear The print was then DEVE:oPED in one of several solutions, depending on the desired final image colo “he light had transformed the ferric oxalate vo ferrous oxalate and thereby reduced the silver nitrate, producing an image in metallic silver. The prine was then rixeD with sodium thiosulfare and wastieo. Its colot, which could be furtherKawuirvee James G. Chapman (American, aie ca. 13), Coli ofthe Temple of Cason, Romen Fro, 1905 Kaligp, 22 68 em (8a 3 im), ros gana a6 modified by Town, could be black, brown, sepia, purple, or maroon. Because of alleged impermanence—Nico!’s original formula for fixing was deficient—the kalitypes never achieved rel popularity, although many variants of the process were announced. One kind of kallitype was known as a van Dyke print as its rich, deep browns are choughe to resemble those achieved by Anthony van Dyck (1599-1648) ‘or those of the pigment named after him: van Dyke brown. Laminate Since the 1990s, some contemporary photographers have chosen to present theit Photographs mounted to rigid sheets of plastic or aluminum (see nour) and have consciously rejected the use of the protective sheet of glass found in tradicional frames, in order to create a new form of presentation that allows for a less mediated appreciation of what ar often quite large images. Since the surface of photographic prints is very vullerabe to abrasion, fingerprints liquids, and airborne humidicy and pollutants, protective, transparent plastic film may be adhered to the print. ‘This laminaie may have differing surface texeures, is sheen ranging from dead matte to highly glossy. Typical plastics employed are polyvinyl chloride {PVC) and poly- ester although a numberof others have also been used. The long-term elfecs of the presence of a laminate dhesive on the print surface is as yet unknown, LANTERN suibe Jn the mid-nineteenth century, when a st1D% projector was populaty called a magic lancem, a lantern slide was the source of the projected image. Originally an image painted on glass, a lantern slide became photographic in the 1850s with the use of an ALBUMEN of; later, coLLODION and, late sil, GELATIN, coating on one side. All these kinds of coatiags contained ticit-sewsrrtve sitver sats, which, when Expose under a NEGATIVE, DEVELOPED, FIXED, and wasttED, would produce a Laven sti9e ‘Frederick Bans (Beish 855-194), Ke Mane fiom th hones ch 896 Laer sd, iage 35% 67 om (424 In) Bq 6169PosrTive TRANSPARENCY. To protect the fragile finished image, the coated side was covered witha second, same-sized piece of glass (usually abou 3% by 34 inches [8 by 83 em), and their edges were taped together. Lantern slides were used beth for hhome entertainment and for che illustration of public lectures, often of an edify- ing nature. Latent image ‘The latent image consists of a slight chemical change that has occurred in t1eHr- SENSITIVE materials sich as sitveR saLTs ducing their sxrosunE to light. A latent image is not yec visible, so pEvELoPMENT is necessary to reveal a visible image, In photography, the only techniques that are not dependent on a latent image are the icunoMats and the prnvrnsc-oUr processes, Lens: Made of glass or plastic, a dens is the essential means by which light rays coming from an object being photographed are directed onto the NEGArIvE (or sometimes a Posrrive) material in a CAMERA in order to produce a photograph. Light rays travel In straight lines, but when they pass from one medium (in tis ase, ait) to another {in this case, che glass of a lens), they bend, They bend again as they emerge from the back of the lens. The front and back surface contours of a lens determine the direction in which the rays are bent. Camera lenses are shaped 50 that the light rays converge on LIGHT-seNsrT1vz material, where the image is recorded. Modern camn- «ra lenses are not single pieces of glass bu assemblies of multiple glass elements that collectively produce a clear, distorion-fre image. ‘The quality ofa lens depends on the precision ofits design and manufacture, Among the many kinds manufactured for use in cameras are wide-angle, telephoto, soft-focus, enlarging, and zoom lenses. High-quality lenses are also necessary in the process of ENLARGING to create sharp and high contrast prints, LETTERPRESS HALFTONE This photonEctanicat process was adapted from the traditional letterpress print ing technique used for printing characters (such as leters andl numbers). The print- c's ink adheres to raised areas of the printing plate and is transferred to paper under pressure during printing, In the mid-1880s, lerterpress was adapred for printing pho- ‘ographic images by using 2 HALFTONE sereen that converted the intermediate pray tones of che original image into citer black or white areas. Light-sensitive Lighe-senstivity is the capacity to respond to light that gives snven sats (silver halides), some mon sts, and srcHtroMarzp colloids (such as GUM BICHROMATE) their usefulness in photography. To enable or enhance that capacity to chemically or physically change by the action of light i to sensitize a material so that a photo- sraphic image can be generated. The method of sensitizing varies by photographic process. In analogous fashion, the electronic sensors in digital cameras and scanners ate aso light-sensitive (Gee picrnax. asacisc). Mar See mount. ‘Miniature camera “The inexact term minierure camena designates 2 very easly portable caMeRa intended to be hand-held, having a tens of a high standard of sharpness, employing roll ium (particularly 35 mm), end thus producing a small wxcarive that requires consider- able extanceant, The term is used parcculaely for cameras ofthe Leica type intzo- duced in 192s by Ernst Leitz II (1871-1956); it does not refer to tiny novelty cameras ‘co digical cameras ccupled to cell phones. MONTAGE See couact, Mount / mar In American parlance a mount is a secondary support to which a phocograph is affied, the primary support being the paper on which the photograph itll was nade. A moune is normally cut fiom heavy paper or cardstock, preferably of good quality and acid-free, Ia second sheet with an opening cut into ic ofthe size and proportion of the photograph is hinged to the mount, the ensemble is called a mat, ‘The top sheet theough the window of which the image is scen is called an overmat in ‘America and a passe-partous in England, where mar and mount are more neatly syn- ‘onymous terms. For sas handling, a photograph should have both mount and mat. ‘To atch a photogaph to its mount, modern conservators prefer to use thin hinges, like those used to pue stamps in albums but made of thin Japanese tissue, alfixed to an edge of che photograph with wheat-starch paste. Since the 1990s, some ‘contemporary photographers have favored large, sigid sheets of plastic, aluminum, oF aluminam-plascic composite laminate as mounts for their oversized photographs. ‘These prints are usually adhered to their mounts with an overall double-sided adhe- sive film (se also taMare and rac: MoUNsTENG} Necative / positive As William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877) discovered in the mid-1830s, when a sheet of paper carrying -1o1tr-seNsrrive SityeR SALtS is EXPOSED to light, the sheet «darkens in proportion to the amount of light i receives. An image ofthe scene out- side the camera is formed on the surface of the paper, but where an object in the actual scene i light in valu, its appearance on the paper is dark, and where dack, lighe. Ie was Talbot’ genius to realize that if this piece of paper, the negative, were placed in contact with asecond shect of similarly sensitized paper, the values on the second sheet would be :eturned to normal by reveisl, that is, would correspond to the actual values. The second sheet i a positive, commonly called a pvr. The ‘names negative and positive were suggested by Sir John Herschel (r792—1871). Talbotalso realized chat multiple positives could be made from a single negative. From this negative-positive process, all subsequent chemical photography derives. In digital photographic processes, the traditional negative has been replaced with a digital file that i neither negative nor positive, but simply a series of numbers (see DIGITAL ‘MAGING and DIGITAL NEGATIVE), Necanve rnin Fane Rok (Ceara, 50-1969), Sle une 990 (Gelatin he pis, aaa Sem (Hie 7 tein) 7c ‘5x026055, Necarive PRINT In a negative print the highlights and shadows are the reverse of their normal appear- ance: the shadows are light, the highlights are dark. Made for artistic effect, negative prints can be achieved Ey « number of means, including placing phocographic paper ‘normally used for prints in the camera in liew of ex.s, photographing a NecaTIvE, ‘ot printing from a rostrrve TRANSPARENCY. ON-PIGMENT PRINT See snoMoxL priv. ‘ORotoNe This term refers to a photographic image made from a negative that had been printed on a c1ass pate coated with a GELATIN siLvER EMULSION. The back of the slats plate was then painted with gold mixed with banana oil, or with bronze pow- ders mixed in resin to give the appearance of gold, and the work was framed. The technique was popularized by Edward Sheriff Curtis (1868-1952). (Illustration on next page.) OnTHocHRoMaTiC / PANCHROMATIC Menerre veers ese descriptive terms apply to photographic wecarive materials that have been David Ocavi Hil Bs, soso ond Reber Adamson (Bi 1-8), ae ene hotel Me sacha Sento he Nien GondonHighendesRain te Onder Day a oye pire) 2d adjusted im cheie spectral senstrVrry to produce filler anges of response to the color Su pn (pone cch 5 16.7 m8 Pein). eae Sega and 45). spectrum. The light-sensitive snveR satrs that form phorographic images respondororone evar Sherif Cres (Amaia, r6k-a9e), Te Spf he Apart, 916,| Oroone 358% 28 em (6431 in). Hucingtn Libary, et Collec, snd Botanical Garns Sin Matin, Jel Sadek (Cac 2896-1979, Panes Popa 546 (Gain ves pein, (tax ind. © Anea Biron ‘more strongly to bluc light than to the balance of the spectrum, while the human eye responds most to green light. Thus, the black-and-white rendition of tonal values of mid-ninercenth-century photographs, particularly apparent in reproductions of works of art, did not correspond to actuality: Red and yellow areas appeared coo dark, blues and violets too light. To comect these deficiencies, at alter perio dyes were adlded co EMULSIONS to enhance cheie color sensitivity: In the early 1880s an orhocho~ ‘matic (correct color) emulsion sensitive to blue and green light, ut not cored light, was availble. Afiet 1965, panchromatic all colo) emulsion, sensitive to blue, green, and, toa leserexent, light, was produced. Futther refinements flowed PALLADIOTYPE (PALLADIUM PRINT). Sce puariNUM PRENT. PANCHROMATIC See oxrHocHROMATiC PANORAMA AA panorama consists o a phocograph or series of photographs that encompasses a sweeping view. When an ordinary camera and lens are used, the camera is piv- oted on a tripod, and a series of exrosures of slightly overlapping aspects of the same view are made. The resultant segments are then trimmed and pieced together. Wide-angle lenses or panoramic cameras can produce single-cxposure panoramas From the Daguerrean era onward, many varieties of panoramic cameras have been invented. In one kind of modern camera, the rita is mounted on a curved back inside the camera, and the lens automatically tums on an axis. A continuous expo- sures made onto the film through a narrow slie moving wich the lens. Another cam- ca iself rates, and che film moves pasta slit ata speed coordinated to thar of therotation. A camera called a cyclograph was devised to photograph in a continuous band around the outside of a cylindrical object. In this instance, the object rather than the camera was made to revolve, but exposure was again through a si. PAPER NEGATIVES See CALOTYPE and WAXED PADER NEGATIVE PHoroGeNic DRAWING Photogenic drawing was the name given by William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877) for the results of his fist, cameraless photographic process and derived from experi- ‘ments he had begun in 1834 but did not announce until 1839. In its simplest form, ‘the process required a smooth, high-quality sheet of writing paper chat was dried ‘Willa Henry Fo Tibor (Bek, ‘oo-t77), Pere Spine 0. Phocogni drawing negate 188 4 em he ain). pro, Saat30038 acer immersion in a selucion of table salt (sodium chloride). Tabor then brushed the paper with a solution of silver nitrate chat combined with the sodium chlo- ride to produce silver chloride, which isa tiGHT-sENsrTIvE SILVER SALT. On top of this sheet of sensitized paper Talbot laid small objects such as leaves and lace and then expose che paper to sunlight. Those areas of the paper where the sunlight fell darkened, while those areas that the object prevented sunlight from reaching remained light. The exposure continued until che image (in negative) was com- pletely provreD-ovrr and thus wholly visible. Talbot prevented the paper from con- tinuing to darken by ckemically stabilizing the ge Fimperfedy, with a strong solution of ordinary sar chat rendered the unexposed silver sls lst light-sensitive bc did nor rx the image. “Talbot's next step was to expose sensitized paper inside simple cantenas of his ‘own design: small wooden boxes with a urws at che end opposite the paper. The results were the frst, rudimentary camera NEGATIVES. Talbot placed these negative images in sual «on top of and in contact with a second sheet of sensitized paper uncil a completely formed image had printed au on the second sheet. This was a rostrive print the lights and darks now corresponding to those seen by the eye. ‘These prints were similarly stabilized by means of a strong table-salt solution or, later, potassium bromide or iodide. ‘As photogenic draw:ngs were highly experimental and often only stabilized (and not fixed), their appearance varies considerably from reddish tones to the palest lemons nd lilacs, depending on which chemicals Talbor used. Phocogenic drawings remain very light-sensitive and may darken irreversibly ifexposed to too much light, for cxample daring an exhibition. PuoroatyPHic ENGRAVING Photoglyphic engraving, the term coined by William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877) for the process of producing a printing plate from a photograph, was developed in Willan Hency Fox Toe (Bh, Boo-8)), The Naw Lovoe Beri 38. Phowgyphic engraving froma nmpuive aseibured wo A. owrard ‘French, active 854-85) and Chae Sollee (French, 840-175, 55% 7 em (202% In),1852, and an improved technique was patented in 188, Ie depends on the principle that gelatin sensitized with potassium sictunowA is rendered insoluble by ExeO- sus to light in proportion o the amounc of light received. After coating a ste ot copper plate with bichromated gelatin, Talbot exposed the plate to light under a POSITIVE TRANSPARENCY of the image he wished to reproduce. "The plate was then dusted with powdered resin, heated to mele che resinous particles onto the surface, and then immersed in a sol that simuleancously dissolved away che part of the gelatin that had not hardened and etched those same areas. After being cleaned, the plate was inked and the surface wiped clean, ink remaining in the erched cavitic. ‘Under pressure, the inked place was printed, thus creating a reproduction of the original image. (The resin dusting functioned much as i¢ did in the traditional aqua- tint printmaking process by breaking continuous tones into discontinuous cones; sce HALFTONE,} Talbot sometimes also employed a gauze sereen to the same end ‘The 1858 patent specified a process of duplicating the etched plate by pressing « slice of gutea percha, 2 natural material chat is much like plastic, onto the plate, then giving its molded surface a hard metal surface coating using an electrotyping technique For these processes, he coined the teem photoghph from the Greek for “carved light” PuotociyPie See woopauayrvee, sé Meholy- Nagy (Amen b: Hungary. 99-194), Phatpem Number: The Mra 3932-2 (pin 3938) ‘Galan sverphotorin 6.8 «9c (9H » J6¥4 in) se, 84430 © Bae of Laks Moho: NagylARS, NewYork Puotocram AA phosogram is a kind of photograph, although made without a caMeRa or LENS. An object (or objects) is placed on top of a piece of paper or fiat couted with LIGHT-SENSITIVE macetials and then the paper or film is exposeD to light. Where the object covers the peper, the paper remains unexposed and light in tone; where i does not cover, the paper darkens. Ifthe object is translucent, midtones appear. After exposure, the paper is DivELorED and rixEp. Among the frst photograms were the rHoTOGENIC DRAWINGS produced in the late 1830s by Wiliam Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877), in which some of the objects were ferns, lowers, and pieces of lace. Other examples of photograms were made around 1918 by Christian Schad (894—1982), who called his works Schadographs; during the 19208 and afterward by Man Ray (1890-1976), who called his Rayographs; and from the 19305 onward by Laaslé Moholy-Nagy (18841946). PHoTOGRAVURE (HELIOGRAVURE) Photogracure, also known as heliogravure is (arguably) the finest PHOToMECHANI- ‘cAL means for reproducing a photograph in large srr10Ns. Although descended from the traditional priatmaking process of etching and derived from Talbots rit0- IC ENGRAVING, photogravure was devised by the Austrian artist Karel Klié 1926} in 1879 ané further developed by him, Ie depends on the principle that BICHKOMATED GELATIN hardens in proportion to its EXPOSURE to light. A tissue coated on one side with gelatin sensitized with potassium bichromate was exposed ‘o light under a transparent postrivE that had been contact raNTeD from the ‘roxTIvE ofthe image to be reproduced. "The exposed tissue was wetted, then firmly pressed, gelatinside dewn, onto a copper printing plate thar had been prepared ‘with a chin, uniform dusting of resinous powder. In warm water, the tissue back ing was peeled away and those areas of the gelatin that had not been exposed 10 light were washed away. The copper plate with its remaining unevenly distributed Phocoravre, 57 5m vr 2in), omof the meral were bitten away. Where the gelatin remained thick (the highlights of the print co come), the metal was eaten away slowly; where the gelatin was thin ‘or absent, the metal was etched more quickly. Thus, corresponding to the cones of the original image, te plate was etched to different deprhs. When inked, the varying depchs held difering amounts of ink, which were transferred to a sheet of high- quality paperby a printing press. From photogravure, Klié developed modem screen gravure (rosogravnre), which was widely used in newspaper illustration. until its replacement by offset lithography in the 1910s. If untsimmed, a finished phocogra- ‘ure shows the mark of the plate (the plate mark) around the image. Its blacks often resemble charcoal and its white, if printed on good pape, stay white. PHorouiTHosrarsy A PHOTOMECHANICAL PROCESS for pringing a photographic image, photolithography depends, like its direct antecedent the printmaking process of lithography, on the principle thac grease and water repel each other. Developed in 1855 by Alphonse- Louis Poitevin (1819-1882), the phorolithographie process begins when a fat stone (lishos in Greek), usually limestone, or a metal plate of zine or aluminum is coated with GELATIN (or originally, ALBUMEN) chat has been sensrrizen with potassium riciomars. When ExrOsED co light under a photographic NEGATIVE, the bichro- ‘mated gelatin is rendered insoluble to water in proportion to the light received. The Prorourisonariy Alphonse Los Poi Fench,s918), Man with Gard Tlent 3 Phot hogaph SH 374 SW ree Ese 6 soluble portions of thegelain are cleaned from the limestone, which is then damp- ened and inked. The greasy printer’ ink adheres to the areas of hardened gelatin (the darks in the finished image) but is repulsed by the areas of moist stone that do not have a hardened gelatin coating. The stone is then pressed against a sheet of paper, to-which the ink is trarsferred, producing a reproduction ofthe original image. The delicate and fla finshed phorolihograph may show the impress of the stone, but no plate mark is visible. PHOTOMECHANICAL PROCESSES “This group of processes includes all those techniques in which mechanical means (euch as a printer's press) ate used to produce HALFTONE reproductions of an origi nally photographic image, often in large numbers for postcards, books, or illustrated magazines. These processes include COLLOTYPE, PHOTOGRAVURE, PHOTOLITHOGRA avy and LETTERDRESS HALFIONE. The only phviomechanioal proces dhas could print continuous tones was the wooonuErTYre, PHOTOTHERMOGRAPHIC TRANSFER PRINT Produced by @ picrTL pans. process, photoshermognaphic transfer prints have a continuous tone and a wide range of colors and are, to the casual observer, indis- tinguishable from CHROMOGENIC PRINTS On RESIN-COATED PAPER of from DYE DIF- FUSION THERMAL TRANSFER PROVTS. Photothermographic transfer prints have been used mainly in photographic and graphic applications since 1987. The process is proprietary to Fuji Paoto Film Co. Led. and is marketed under the brand name Pictrogeaphy. ‘Asis apparent from the name of the process, photothermographic transfer relies in part on the thermal DEVELOPMENT of LiGHT-SeNsrrive materials. As such, it baelongs to a wide range of processes that contain smivER sats, but that use heat instead of wee chemical processing co transform the tareNT 1scace into a visible one. Since the dyes diffuse from one macerial into another tis process also has similari- ties tothe anstawr Putvr technology. 'A shoes witha thiee layer EMULSION acts as 2 NEGATIVE and is exroseD pixel by pixel and line by line within the printer by computer-controlled laser diodes. The sheet is then brought into contact with a receptor sheet, and the sandwich is heated and slightly moistened. During thermal development of the larene image, yellow, ‘magenta, and cyan dyes diffuse into the surface layer of the receptor sheet and are bound into the coating. Finally, the donor sheet is peeled from the surface of the receptor sheet, resulting in 2 full-color image. Piezo PRINT (PIEZO PIGMENT PRINT) Although often used to designate an inkjet prin that has been created on a device ‘other than an tris printer, the terms piezo print and piezo piggnent print are not gen- erally used by museems or conservators, who prefer the simpler and more generic inkjet print.PicmenT processes Pigment processes are any of the various photographic processes that evolved from the 850s onward in which the final image on the paper is rendered in pigment rather ‘han in the metals silver, iron, platinum, or palladium. They include the skomot, ‘CARBON, cansxo, and cus pictrRoMATE processes. All depend on the principle that ‘colloid, such as gum arabic or Gear, which has been made sexsr7ive ta light by the addition of potassium sictmoware or the like, hardens on EXPOSURE to light in Proportion to the amount of light received and so becomes insoluble in water Pig. tment processes were popular because of thir permanency, thelr wide range of pos sible colors, thei resemblance to traditional artistic media such as etching, crayon, charcoal drawing, and watercolor, and the way the image could be altered by hand- work on the surface, Piomenr fad Schon anaes 1973), Sift ‘80 Boh end Pale 190 (Gur bichon Prine stem uch ThomeThomsen (rercan, 659) dit Lado from he eves, Expediions. 1979. Gea aver pine from egave made ina pinhole camer, 44-0 PINHOLE CAMERA ‘The most elemental form of caMena capable of producing a permanent image, the Pinhole camera consiats ofa closed lightproof box with a pinhole opening on one surface. Through the pinhole, light projects an inverted image of the subject onto a flat, ticit-sensrrive material that has been placed on an internal surface oppo- site che opening, (Ics, thas, a miniaturized canteRa onscura.) As only a lede light enters through the minuscule opening, che receptive phorographic material must be Exrostp for along time. The images made from pinhole cameras, not having been focused through a LENs, have soft overall definition rather than crisp detail PLATE: MAMMOTH, FULL, HALF, QUARTER, SIXTH Dating the 1840s and late; siver-plated copper plates for making DAGUERREOTYPES \were produced commercily The largest size ordinarily available, from which the others were derived, was the fl plate (or whole plat), measuring 6/4 by 814 inches (06.5 by 21.6 em). Next was the half plate, 44 by 5¥4 inches (10.8 by 14 em). The ‘most common size, the quarter plate, was 3 by 4) inches (8.3 by 10.8 em), and the sixth plate, sometimes called the medium plate, was 2% by 314 inches (7 by 8.3 cm). ‘When otass PLares for Neoxrive materials came into use, a parallel nomenclature developed, with a fd! Ninth and sieteenth plates were much less frequently us late measuting 8 by 10 inches (20.3 by 25.4 em) and a quarter plare, 4 by 5 inches (ao.a by 12.7 em). Mammesh plater ae plates of large dimensions (and considerable weight), typically 18 by 22 inches (45.7 by 55:8 em), often used for photographing landscapes during the nineteenth century.PLATINUM PRINT (PLATINOTYPE) / PALLADIUM PRINT (PALLADIOTYPE) ‘The platinum prins process was invented in 1873 by William Wills (84-1923), who continually refined ic uneil 1878, when commercially prepared platinum papers ‘became available through a company he founded. The process depends on the light SeNSITIVITY of RON SALTS. A sheet of paper, sensitized with a solution of potassium. Pruows one ad Weston Amen, 186-195) Arte Sl Arce, Pipe and Sas 2. Palladium pring, 243 x 19.4 em 0% 74] sc, Ba 7107 © 98 Arzona Board of Regent Caner fer Creve Phonograph chloro-platinate and ferric oxalate and then dried, was CONTACT PRINTED under a Necarive in daylight (or another strong source of ultraviolet light) uncil a faint image was produced by the reaction of the light with the iton sale (the reduction of ferric oxalate to ferous oxalate). The paper was DxvEvoreD by immecsion in a solution of potassium oxalate, which dissolved ouc the ferrous salts and reduced the chloto-plainate salt to metallic platinum in those areas where the iron salts had been exposed. An image in metalic platinum replaced one in iron. The paper was immersed in a series 0 weak hydrochloric or cite acid baths to remove remaining ferric salts and any yellow scans chat had been formed in the eatlier steps. Finally, the prine was waste in water, variant means of evelopment involved coating the paper wich differing thick- snesses of glycerin, which retarded the action of the developer that was then brushed on, Selecve development followed in proportion co the glycerin thicknesses, pro- ducing varieties of intensi and cone, Platinam prints could be akered in tone by changing the temperature or composition of the developer or, after development, by immersing the print in tonNG solutions containing mercuric chloride or lead Acetate or uranium nitrate or gold chloride. Olive greens, reds, and blues were all posible, although grays were more usu Platinum prints were popular uncil the 1920s, when che price of platinum rose so steeply as co make them prohibitively expensive. They were in part replaced by the somewhat cheaper palladium prints, the process for which was very neatly dhe same but which employed « compound of the metal palladium rather than platinum. Both processes were valued for their great range of subtle conal variations, usually silvery grays, and their permanence. Both have the matte texture of whatever paper was used. Recendly, platinum prints have enjoyed a modest revival Positive Scenecarive re, by or under the dizect supervision of the photographer, is thought to most clearly capture the phorographer’s origina inspiration, ic is usually the most sought-after print of any fiom chat negative. In commerce, such photographs are ofen called vintage prints A modern or later pristis made from the original negative, presumably by the pho- ‘ographer; bue ata later date than that of the negative and pethaps employing differ- «nt printing papers from thase of earlier prints. Absent an explicit statement that the photographer preferred chem to eailicr ones, later prints are invariably less valuable than vintage prints, A posthumous print is a prine made from an original negative after the death of the photographer. A copy print is made from a new negative taken of an original print anc usually has negligible value as a collectible object, except, pethaps, when the phorographer uses the copying process for an aesthetic purpose.Ere [Unknown me Aretican active es, Mon wien fo egies Ladder Campony Na 22 ‘ie Campy No 21x ge, Galan sve rnc on pitting pup mount cat 164 206m (6c Bin} eae, ByaD.r9 96 PRINTING-OUT PAPER rinting-owe paper was designed for the produc- tion of a phocographic print from a wecartve by the action of light alone on ticHT-seNst- ‘TivE material, rather than by DEVELOPMENT using chemicals (see DEvELoPING-OUT PAPER). Although saur pants and ALBUMEN PRINTS were printed out, the cerm printing-out paper {RO.P) is generally reserved for those commer- cially manufactured papers coated wih silver chloride ExtstONS, usually made of cEtatin but sometimes of coutopton, that were in general use, particularly for portzaiture, from the 188 until the late 1920s. The paper was uxroseD co daylight in contact with a nega- tive until the image was wholly visible. No chemical development followed, simply Tox- ING, FPAING, and WASHING. After 1900, these papers gradually gave way to developing-out paper. As the printing-out process was tov An campleof he sap deal at could be dependent on the weather and the time of day, schiwd wit prindag ear paper and required longer use of the negative, fewer prints could be produced in a day than with the developing-out process, in which exposure was comparatively short and could be carried oat with artifical light in a Darkroom. Photographs made on princing-oue paper exhibie warm image tones and can have a wide variety of sur- faces fiom glossy to matt, Proor A term sometimes used in photography to designate a print made from a NecativE or rosirave, In traditicnal fine are printing, an artists proafis the final print that the tise is satisfied with and thacis consulted for quality conteol during the production ‘ofan zpmox, In the commercial printing industry, a proof i a trial prine made for checking the colors and registration of an image before the whole edition of a book, ‘magazine, ot other printed product is produced in high volume on a press. RC PAPER. Sce nasin-coxreD PAPER Recto / verso “The recto ofa photograph is the side bearing the image, its front, as opposed to the tena, the back. Ifthe photograph is mounted to another sheet of paper or other sup- port, the vers is the back of the mous. Resin-coated paper supports have been used as photographic print materials since the eaily 19708. ‘They cre typically used for CrmoMOGENIC PRINTS and sometimes for cetariy sven pairs, but have also been used extensively for nexjer and other Dicrrat exivr processes since the late 1980s. RC paper is essentially composed of a sheet of high-quality paper that has been sealed on both sides with polyethylene (PE), from which its akernate name, PE pape, is derived. The top PE layer is pig- ‘mented with white titanium dioxide particles tha give the support a white base; the layer on the back is clear, The eourston (or other type of imaging layer) is coated conto the surface of the top PE layer. Different surface textures, ranging from matte to high gloss, are foune on RC papers. Reroucuina ‘The careful manual akeration of the appearance of a print oF negative is called retouching, Weis most o%en used in portraiture to make cosmetic improvements to a site's appearance, such as removing minor facial blemishes, softening outlines or ‘wrinkles, ot “powering” shiny noses. Ie can also bea far more extensive conrection of perceived defects in she print. Intrusive backgrounds can be muted or removed, as can extraneous compositional demals. Values can be strengthened or weakened or elements added, as when clouds were painted into nineteenth-century landscapes with overexposed skies The common tools for retouching are scalpels, perfecdly pointed brushes, aicbrushes, and retouching pencils, The materials are watercolors,inks, retouching dyes, lacquers, and chemical reducers, akin to bleaches. Many of these techniques have been subsumed by the use of Photoshop and similar software See also sporrin SABATTIER EFFECT Sce SOLARIZATION. SALT PRINT (SALTED-PAPER PRINT) Salt prints, the earliest Postrive prints, were normally made by CONTACT PRINT: NG, usually from paper negatives (CALOTYPES oF WAXED PAPER NEGATIVES) but occa sionally from couLoDioN negatives on GLASS PLATES. Invented in 1840 by Wiliam Hency Fox Talbot (1800-1877), salt prints were a direct outgrowth of his earlier PHOTOGENIC DRAWING process Sale prints were made until about 1860, although in decreasing numbers after the advent of the ALBUMEN PRINT in 151, ‘Asalt prine was made by immersing a sheet of paper in a solution of tale (primar ily sodium chloride) and then senstrizinc ic by coating it on one side with silver nitrate. Light-sensitive silver chloride was thus formed in ehe paper. After drying, she paper was placed sensitive-side up directly beneath a negative under a sheet of lass in a printing frame. This paper-negative-glass sandwich was Expose, glss- side up, outdoors to sunlight; tha is ie was contact printed. The length of exposure, which ranged from minutes to hours, was determined by visual inspections this was possible because the image PRINTED-OVT, that i, it darkened progressively during its ‘exposure to light, When the print had reached the desired intensiy, ie was removed fom the frame, washed in running wacer, and rixep with sodium thiosulfate, at that time called hyposulfie of soda (“hypo”), which removed the unexposed stt- vin sats thereby rendering the paper insensitive to light. It was then thoroughly -wasttzp and dried, The print could be TONED with gold chloride for greater petma- nence and richer tone, although, for best results, it was toned before it was fixed. A finished sal princi often subdued in tone and reddish brown in color, and it has no surface gloss, (Variations in the process included adding GELATIN or arrow- ro0t starch to the initial salting bath—this modified the gloss and color of the final print.) [f toned, 2 sale print is purplish brown; if faded, yellowish brown, Its high- lights are usually as white as its paper support. Occasionally sale prints were var= nished with a thin coating of anuncen to produce a somewhat glosy surface. Such prints have been referred to as albumenized sale prints. Ic was also possible, as Louis-Desiré Blanquart-Evrard (1802—1872) announced in 1851, co make a sale print by a quicker method than printing it out. The print could be briefly exposed under the negative and DEVELOPED-oUT in the same way as 4 negative, then fixed and washed. This method, which i less dependent than con- ‘act printing on continuous strong natural light, allowed for the making of many prints from a single negative within a single day. Ie produced a sale print chat was more neutral in colo that is, black, gray, and white, sometimes with bluish gray undertones ‘Seer peer (eae 3) ‘Wills Henry Foe Thee Bech, 800-147), Corige an Pron Twn Hoh. Sal prin ith unrimmed es a paper eave (nye) mage 168 «73. 6% inh shag x 23m (749m) ne, Ba 4786 SCREEN PLATE PROCESSES ‘This cerm is used for a aumber of color TRANSPARENCY processes used after the turn of the ewentieth century that rendered postrive color images by means of a form (of color screen superimposed over a GELATIN SILVER EMULSION on @ GLASS PLATE. See avTocHROME SENSITIVITY See LiGHr-sexsrmive, SHUTTER See exposure, ‘SILVER BROMIDE PRINT / SILVER CHLORIDE PRINT See GELaTtN stiver PRINT and SILVER SALTS, SILVER DYE BLEACH PRINT Sce DYE DesTRUCTION PRINT: SILVER HALIDE. See siiven satsSILVER PRINT Silver print isa shorthand term for what should be called a GELATIN SILVER PRIN ‘meaning a paper coated with a GELATIN EMULSION containing SILVER SALTS. The term should be avoided because most traditional black-and-white photographic prints contain silver, and the cerm is therefore oo inclusive to be use SiuveR sauts Silver sats are chemical compounds formed by the combination of silver with chlo- 3c, bromine, or iodine, collectively called the halogens, to form silver chloride, silver bromide, or silver iodide. These thee silver halides are crystalline in form and. are 11ct-sensrmrv; cha is they react co light by darkening, Each halide reacts ta different speed. These salts, alone oF in combination, when coated on paper oF FIM «an be placed in a camera and, when exroseD to light directed to the paper by a ‘uns, produce a photographic image, most often a neaartve. They are alo present in the materials from which rostrives, for example prints, are made. The means by which the halides are formed or the way they are attached to the film or paper vaies with each of the photographic processes. (See, among others, ALBUMEN PRINT, CALO- ‘TWPS, CHROMOGENIC PRINT, COLLODION, DIRECT-POSITIVE PRINT, DYE DESTRUCTION PRINT, GELATIN SILVER PRINT, and SALT PRINT.) In processing, the silver halides are converted by chemical means to mecallc silver. Silver salts are thus the basis of most photographic chemistry. SLIDE See Transparency. Ueno Asian maker, [Fabrmen and the tly 900. Glaser pri, Gas ind. SWAPSHOT ‘A snapshot isan informal and apparently unposed and instancaneous photograph, usually made by an amateur, without artistic intention and as a keepsake of persons, places, or events. SOLARIZATION / SABATTIER EFFECT Although the term solarication has been used to describe che Sabattier effect, the partial reversals of tone ir photographic prints to which boch tetms refer have dif- ferent causes, Truc slarication occurs when an intense light source, such asthe sun, is visible in a photograph that has been overexposed in the caxtena, usually acei- dentally, Overexposure causes the light source to appear dark in the print. The sun becomes a black disk, but the reversal of tones is limited to this area of the print. ‘The Sabatier efit, nated for Armand Sabattier (1834-1910), who described it in 1862, i che result ofan intentional parkRoow technique, used to produce tone reversals, The procedure isto partially Dxvztor a NeGartve or pu1NT, momentarily ‘exvose ico light, then continue the normal development process. Areas in negatives ‘hac are lear (and will cherefore print dark in the posrrrve print) become relatively dense duc to the intermediate exposure and therefore print as white in the posi- ‘ve, which is observed asa tone reversal chee principally occurs in the shadows in the completed prints, Ac boundaries between areas of the image where reversal has ‘occurred and where it hasnot, a distince black line is visible in the print ic was the negative rather than the prine that was flashed with light ifthe print was exposed, the line will be white, Results of the Sabatter effec are somewhat unpredictable. \ \ pee Rey Souauizaion / Sauarrgnerrect Mar Ray (America, 190-197) Pri nd Hane 193. Gelatin sre pn snowing Seber 18 229.01 (79 Sin). sens, R495. © Man Ray TrutlARS ADAGE.‘Sins peorosnaen Wille. Mier (Armerica, 52186), Jobe}. Ge ics ‘Spi ofO1 Woman “orig abe Him 1862 Abunen rine artes, 96 xs7em Gy nd est 840.7606 ‘Spirit pHoToGRAPH In the nineteenth century, a ghostly figure was sometimes included alongside or above the sitet in a poreraitin order to convey the impression that a spicic was pres- ‘ent. Spirit photographs were usually made by having the person playing the spirit remain in view only briefly during the long rxrosure of a wecarive. ‘The hoax being perpetrated ina spiric photograph was that photography could capeure images of the dead or departed, particularly ifthe sitter though about the absent person, See also cHiost, Sporting ‘Spotting isa specialized kind of neroucsinG used to fill accidental pinholes in 2 [NEGATIVE 0, more often, to darken minute white spots on a print, often caused by dust on the negative. When a photograph has rape, the spotting sometimes ‘remains darker, giving an idea of the image's original tonality and color. 'STEREOGRAPH A stereograph is a pair of photographic images that are arranged side by side on a Single support and, when viewed through a stereascape designed to hold it, gives the appearance ofa single image having three dimensions. A standard stereograph consists of a piece of stiff card MOUNT, often highly colored, usually between 314 and 4% inches (8.9 to 11.4 cm) all and about 7 inches (17.8 ci) wide, to which BAILING D ‘Srencoansnw "Edvan and HenyT. Anion (Ameria, 11658 and 4-184), Sing dow the Boy 16 ‘Albumen pn rogrphy em and eros nage 74 15. (294 x 66m) J aE B73.350, two photographs, generally ALBUMEN or GELATIN sILVER PRINTS, each between 3 and 4 inches (7.6 to 1.4 cm) high and about 3 inches (7.6 cm) wide, have been mounted nex¢ to each other, Remaining space on the Frane of the card usually bears the photographer’ andior publishers name(s) and a tile, as does the back of the ‘ard. The ewo photographs are not identical but exhibit a slight lateral shift, hav- ing been made with a dual-lens camera, the centers of the uuses being set at the ‘same average distance apare (2¥ inches (6.5 em) as the centers ofa pair of human eyes. Each photograph is thus an image of what one eye would see. When viewed ‘through the stereoscope the ewo images combine, approximating human binocu- lar vision. In order to convey the illusion of depth in the depicted image, a strong foreground is desirable. Viewing stercographs was a vastly popular parlor amuse- ‘ment from the mid-1850s well into the twentieth century. Stereographic subjects vary widely, although topographical views are perhaps most common,TALBoryPE Soe cazoryre. TinTED PHOTOGRAPH A sine photograph bas a single overall color resulting from the addition of dyes to the photographic materials by a commercial manufacturer: The color is suffused throughout the EMULSION or sinER and is most visible in che highlights and mid- tones. ALBUMEN printing papers in pale pink or blue were available from the 18705 ‘onward, 25 were GELATIN SHIVER PRIVTING-OUT papers in pale mauve or pink fiom the 1890s onward. Other kinds of tinted papers als existed. Such coloration is now ‘often very FADED, since the dyes are commonly quite sensitive to light. Tinted pho- tographs are to be distinguished from TONED or HAND-COLORED photographs, in ‘hich the image itself, and particulary its foreground elements, are colored by the individual photographer's manipulations Treo puaroenann Antonio Beat (Bris, bs Corfe 125 2.1909 [Cala of Menon 8, Rowedned albumen ring 35:8 262 legit aoe Terre (rennaryee) Unknown American mat Boy ith Tiel, x70. Fenerps is flder 7.6. 45 em Gin) Os, TiwryPe (FeRRoTYPE) ‘The ferronype, beter known as the tintype in America, where it reached ies great- «st popularity, was derived from the awinroryrs and, like it, depended on the fact thaca CoLLoDION weGanve appeared to be a posrrivs image when viewed against 2 dark background. In tbe case ofthe tintype, che negative was made not on GLASS but on a chin sheet of iron coated with an opaque black or chacolate brown lacquer ‘or enamel. (As the tintyge was made from iron rather than tin, tnppe is a misno~ mer) The lacquered shee, which was commercially avaiable, was coated with wer COLLODION containing suvER sAtTs just before exposuae in the camera. DEVELOD- Mant immediately followed exposure. Later refinements led to the use of a DRY couonion-coated metal plate. As the finished image was in fat, although not in appearance, a negative, che image was usually laterally reversed. A tintype was a ‘unique image and could >e duplicated only by being rephotographed. Despite the image reversal, tintypes were almost always used for portraiture. From their origin in the 1850s until the end of the century and beyond, they remained popular because they were very inexpensive, They were often made and sold by street vendors. Like DAGUERREOTYPES or AMBLOTYEES, tintypes were sometimes placed in small folding cases (see case pHoTOGRAPHH), but more often they were inserted into simple fold ing cards or window mats, sometimes made of chin metal. Most tintypes have very limited tonal ranges and aapear flat and soft by comparison with either a daguerreo- type or an ambrotype.Tonine Toning denotes a vatiery of means available for changing or shifting the color of the image of a photographic print. Its use is largely governed by aesthetic choice on the parc ofthe photographer, buc toning with certain compounds, notably gold chloride, selenium, sulfur, or platinum salts, also enhances the stability ofthe image {and thus the permanence of the print) and usually increases contrast. Gold ton the most common means inthe nineteenth eeneury, originated in the Daguertean nee then each photographie process has had specific coning procedures to produce specific hues. Selenium toning prevails today Ton- ing oceurs in the course of chemical processing, before FLING (for PRINTING-OUT cra (see DaGUERREOTYFH), and. apexs) or after DEvEtopeNT in subsidiary steps in which the silver comprising the image is chemically altered or partially replaced by another metal. The number of ‘arabes in any of these procedures is large. The original chemical composition of the print, the temperature, composition, and strength of the chemical solutions, the uration of processing, and the means of deying the print allafect the final cone In postdevelopment toning, in which the silver is altered, bleached, ot replaced, the choice of toning solutio is wide, including those containing sulfur or, most frequently, one ofthe following metals: gold, iron, copper, uranium, mercury, plati= ‘hum, palladium, vanadium, or sclenium. The range of possible cones is concomi- tantly wide, including warm browns, purples, sepiss, blues, olives, red-browns, and bluc-blacks. A toned photograph should be distinguished from a riNrED or HAND- COLORED one. TRANSPARENCY / SLIDE Transparencies, or slide, axe postive photographic images on a transparent sup port, typically GLASS or eM They are generally made for viewing with a device tha shines light through chem and projects the image through 3 LENS onto wall or screen, thereby greatly enlarging the image. Sometimes light tables ae used to view transparencies. Black-and-white eransparencies were traditionally called taverens sues. "The firs practical color transparencies were SCREEN PLATE materials such 3s avrocRowes. In 1935, che frst CHROMOGENIC cransparency FILMS were introduced (Kodachrome), and many variations of chromogenic positive films have been pro- dluced since then, Sides are most commonly found on rol lm thae is ether 35 mm ‘or 2% inches wide, although sheet film in various formats has also been populat, especially in profesional photography. For their protection, individual slides ate commonly placed in plastic, metal, or cardboard Mousts, which enable them to be caily handled and used in a slide projector. Because of PowerPoint and similar computer programs slides ate rapidly becoming obsolete. VAN DYKE PRINT See KaLLITYDE, arbesop, New Crean 19650, Gelatin se pone, 607 sem 4} 208 in), pa, 840115398. Pad Jac Rarer, pf Gelatin 24719 am (94 «76 in), pom, 4.30135:23. © Ralston Cfo Eat Ralnon Crfid Ameen, 1906-97 VaRtanr A variants an image that is closely related to, but not the same as, 2 known image, as when a photographer makes a second, horizontal, photograph ofa still ife chat was frst photographed in a vertical format, without significantly changing lighe- ing o exposure and, presumably, during the same studio session. A variant may also occur when a photographer prints the same NEGArIVE twice but chooses to alter tonalities or contrast significantly. (Wieh modesn caMtenAs, roll rium, frequent exposures, and especially digital cameras, the potential or variants has multiplied, but the photographer must choose to print two versions of an image to create an actual variant) VERSO See necro, ‘View CAMERA (FIELD CAMERA) ‘The imprecise American term view camera is roughly equivalent to the British erm, Field camera and is applied ro caxcenas meant for making relatively large-scale NEGA- ‘ives, particularly of outdoor scenes. It often refers to nineteenth-century cameras that required tripocs and used GLass pares that were necessarily EXPOSED one at a time and contact rrinTeD rather than sNLARGED. View cameras have a variety of ‘means for altering txe angle of the tzNs in elation to that ofthe negative. Since the ‘wentieth century, auch cameras have often been used for architectural studies, for advertising and con:mercial work in studios, and sometimes for workin the field. A view camera isthe epposite ofa MINIATURE CAMERA.Rayne Rrall ech [ippotre Baya "Both, and vicome ‘Chas Alter dAenous, Brom), [Uniden anlc86, Albumen pric vgn nthe git ounce cane devise, 733% Sc (hea in) rom, yas Felice Beas (Beis, Cerf, 35-1908), erie young ei 66k Albumen Prine vgn in che Pring proces, s8xi6om (G3 6nd Pail gfrom tke ‘Wikon Cee fr Photography. ras, Wionerre, A vignette is a photograrh in which a central image dissolves into a surrounding ground, neatly always afield of white, Oval vignetting was popular in nineteenth century portraiture and was accomplished by photographing the subject through an opaque mask with an oval opening placed close to the Liss of, more frequently, by printing the wecarive through 2 similar mask with partially translucent inner ‘edges. (The cerm is somtimes illadvisedly used to describe the unintentional effect in nineteenth-century photographs created when an image fills off at its corners because the image projected by the lens onto the negative did not cover its whole area; unexposed areas tthe comets appeared black. ‘The tert is more appropriate ifthe effect was intentional) Wasting At various stages ofthe phocographic processes, principally after raNG, or as parc of ‘TontNG, thorough mushing in running water of photographic materials such as NEG -atrves or prints is required to remove excess chemicals that will cause later DETE- RroRATION such as discoloration or fading. Other chemicals may be added to the ‘water co increase the solubility of the excess processing chemicals. The instability of photographs made before 1850 may largely be aeibuted to insufficienc washing or impurities in the water wed. WAXED PAPER NEGATIVE Announced in 185 by its inventor, Gustave Le Gray (1820-1884), che waxed paper process improved the translucency of the caLOTYPE negative. Le Gray rubbed wax into the paper Nextive bfire senstr1zin¢ it in a silver nitrate bach and EXPOSING it in the camera. As the wax rendered the body ofthe paper more transparent by filling the interstices between the paper fibers, grearer catty of detail was achieved in the negative, which tanslaed co shorter exposure times and better rendition of details inthe resultant print, whether Sartor ALBUMEN. Before this innovation, photogray pers had sometimes waxed their paper negatives, but only afer developing them ‘when preparing to print As Le Gray's paper could be prepared several days before tse and did not require immediate pavELorMenT, it was particularly useful for eav- cling photographers, some of whom preferred i even after the advent of COLLODION negatives on ctass, (Le Grays proces also differed from Talbots caLoTy. process in the means used to semsitize the paper) WET coLLovIoN See corzopr0N.Werstane “Weer on she weno cia phongeph ly Aufmanme: Marin Mankisk Martin Munkéesi Camere. Hag. Berlin-Sendneberg yore. 25 44cm fuer St. (eta) rome ‘copyright orbehalten Seane730 Werstame A wetstamp is an identi publisher, or institution by pressing an inked stamp onto a photograph, RECTO or ‘verso, in order to assere authorship, ownership, or copyright. Wetstamps are occa- sionally useful in determining provenance. ing mark made by a photographer, collector, disibutos, Woopsuryryre (pHoToaLyPriE) The Woodburyrype, a type of PHOTOMECHANICAL reproduction of a photograph, was patented in 1864 by Walter Bentley Woodbury 1834-1885). Despite che painstaking ‘care required for its production, it remained popular until about 1900 because of the Weoosunrnyre John Thonwon (Bei, ‘37-981. Cnet Garden Flver Women. 7 Woodbuyepen.t« sem (a e748) very high quality of che Final image. This image was formed in pi and, in Woodbury’ words, depended on the principle thas “layers of any semitrans- parent material sen against a light ground produce different degrees of light and shade, according 10 their thickness.” Woodbury poured a coating of cottomi0n conto sheet of glas thoroughly dusted with tale. When the collodion had dried, the ‘lass was recoated with a solution of picrrroMareD gelatin that hardens in propo tion to its exeoste to light. This collodion-gelatin film was stripped fiom the glass and exposed in cotacr under a NEGArtVE of the image to be reproduced. (The tale tundercoating facilitated che separation of the film from the glas.) The portion of the gelatin that had not hardened was then WASHED away, and the film lft to dry. “The resultant hard gelatin bad formed a ehree-dimensional relief that was squeezed under very high pressure onto a sheet of soft lead, producing a reversal mold that could be used for printing. After being greased, the lead mold was filled with pig- ‘mented gelatin ussally a rich purple-brown in color, and a sheet of paper was placed ‘on it. In a hand pres, the gelatin was forcibly transferred to the paper, the excess gelatin being forced our around the edges of the mold, Once the paper was removed from the press, the gelatin contracted and flattened slightly as it dried. ‘The inky ‘edges were Taistne2p away and the print MouwreD. The tonal scale of the resultant image in pigmented gelatin was very true to the original, and the image was highly luminous. Unlike images produced by other photomechanical processes, a Wood- buryeype, called exe photoghyptie by the French, has continuous tone, showing nei- theta screen nora grain pattern. Woodburytypes are usualy labeled as such.Selected Bibliography “The biography hac ell is confined to fo ents and eweaty-fe-cneury works that ae tcl help and genelyvaable in reference libraries. Ie doesnt include the mineteenth- and ‘nly onetieth-century manuals hat were extensively coraled in the wetng ofthis book. Tecnica Carrs Brass, Ao, lL Vali ge de phoephi Rr: ions Mar Pasi Mast 007 Cor, Bas no Mani Howorm-Boort. A Gude Barly Phongapbic Pca: Leno: Burwood Pr 18 Cuowrono, Wists. The Ke of Ligh A Hiory and Wnkng Guide t Barly Paogaphic Pores abe Fry, N.Y: Bogan and Morgan, 197. ‘al Enyelopeda of Pleapin New Voc McGraw Hil 396. Isremmovs Crszen of Puoroonani. Engelpedi of Parga, New York: Crow, 984 Jones, Bravana Eel, Cals Crlpeic of Poragapy 2 vols London: Cs, Toner, Marrs ©. The Dit Prin: Howie and Proersan Les Angles Gey Convervaton Tot, 3209. Kiera, Har, Handa of Pint Modi: Teale and Paducton Metbade Ban ant New Ye ‘pigs 200. Laven exrnano, A Gd be Prwmine Coneraion of Plopiph Clin Los Angles: Gey Conseacion Irs, 200 (Beko coarse pti amon, Pti Comin des rau histoigus et sentiqus 207. acuity, Damo. Te Way Th Work, Boston: Hough Mii, 198 NiouU, Los Emyelpeiof ring Phogaphic and Poomeerc Poco. ol Feet New Brinscke Acir Lls Nadas 989 and y94.eDok eon 1, 2006. Pants, Mics, The Cone Fal Enon of ooreply Frm the Fic how on Ppe he ‘Digi Rot. Antena Elvi, Bingo, Mas acl Pan, 2008. esas Mi Caan efoto of Nine Cenery Pater Pits Rochester NY Ennonan Koda 95, Rows, FJ ed: Delmar Dison of Dig Printing &- Pabling Abany NY: Denar Pales, 997. Sraoens, Las, erat Photogphi Mati and Poe: Boson: Fea Pres 1986 Historical [Benxano, Baus, ano VaLens Liow, Paden: Maseraots of Pargraphy 40-14. New Yorke Harry N. Abrams, 98. Goupsernmtor, Lucie, ane Westoss Nasr. The Trl Lom A Stony of the Phngrpbical ated Book, 4471914 New Yor: Grolier Club 198, Gauss Sans, EF aL, On the dof Fixing a Shadoac One Haaed and Fifi Yeon of Phororaply Fah, cat Washington, D.C: Nacional Gallery of Ars Chicago: At Inscte of Chicago, 198 Hasooar, Jos, ec. Te Bugelpedin of Minerenth- Gentry Photography 2 vals. New Yor: Taylor and Francis Group, 2008, Jerry, ls. Revlon An Alerarve Hisar of Phosopaply. Bradford, UK: Nainal Museum of| Photography, Fm & Televison, 999. [Nar West0. The Colleton of Alf Seg: Ff Pence of Modern Phrogphy New York: ‘Mercoplian Museum of Ar, 3978 [Newatts,Beavncons, The Hisoy of Phteraply: From 183900 he Prt, New Yorks Museum of Modem ‘at 1985 ‘Ouavam Bonnar A Hitory ofthe Waadbuntype, Nevada City, Calf: Maur, 2008 Rossnium, Neon. A Wer Hinor of Photograph. 3 ed. New York: Abele Paes. 997. Szankarws, ot. Petaruply Uni! Now Exh, ext New Yorke Museum of Modern Ar, 1989, ‘Waves, Mkt, ed The At of Pharpaplye rps Eh, cat. Houston, Tex: Museum of Fine Ars 989. Nie Page numb i eldfie indie in topic. age mmr allowed the lee indie irate. 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