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O il f i e l d w a t e r :
a vit al
r e s ourc e
Reservoir
Non equidemengineers
insector can
delendave
use water carmina
to
Livi esse useful
perform reor, memini
tasks such
quaeas plagosum
maintaining
mihi parvopressure,
reservoir Orbilium dictare;
but whensed water
emendata
appears in videri
the wrong
pulchraque
place itetcreates
exactis
minimum
major problems
distantia
formiror.
the oilInter
and gas
quae
verbum emicuit
industry. Excessive
si forte
water decorum,
production et si
versus paulo
reduces profitability,
concinniorincreases
unus etcorrosion
alter,
iniusteand
rates totum
compels
ducit operators
venditque poema.Non
to expand
equidem
their water
insector
treatment
delendave
and disposal
carmina Livi
esse reor,memini
systems seriousquae
environmental
plagosum mihi
parvo Orbilium
problems can arise
dictare;
if produced
sed emendata
water is
videri
not handled
pulchraque
properly.
et exactis minimum
distantia miror. Inter quae verbum
emicuit
In this article,
si forteFikri
decorum,
Kuchuk,etMahmut
si versus
paulo concinnior
Sengul and Muratunus Zeybek
et alter,
outline
iniuste
the
totum ducit
factors controlling
venditque
thepoema.
distribution of
oilfield water and the methods used to
assess porosity and permeability in
reservoir rocks.
 W
ater is present in every oil field.
C onna t e forma tion w a t er,
injected water and produced
water must all be dealt with if oil and gas
production rates, and total recovery are to
be maximiz ed . Mod ern produc tion
technology aims to identify and assess the
overall distribution of reservoir water and
to monitor and control the movement of
formation and injection water.
Sedimentary rocks are usually deposited
in w a t er, w i th l ay ers of s edim ent
accumulating in rivers, lakes, shallow seas
and on the ocean floor over many millions
of years. Consequently, most sedimentary
rocks are water-wet. The water present in
the rock from the time of deposition is
known as connate water. As sediments are
buried and lithified, connate water will
undergo major changes in composition. In
some cases it may be diluted or displaced
by o ther w a t ers, whil e in oil and gas
reservoirs some connate water has been
displaced by hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon-bearing formations almost
always contain several immiscible fluids.
Water that does not flow as reservoir
pressure falls is kno wn as irreducible
water.
Figure 1.1 shows the fluid distributions in
a typical reservoir before production or
injection begins. Above the free-oil level
the water saturation will be at its irreducible
value. The transition zone between the
fr e e- oil and fr e e- w a t er l ev e ls is
characterized by a gradual increase of
water saturation to 100%. In this zone
both oil and water are partially moveable.
T h e thic kness of th e transition z one
depends on factors such as pore size,
capillary pressure, wettability, etc. There is
a transition zone between the hydrocarbon
and w ater layers where w ater and oil
saturation vary. In general, low-permeability
rocks will have thicker transition zones.
In shale sequences the bound water in
the pores is not normally considered part
of the fluid flow. H owever, shale-bound
water makes it much harder to estimate
water saturation accurately from logs.
Water that can be displaced from the
reservoir during production is referred to
as free water. The total water content in a
hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rock (free
and irreducible) is formation water.
N umber 22, 1999
6 Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w
Gas and water
Oil, gas and water
Oil and water
Free-water level
7100
Water
GR
7200
Density-neutron
In simplest terms, the water saturation in
a formation is the frac tion of its pore
volume occupied by water. A formation
tha t c ont ains only w a t er has a w a t er
saturation of 100%. The water saturation
of any formation can vary from 100% to
quite low values, but it is rarely, if ever,
zero. N o matter how rich the oil or gas
layers in a reservoir, there is always a small
amount of capillary water that cannot be
displaced by the hydrocarbons. A formation
at irreducible water saturation will produce
water-free oil.
In much the same way, it is impossible to
flush all of th e hydro c arbons from a
r es ervoir by ordinary fluid driv es or
recovery techniques. Some hydrocarbons
will always remain trapped in the pore
system. This is referred to as the residual
oil saturation.
Figure 1.1: Reservoirs
which contain water, oil
and gas develop a series
of transition zones (left).
Modified from Amyx,
Bass and Whiting.
Formation pressures
(below) can be used to
define fluid type at any
given depth and to
locate fluid contacts
Free-oil
level
Gas
TVD
Oil
Water
Pressure (psi) Resistivity
Changing water into brine
T he nature and quantity of formation
w a t ers have a dir e c t influenc e on oil
exploration and exploitation. N ormal sea
water contains around 3.5% dissolved
material (often expressed as 35,000 ppm).
About 90% of this dissolved material is
sodium chloride. The water in an oil and
gas reservoir is very different. At depths in
exc ess of a f e w hundr ed m e t ers th e
dissolved materials found in formation
waters are at a very high concentration.
Formation waters with very high mineral
c onc entra tions (typic ally those above
100,000 ppm) are referred to as brines. In
extreme cases, formation w at ers may
contain more than 300,000 ppm.
The most concentrated brines are found
in undeformed basins, such as those which
overlie geologically stable shield areas.
(1960) Amyx, Bass and Whiting, Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York
 a)

Eocene
oilfield water

Lower
Paleozoic
oilfield water

Cretaceous
oilfield water

Evaporite seal High-salinity formation water Tertiary

oilfield water
b)

Sea water

Fresh water

Na Cl 100
Ca HCO3 10
Mg SO4 10
Fe CO3 10
Scale (M equiv.1-1)
Low-salinity formation water

Figure 1.3: The Stiff diagram is a quick and clear way

Figure 1.2: Deep-buried waters in stable basins (a) become naturally concentrated to represent the chemical differences between various
with time and are protected from meteoric water dilution. Formation water in waters and brines
shallow, faulted or unstable basins (b) is often diluted by surface water

Brin es may also be parti cul arly
c onc entra t ed in ar e as w h er e th e
sedimentary sequence contains evaporite
units. Waters in these stable basins become
naturally concentrated with time and are
protected from meteoric water dilution
through the outcrop (Figure 1.2a). Basins in
which reservoir rocks are close to outcrop,
or where the rock sequence is strongly
faulted, are generally characterized by
oilfield waters with a lower salinity (Figure
1.2b). D ilution by invading waters can
reduce the mineral content of formation
water to 1% or less.
Analyses of formation waters are vital for
explora tion and e ff e c tiv e oilfi e ld
management. The chemical differences
between various waters can be displayed
graphically for quick comparisons. O ne of
the most common representations is the
Stiff diagram (Figure 1.3) where bars are
drawn with lengths proportional to the
concentrations of the various ions. Cations
are plotted on the left and anions to the
right, providing a simple fingerprint for
various water chemistries.
The salinity of oilfield waters usually
increases with depth. In some very thick
sandstone sequences, however, formation
waters may become less saline with depth.
As th e c onc entra tions of sodium and
chloride decrease, the concentration of
dissolved silica rises. This is characteristic of
some young, thick delta sequences with
multipl e sand r es ervoirs tha t w er e
d eposit ed during cyc l es of marine
transgression and regression. The lower
sands in the sequence were deposited in a
fresh-to-brackish deltaic environment,
whereas the upper part is dominated by
marine rocks and waters.
Reserve determination is a crucial part of
oilfield development. Porosity, permeability,
fluid saturations and distributions are some
of the most import ant prop erti es for
reserves estimates and production planning.
N umber 22, 1999

Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w 7

 Aquifers (a)
Trap I Trap II Trap III Trap IV

Most oil and gas reservoirs have developed

as a result of hydrodynamic interactions
between oil and water. In addition to the
w a t er present in oil- and gas-be aring
formations, many major reservoirs are
bounded by large w at er-bearing units
known as aquifers. Aquifers are generally Water
much larger than hydrocarbon reservoirs
and are integral parts of regional water (b)
systems.
Aquifers influence hydrocarbon migration
and can provide the natural drive for oil
produc tion (Figure 1.4). T his close
relationship, and the fact that waterflooding
is the most important method for secondary
recovery, underline the importanc e of Water
effective water management.
Understanding aquifers and the bottom- (c)
or edge-drive they provide is a crucial part
of r es ervoir op era tions. Res ervoir
engine ers must d e t ermine th e
petrophysical and flow properties of their
aquifers in order to determine the pressure
support they can offer the reservoir and to
predict water encroachment.
Traditional logs are complemented by Water
testing systems such as the MD T* Modular
Formation D ynamics Tester tool which Figure 1.4: Many oil and gas accumulations are bounded by large aquifers that
provides crucial information about fluid influence hydrocarbon migration and provide the natural drive for oil production
properties in the aquifer and in the oil, gas
and transition zones. O ne of the most Packer pressure (PAQP)
1e+03
fundamental applications for the MD T tool Packer rad derivative (PAQP)
pressure and derivatives (psi)

is direct evaluation of oilwater and gasoil

contacts (Figure 1.1b).
In one recent Middle East operation the 1e+02
MD T tool was used to evaluate horizontal
Figure 1.5: Derivatives
and vertical permeabilities (mobility), from a
and pressure differences
single well interference test, and to sample
during build up at the
formation water in a straight hole. The dual 1e+01
packer and at the probe
inflatable packer module, single probe Monitor pressure (BQP1)
modul e , O FA* O ptic al F luid Analyz er Monitor rad derivative (BQP1)
system, sample chambers and pump-out
1e-01 1e+00 1e+01 1e+02 1e+03
modul es w er e us ed t o c onduc t th e
evaluation. time (sec)
After conducting pretests and establishing
the degree of communication within the
forma tion, engine ers p erform ed th e
Thickness Horizontal mobility Vertical mobility Ct(1/psi)
interference test by withdrawing fluids at
(ft) (md/cp) (md/cp)
th e dual pa c k er using th e pump- out Packer Probe Packer Probe
module. The pressures at the packer and at
the probe (6.4 ft) above the dual packer 11 2.88 2.3 2.2 2.28 1.76X10-6
were recorded with high-resolution quartz
gauges . T h es e modul es w er e also Table 1.1: Horizontal and vertical mobilities, obtained from the packer and the probe analysis
equipp ed w i th strain gauges w hi ch
provided backup pressure measurements. Analysis showed spherical/hemispherical Horizontal and vertical permeabilities were
During the drawdown period, pressure and radial flow regimes at the dual packer. obtained by reconstructing the pressure and
N umber 22, 1999

dropped 400 psi at the packer and 65 psi at
the probe. The flow rate at the dual packer
was around 10 B/D.
8 Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w
The derivative at the probe also revealed a the derivative at the packer and at the probe.
radial flow regime, indicating the total The computed parameters from the match
syst em behavior s e en by th e t w o between modeled and measured pressure
measurements (Figure 1.5). derivatives is shown in Table 1.1. The
reconstruction of the pressure and the
derivative at the probe produced an almost
perfect match. The results at the dual packer
and the probe were consistent with those
given in Table 1.1. These results suggested
that the rock w as, broadly speaking,
homogeneous and isotropic assessments
which were subsequently supported by
borehole images and core samples.
Sampling success
Extensive field experience has proved that
representative formation fluids can be
collected using the MD T tool. However,
when the objective is to sample formation
water in relatively low mobility formations
the process can be extremely complicated.
In this case the MD T tool collected a high-
quality sample of formation water from a
low-mobility limestone formation (see
Table 1.1).
The sampling operation was conducted
af t er th e int erf er enc e t est . Prior t o
sampling, filtrate was removed with the
dual pa c k er. T his w as a chi ev ed by
withdrawing formation fluids through the
dual packer using the pump out module.
The dual packer provides 3.2 ft of testable
formation interface between two inflatable
pa c k ers. T h e ar e a op en t o flo w is a
thousand times larger than w ould be
available with a conventional probe. This
allows the reservoir engineer to achieve
higher flow rates and less drawdown than
can be achieved with the probe.
T he O FA syst em allo w ed re al-time
id e nt ifi c a t i on o f fluids as th e y w e r e
pumped out through the dual packer. At
th e s am e t im e pr e ssur e d a t a w e r e
recorded at the dual packer.
T h e O FA syst em pin-point ed th e
changes from mud to water with filtrate
and finally formation water. The pressure
drop during this pump-out procedure was
around 440 psi. Resistivity readings are not
readily available through the dual packer
modul e , so th e forma tion w a t er w as
sampled by extensive pump-out through
the dual packer. After 370 liters of fluids had
be en pump ed out , forma tion w a t er
samples were collected in two 1-gallon
sample chambers. Analysis of these samples
verified the original formation water.
Aquifers in action
Aquifers provide pressure-support to
reservoirs by a process referred to as water
influx (or encroachment) by expansion
and/or replenishment by surface waters.
T he pe trophysic al and hydrodynamic
properties of aquifers are not generally well-
known and the aquifer is usually treated as
an infinitely large body. Aquifers are very
rarely pressure tested, cored or logged, and
estimates of aquifer support are often based
on empirical equations.
In contrast, the properties of water found
in the reservoir layers are examined in great
detail. There are several ways to determine
water saturation in the oil and gas layers.
Initial water saturation is usually estimated
using core measurements, and open-hole
and cased-hole logs.
Deep drilling difficulties
T h e majority of w a t er probl ems
enc ount ered in the oil fi eld are
associated with the processes of injection
and produc tion. H o w ev er, na tural
ov erpr essur ed z ones in a r es ervoir
sequence can present serious problems
and additional costs during drilling.
In Abu D habi, operators frequently
encounter high-pressure formation salt
water flow ( H PFS W F) problems when
drilling Permo Tri assi c and Pal e o z oi c
formations (Figure 1.6). The overpressure
they encounter is influenced by a range of
geological factors: depth, facies changes,
reservoir type and sealing properties. As a
result, overpressure conditions can vary
from well-to-well within a very small area.

Figure 1.6: Permo

Main Reservoir
Age Formation/lithology Main seals Triassic and Paleozoic
reservoirs subunits
stratigraphy of Abu Dhabi

Upper Minjur
Mesozoic

Triassic

Middle Jilh/Gulailah G1 to G8

Lower Sudair

Upper Khuff
Upper

K1 to K4
Permian Middle Anhydrite
Lower Khuff K5 to K7
Lr
Pre-Khuff Upper
Carboniferous Haushi sand
Paleozoic

Lower
Devonian Tawil sand

Silurian Sharwara ? ? ? ? ?
Ordovician Tabuk
Note:
Saq This section is not penetrated
Cambrian
by wells in Abu Dhabi.
Recent penetration of Silurian
N umber 22, 1999

Infra-Cambrian Hormuz shales on the Qatar arch by

salt
well bore suggests that
sequence may extend to
Pre-
Basement complex Abu Dhabi.
Cambrian

Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w 9

 In the Gulailah/Jilh, Khuff and Pre-Khuff
a Upper seal sections heavy drilling fluids have been used
Gulailah in conjunction with intermediate casings
(G 1) that must be set in the problem formations
(G 2)
to control overpressure.
b Most of the deep wells (below Triassic)
drilled in Abu Dhabi have encountered
difficulties with one or more of the
c Lower seal
(middle following: drillstrings, fishing operations,
anhydrite) casing cement failure, formation and mud
problems. Complex and localized variations
in pressure (Figure 1.7) me an that
a) Upper normal pressure exploration drilling must be conducted with
b) Middle overpressure great caution and must be backed up by
c) Lower overpressure
well-control plans with broad safety margins.
Figure 1.7: Complex variations in pressure with depth.
Two pressure seals, Gulailah and the middle anhydrite,
A challenge in the Khuff
separate two overpressure systems. From: A Rahman,
Al-Tawil and I Azzam, SPE 36297 The problems encountered in one well
illustrate the range of challenges facing
drillers and well engineers. The primary
obj e c tiv e of th e w e ll w as t o drill t o
20,436 ft in the Pre-Khuff and explore the
hydrocarbon potential of various Khuff and
Jurassic reservoirs. Five casing sizes were
planned for the well. Three of these were
run and c em ent ed be for e H P F S W F
problems were encountered.
The first indication of a problem came in
the Jilh Formation at a depth of 16,053 ft
while drilling 12-1/4 in. hole (mud specific
gravity 1.44). A fish was left in the hole
which was plugged back and sidetracked at
11,420 ft. Drilling was resumed and the
sidetrack reached 15,810 ft (above the
problem depth) where 9-5/8-in. liner was
run and cemented (Figure 1.8). Drilling
c ontinued w ith 8- 1 / 2 in. hol e and
penetrated the lower Khuff at 20,632 ft
(mud sp e c ific gravity 1.65) w ith no
indication of the Jilh Formation salt water
flow that had posed a problem in the
original hole. At 20,363 ft, in the lower
Khuff, the well kicked. The kick was caused
by salt water flow from the formation and
engine ers estima t ed tha t mud w ith a
specific gravity of 2.32 would be required
to kill the well.
The operators pumped 4000 barrels of
mud w i th various sp e c ifi c gravi ti es
(1.892.29) in an effort to control the well.
Once annulus and drill-pipe pressures had
fallen to zero, efforts to circulate the well at
high pressure brought no returns and the
string w as stuc k . From this , i t w as
concluded that the annulus was packed-off

Casing diagram
Size and depth (ft/brt)
0 30" casing
Figure 1.8: A fish was left
30" cond. at 336 at 336
in hole which was plugged
back and sidetracked at 2000
26" hole
11,420 ft. Drilling
resumed, reaching 4000
15810 ft (above the 20" casing at 5403 20" casing
6000 at 5403
problem depth) where
9-5/8-in. liner was run
171/2" hole
and cemented. From: A 8000
Measured depth (ft/brt)

Rahman, Al-Tawil and I Plug back at 8720

Azzam, SPE 36297 10,000 133/8" casing at 10,999
Sidetrack at 11,420 133/8" casing
Back off at 11,886 at 10,999
12,000 121/4" hole (Re
(12 cores) 121/4" hole cov
ere
14,000 d2
Kill the well Stuck pipe 667
)
95/8" liner at 15,800 95/8" casing
16,000 End of fishing at 15,800
Kick at 16,053 Tied back at 14,553
95/8" casing
18,000 Logging from 10,480
to the surface
Core and logging
20,000 Kill the well
Kick at 20,363
22,000
0

0
40

80
0

12

16

20

24

28

32

36

40

44

48

52

56

60

64

Time (days)
N umber 22, 1999

10 Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w


Doha
AR
AT
Q
QATAR
Other wells with overpressure problems
Low geothermal gradient <3C / 100 m
Moderate geothermal gradient 33.5C / 100 m
High geothermal gradient >3.5C / 100 m
and that the drill pipe was plugged-off.
When efforts were made to work the drill
string free, it parted at 11,886 ft and the
well kicked again. This indicated that the
bridge in the annulus was above the shoe
of the parted drill pipe and the plugged drill
pipe was left in-hole with the stuck section.
The well continued to flow, despite being
treated with 1400 barrels of mud (specific
gravity 2.32).
A leak-off test showed that the formation
was fractured. Further efforts to control the
well failed and as the drill pipe was being
pulled out it parted. Fishing operations
recovered 2667 ft out of a total stuck pipe
length of 8477 ft.
N one of th e w e ll obj e c tiv es w er e
achieved. Efforts to solve the problem and
control the well took 170 days and cost
more than $12 million.
From their examination of H PFS W F
problems encountered in Abu D habis
deep wells, AD N O C (Abu Dhabi National
Oil Company) engineers have reached the
IRAN
Dubai
ABU
DHABI
Case study well
SAUDI AR
ABIA
following conclusions about deep drilling in
the region:
at least one extra casing should be
allowed for in the well plan
pipe sticking is almost inevitable when
formation salt water remains in contact
with the filter cake of water-base mud
oil-base mud is a useful way to control
HPFSWF
intraformational pressure seals, faults and
fracture distributions should be found to
evaluate pressure compartments.
The origins of overpressure
Experi enc e and fi eld evidenc e in Abu
Dhabi support one of the most widely-
accepted models for the development of
overpressured formations. The first stage,
in this two-stage process, coincided with
hydro c arbon ma tura ti on a t th e basin
d e p o c e nt e rs (l o c a t i ons o f maximum
sedimentary deposition), particularly in
are as w ith high ge o thermal gradi ents
Figure 1.9: The first
stage coincides with
hydrocarbon maturation
at the depocenters,
particularly in areas with
high geothermal
gradients, which creates
abnormal increases in
fluid volume and pore
pressure. From:
A Rahman, Al-Tawil and
I Azzam, SPE36297
Al Ain
OMAN
(Figure 1.9). This stage created abnormal
inc r e as e s in fluid vo lum e and p or e
pressure. A later increase in temperature,
caused by lower thermal conductivity and
fluid migration in the overpressured zone,
c ontribut e d t o th e d e v e l opm e nt o f
overpressure through thermal expansion
of fluids.
The areas with the highest geothermal
gradients in southern, onshore Abu Dhabi
were depocenters for the Gulailah and
Khuff formations. This may indicate that
overpressuring in the Permo Triassic/
Paleozoic sequences first developed at or
around th e d epo c ent ers, and tha t its
subsequent spread was controlled by the
distribution and efficiency of regional seals
in the area.
(1996) A Rahman, Al-Tawil and I Azzam,
N umber 22, 1999
Prediction of high-pressure formation salt water flow in
deep drilling in Abu Dhabi area, SPE 36297
Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w 11
 Advantages Disadvantages

Core Direct measurement of rock properties Costly in rig time

Capillary and wettability characteristics Increased risk of drillstring sticking

can be evaluated

Dynamic rock properties which control fluid Drilling mud filtrate contamination
movement (permeability, etc.) can be measured

Nature and distribution of porosity can be assessed Laboratory test conditions do not
match reservoir conditions

Logs Measurements at reservoir conditions Indirect measurements of rock properties

Table 1.2: Advantages
and disadvantages of Can be performed after drilling
coring and logging
Less expensive than coring
techniques

W
ater is present in every oil field.
C onna t e forma tion w a t er,
injected water and produced
water must all be dealt with if oil and gas
production rates, and total recovery are to
be maximiz ed . Mod ern produc tion
technology aims to identify and assess the
overall distribution of reservoir water and
to monitor and control the movement of
formation and injection water.
Sedimentary rocks are usually deposited
in w a t er, w i th l ay ers of s edim ent
accumulating in rivers, lakes, shallow seas
and on the ocean floor over many millions
of years. Consequently, most sedimentary
rocks are water-wet. The water present in
the rock from the time of deposition is
known as connate water. As sediments are
buried and lithified, connate water will
undergo major changes in composition. In
some cases it may be diluted or displaced
by o ther w a t ers, whil e in oil and gas
reservoirs some connate water has been
displaced by hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon-bearing formations almost
always contain several immiscible fluids.
Water that does not flow as reservoir
pressure falls is kno wn as irreducible
water.
Figure 1.1 shows the fluid distributions in
a typical reservoir before production or
injection begins. Above the free-oil level
the water saturation will be at its irreducible
value. The transition zone between the
fr e e- oil and fr e e- w a t er l ev e ls is
characterized by a gradual increase of
water saturation to 100%. In this zone
both oil and water are partially moveable.
T h e thic kness of th e transition z one
depends on factors such as pore size,
capillary pressure, wettability, etc. There is
a transition zone between the hydrocarbon
and w ater layers where w ater and oil
saturation vary. In general, low-permeability
rocks will have thicker transition zones.
In shale sequences the bound water in
the pores is not normally considered part
of the fluid flow. H owever, shale-bound
water makes it much harder to estimate
water saturation accurately from logs.
Water that can be displaced from the
reservoir during production is referred to
as free water. The total water content in a
hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rock (free
and irreducible) is formation water.
In simplest terms, the water saturation in
a formation is the frac tion of its pore
volume occupied by water. A formation
tha t c ont ains only w a t er has a w a t er
saturation of 100%. The water saturation
of any formation can vary from 100% to
quite low values, but it is rarely, if ever,
zero. N o matter how rich the oil or gas
layers in a reservoir, there is always a small
amount of capillary water that cannot be
displaced by the hydrocarbons. A formation
at irreducible water saturation will produce
water-free oil.
In much the same way, it is impossible to
flush all of th e hydro c arbons from a
r es ervoir by ordinary fluid driv es or
recovery techniques. Some hydrocarbons
will always remain trapped in the pore
system. This is referred to as the residual
oil saturation.
Changing water into brine
T he nature and quantity of formation
w a t ers have a dir e c t influenc e on oil
exploration and exploitation. N ormal sea
water contains around 3.5% dissolved
material (often expressed as 35,000 ppm).
About 90% of this dissolved material is
sodium chloride. The water in an oil and
gas reservoir is very different. At depths in
exc ess of a f e w hundr ed m e t ers th e
dissolved materials found in formation
waters are at a very high concentration.
Formation waters with very high mineral
c onc entra tions (typic ally those above
100,000 ppm) are referred to as brines. In
extreme cases, formation w at ers may
contain more than 300,000 ppm.
The most concentrated brines are found
in undeformed basins, such as those which
overlie geologically stable shield areas.
Brin es may also be parti cul arly
c onc entra t ed in ar e as w h er e th e
sedimentary sequence contains evaporite
units. Waters in these stable basins become
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12 Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w Middle East Well Evaluation Revie w #
 Surface facility
c g
b Water supply well
(WSW)
a migration and formation damage
Aquifer 1
Aquifer 2
Aquifer 3
Figure 1.10: A stylized injection/production/disposal cycle from an onshore oil field
At present there is no reliable technique to
d e t ermine th e l a t eral distribution of
permeability. It is usually estimated from
core and/or log porosity measurements.
However, at the flow unit (i.e., simulation
block grid) scale heterogeneity affects both
lateral and vertical permeabilities.
T h e M D T t o o l pr ovid e s a p a r t i a l
solution to this problem. Where tests are
conduc t ed in association with a good
geological description the MD T tool can
provide permeability estimates with a
r a dius o f inv e s t iga t i on in th e r a ng e
1050 f t d e p e nding on f orm a t i on
c h a r a c t e ris t i c s a nd dur a t i on o f th e
production and buildup periods.
W ithout 4 D dynamic pr essur e
measurements that are spatially distributed
it is virtually impossible to estimate the
spatial distribution of permeability at the
reservoir scale. The next millennium will
see the development and application of 4D
pressure transient testing.
Surface facility
d Water injection well f c Surface facility Corrosion,
(WIW)
h and plugging
Disposal
well
Reservoir
e h Scaling and corrosion
Conclusions
In the early days of Middle East oil and gas
development there was little reason to
worry about water production. Many of
the major fields in the region produced
very little water and, given their size, there
seemed to be no reason to believe they
would for years to come. The giant Middle
East fields discovered in the 1960s and
1970s have now been in production for 20
or 30 years, and water cuts are rising.
Since the late 1980s there has been an
increasing awareness of water control
issues in the major oil and gas reservoirs in
the Middle East and elsewhere. Effective
water control can help to reduce the costs
associated with production facilities, and to
protect the environment by reducing the
volumes of produced water for disposal.
Pressure
a b c d e f g h
Fluid flow path
a Water from three aquifers
b WSW Scaling and corrosion
scaling, oxygen ingress
d WIW Corrosion and scaling
e Reservoir Mineral formation,
dissolution, scaling, fines
f Oil well Scaling, corrosion, PI
decline and equipment failures
g Surface Scaling, corrosion, plugging
and down time
Water problems can be encountered at
every stage of oilfield development and at
every point in the injection/production
cycle (Figure 1.10). Oilfield managers must
be aware of potential problems and make
str enuous e fforts t o pro t e c t f a c iliti es
through regular inspection and monitoring
programs. Efforts to monitor and control
oilfield water are now a central part of field
development and management.
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