CHAPTER V: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Impact on Climate

Environmental Pollution

Impact on Surface Water

Sound Pollution

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 Data pertaining to urban climate, and human environmental impacts were
collected and assessed. Assessment of climatic data was done using tables and
percentages. Figures showing temperate and rainfall trends were also used to depict in a
more explicit way. To assess the urban heat island effect of Addis Ababa, measurement
of the temperatures over the city was taken at a number of locations. Temperature and
relative humidity data were gathered in all places under the study and then their averages
were calculated. The results were tabulated as it is shown in the study. Temperature data
pertaining to the rates of cooling of urban and rural environments were collected
simultaneously from Addis Ababa and Sandafa Meteorological stations on May 30, 2011.

To assess the human comfort season of the study area, the standard set by
Matzarakis & Mayer (1996) was used and it is described in Table-5.1.

Table-5.1 Threshold Value of Physiologically Equivalent Temperature (PET)

PET Thermal Sensitivity Grade of Physiologic Stress

< 4 Very Cold Extreme cold stress
4 7.9 Cold Strong cold stress
8 -12.9 Cool Moderate cold stresses
13 17.9 Slightly cool Slight cold stress
18 -22.9 Comfortable No thermal stress
23 -28.9 Slightly warm Slight heat stress
29 34.9 Warm Moderate heat stress
35 -41 Hot Strong heat stress
>41 Very hot Extreme heat stress
Source: Matzarakis & Mayer, 1996

For the assessment of the physical quality of the study area, different literatures
were reviewed, information was gathered from literatures and published & unpublished
sources from AACG library. Water quality is tested against the required standard. Extent
of solid and liquid waste was assessed using a gap created between the per capita
production and collection/treated capacity.
So far it has been discussed that the city experienced rapid growth of industrial and
related economic activities, population growth and land use changes, all which have

76
significantly contributed towards rapid changes in the physical environment because of
the impact of industrialization and urbanization. In this context, it is necessary:

To assess the link between urban climate and urbanization

To assess the extent to which dry and liquid waste degrades the urban environment.
To assess the levels of sound and water pollution in the city

IMPACT ON CLIMATE

The climate is known for variations and changes over time and space. Climate
change has emerged as a major challenge for the sustainable urban settlement. It has been
extensively discussed in academic as well as in the political domain. Regional and local
consequences of climate change may be compounded by urbanization. In recent years,
the climate change and variability due to anthropogenic causes have received
considerable attention (IPCC, 2011).

At latitudes of 9N, Addis Ababas climate is typically tropical but due to the high
altitude it is much cooler. The mean annual temperature is around 1520C in this region.
The citys climate exhibits well marked seasonal variations a brief description of which
presented below on major aspects like temperature, rainfall and humidity.

Temperature Trends

Some urban studies reveal the fact that urbanization affects the long-term
temperature trend (Charlson, 1993; Karl et al., 1993). This is related to the increase in the
thermal capacity of the urban area where the construction materials in the form of
concrete stores the heat absorbed during the day and releases it during the night, thus
holding the temperatures at a level higher than it would be in the absence of so much
concrete (Matson, et al., 1978; Mayer, 1991). Here, the study examines the trends in
temperature over Addis Ababa and tries to establish a link between urbanization and
climate trends. Therefore, the monthly maximum and minimum temperatures were
collected from the weather reports of the National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia
and data were analyzed.

77
 Analysis was made regarding the variations in average mean decadal variation in
temperature of the study area and the result shows that over the period under the study
(1971-2009), there is an increase in temperature by 1.1 Degree Celsius at both Addis
Ababa and Bole observatory (Table-5.2).

Table-5.2 Average Decadal Temperature Variation

Decade Addis Ababa Decadal Bole Decadal

Observatory variation Observatory Variation
1970-1979 16.1 15.7
1980-1989 16.9 +0.8 16.0 +0.3
1990-1999 17.1 +0.2 16.4 +0.4
2000-2009 17.2 +0.1 16.8 +0.4
Variation +1.1 +1.1
Source: Awol, 2010; NMAE, 2011

As can be seen from the data in Table-5.3, there is an increment in the decadal
average maximum temperatures. Between the years 1970-2009, the average maximum
temperature had been increased by 1.8 Degree Celsius at Addis Ababa Observatory
Station and by 0.9 Degree Celsius at Bole Observatory.

Table-5.3 Maximum Decadal Temperature Variation

Decade Addis Ababa Decadal Bole Decadal

Observatory Variation Observatory Variation
1970-1979 21.9 22.7
1980-1989 23.0 + 1.1 23.0 +0.3
1990-1999 23.4 + 0.4 23.5 +0.5
2000-2009 23.7 + 0.3 23.6 +0.1
Variation + 1.8 +0.9
Source: Awol, 2010; NMAE, 2011

To assess the link between urbanization and urban climate, the Pearson Product
Moment Coefficient is used to test whether there is a relationship between the two. The
result of the analysis shows that there is a strong positive relationship between

78
urbanization and temperature rise. Hence, population growth as a major indicator of
urbanization influences the climatic pattern of the study area. Here, population is
regarded as a major deriving force/ indicator of urbanization, and temperature is used as a
major indicator of climatic characteristics (Table-5.4& Table-5.5).

Table-5.4 Average Mean Decadal Temperature and Variation

Decade Xi Yi (Xi-X)(Yi-Y) (Xi-X)2 (Yi-Y)2

1970-1979 1.4 15.9 0.51 0.65 0.37
1980-1989 2.1 16.5 0.01 0.01 0.01
1990-1999 2.5 16.8 0.06 0.08 0.05
2000-2009 2.9 17.0 0.32 0.47 0.24
X=2.2 Y=16.5 Sum=0.89 Sum=1.21 Sum=0.67

Source: Dalton et al., 1972

Where, Xi= Population at the end of each decade in millions

X = Mean of populations over the study period

Yi = Mean Decadal temperature

Y = Averages of the mean decadal temperature

r = 0.89/0.9 r = 0.99
Therefore, the result of the analysis shows that there is a strong positive
relationship between mean decadal temperature and population growth. Hence,
population growth affects urban climate. As population growth increases, urban
temperatures increase. This may be because of the fact that population growth accelerates
anthropogenic factors of climate change such as use of fossil fuel, increased demand for
motor vehicles, deforestation in search of construction materials, and failure to manage
environmental quality.

79
Table-5.5 Average Maximum Decadal Temperature and Variation

Year (Xi) (Yi) (Xi-X) (Yi-Y) (Xi-X)2 (Yi-Y)2

1970-79 1.42 22.30 0.65 0.66 0.64
1980-1989 2.11 23.00 0.01 0.01 0.01
1990-1999 2.49 23.45 0.09 0.07 0.12
2000-2009 2.90 23.65 0.37 0.45 0.30
X=2.23 Y=23.1 Sum = 1.12 Sum=1.19 Sum=1.07

Source: Dalton et al, 1972

Where, Xi= Population at the end of each decade in millions

X = Mean of populations over the study period
Yi = Average maximum Decadal temperature
Y = Averages of the maximum decadal temperature
r = 1.12/1.13 r = 0.99
The result of the analysis shows that there is a strong positive relationship between
population growth (urbanization) and climatic increase.

Rainfall Trends

There are seasonal rainfalls; the main one is during June to September and a
smaller one is in February to April. These rains are mainly driven by the oscillating
InterTropical Convergence Zone (Mc Sweeney et al., 2007). The average rainfall is
around 1200 mm/year. Normally about 70 percent of the rain falls in the summer
(AAWSA, 1995). According to Mc Sweeney et al. (2007), the climate variability between
years that exist is linked to the El Nio Southern Oscillation Warm phases causing
reduced rainfall in the summer and increases rain falls in the winter periods. Annual
rainfall, and the dry season which covers the period from October to May with a minor
rainy season in March and April well known for its frequent failure. The Congo Basin

80
and Indian Ocean, and easterly winds from the Indian Ocean are responsible for the main
and short rain fall seasons, respectively. The heaviest amount of rainfall occurs in August
and the minimum in December.

As can be seen from Table-5.6, there was an increasing trend in the total rainfall
amount of the study area from the year 1965-2010. The assessment of the changes in
rainfall amount of the study area shows that the total annual rainfall of the study area had
been increased by about 207.1 mm between 1965 and 2010. There was a negative
change for the month of January, February, April, August and November. For the rest of
the months, rainfall figure had been increased (Fig-5.1). Population figure of the study
area has also been increasing (refer to chapter 2). Hence, it is possible to associate
urbanization due to population growth and rise up in rainfall amount of the study area.

Table-5.6 Temporal Variation in the Rainfall Distribution

Month 1965 1985 2000 2010 Change (1965- 2010)

Negative Positive
January 13.7 0.0 2.6 0.7 -13.0
February 43.1 0.0 79.8 11.2 -31.9
March 60.0 17.6 55.5 144.9 84.9
April 95.1 49.9 97.8 78.9 -16.2
May 66.5 110.0 73.8 74.6 8.1
June 128.8 144.5 231.1 150.1 21.3
July 271.1 244.8 313.9 356.3 85.2
August 303.8 306.2 205.8 243.6 -60.2
September 140.9 250.6 237.8 239.1 98.2
October 23.9 46.4 1.8 54.0 30.1
November 4.3 21.1 25.7 0.3 -4.0
December 3.4 0.0 15.0 8.0 4.6
Total 1154.6 1191.1 1340.6 1361.7 -125.3 +332.4
Source: Tamiru et al, 2005; NMAE, 2011

81
Fig-5.1 Rainfall Trends of the Study Area

Urban climate, including urban precipitation, has important implications for the
residents of urban areas. Urban areas have been found to influence many attributes of
urban precipitation. More commonly, there is an increase that occurs over cities. Urban
areas may exhibit an influence over both convection and cyclonic lifting. Common
theories of urban precipitation impacts identify four areas where cities have influence
over the process; these are the effect of increases in water vapor, surface roughness,
surface temperature and hygroscopic nuclei. The Urban Heat Island (UHI), for example,
can increase convection and mixing in the atmosphere over the urban area, leading to a
greater possibility of cloud formation and therefore precipitation (Huff & Changnon,
1973; Diab, 1978). Therefore, urbanization has a significant impact on the rainfall pattern
of the study area.

Human Comfort

To assess the comfort season of the study area, temperature data were assessed
and their figures were checked against the standard set by Matzarakis and Mayer (1996).
This standard is a threshold value of Physiologically Equivalent Temperature (PET) for
different grades of thermal sensitivity of human beings, and physiologic stress on human

82
beings. Hence, this section seeks to analyze which months of the year are comfortable for
human beings and which ones are not.

Table-5.7 Human Comfort Condition in the Study Area

Month Maximum Thermal Minimum Thermal Average Thermal
Sensitivity Sensitivity Sensitivity
Jan 23.5 Slightly warm 7.0 Cool 15.7 Slightly cool
Feb 25.1 Slightly warm 7.5 Cool 16. Slightly cool
Mar 25.6 Slightly warm 10.8 Cool 18.2 Comfortable
Apr 25.5 Slightly warm 11.7 Cool 18.8 Comfortable
May 24.5 Slightly warm 11.4 Cool 18.1 Comfortable
Jun 22.8 Comfortable 10.7 Cool 16.6 Slightly cool
Jul 20.4 Comfortable 11.2 Cool 15.6 Slightly cool
Aug 20.9 Comfortable 11.2 Cool 15.9 Slightly cool
Sept 21.5 Comfortable 10.5 Cool 16.2 Slightly cool

Oct 22.4 Comfortable 8.5 Cool 16.0 Slightly cool

Nov 22.6 Comfortable 7.1 Cool 15.0 Slightly cool
Dec 22.6 Comfortable 6.8 Cool 15.1 Slightly cool
Source: NMAE, 2011; Matzarakis & Mayer, 1996

According to EPAAA (2010), the climate of the Addis Ababa area is typically
characterized by two distinct seasonal weather patterns: the wet season which extends
from June to September, contributing about 70% of the annual rainfall, and the dry
season which covers the period from October to May with a minor rainy season in March
and April well known for its frequent failure.

With regard to maximum temperature conditions, as it is described in Table-5.7,

the period ranging from June to September (summer) is comfortable season, while the
remaining months are slightly warm. Hence, the rainy season of the study area is more
favorable for human beings than the dry season. In respect of minimum temperature
condition, the result shows that the study area is cool throughout the year. However,
when the average temperature condition is considered, except March, April and May, all
months of the year are slightly cool.

83
Urban Heat Islands

In urban areas, natural (e.g., grass, bare soil) are replaced by artificial (e.g.,
concrete and paved) surfaces with thermal properties (e.g., albedo, thermal conductivity,
emissivity) different from non-urban areas. One of the fundamental components that set a
city apart from its rural surroundings is the climate that prevails over urban environments.
In urban areas, buildings and paved surfaces have gradually replaced preexisting natural
land escapes; as a result, solar energy is absorbed into roads and rooftops, causing the
surface temperature of urban structures to become up to 11C higher than the ambient air
temperature (Taha, Akbari & Sallor 1997).

Urban climatic reviews conducted by Landsberg (1981), Oke and Bornstein

(1981), Bornstein (1987), Oke (1987), Ohashi and Kida (2001), and Lowry (1977) have
shown that under clear skies and light wind conditions, cities are warmer than
surrounding rural environments by up to 10. The albedo is a measure of the amount of
solar energy reflected by the surface. As such, low albedo has implied higher surface
temperature since the large amounts of energy are absorbed. As surface throughout an
entire community or city become hotter, overall ambient air temperature increase. This
phenomenon is known as Urban Heat Island (UHI). The air temperature in a city could
rise by about 3C or higher because of the effects of UHI. The resulting higher
temperature caused by the urban heat island had the effect of increasing the demand for
cooling energy in commercial and residential buildings in some large cities.

Table-5.8 depicts temperature and humidity variation between urban and rural
environments of the study area. The temperature in urban area is usually higher than in
the surrounding rural areas. To examine the temperature distribution between urban and
rural environments, climatic data were collected from both urban and rural extension
areas of Addis Ababa and then compared. The result reveals that the rural environments
with much of its area under agricultural land use have shown lower temperatures and
higher humidity over urban areas. The temperature of the urban area of Addis Ababa was
higher by 1.3 to 4.2 and relative humidity records were less by about 4 percent over
the stated rural areas.

84
Table-5.8 Temperature and Humidity Variation between Urban and Rural Environments
(May, 2011)
Urban Stations Temperature() Relative Humidity (%)
Central Station 24.1 53.0
Bole Station 23.2 54.2
Akaki Station 22.1 55.1
Rural Stations Temperatures() Relative Humidity (%)
Sabata 20.8 57.0
Sandafa 20.1 56.3
Sululta 19.9 59.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

The rapid increase in population has led to the establishment and expansion of
urban centers. These will in turn accelerate pressure on the environment from time to
time. Growth in population, industrialization and urbanization are the three main causes
of environmental problems due to the introduction of undesirable materials into soils,
water and air. Such changes in the characteristics of soil, water and air, may have a direct
effect on the health of people or other living things. This condition of being impure or
unclean is termed as polluted state and the process of producing this state known as
pollution. The presence of these pollutants in water bodies, soil, and atmosphere will
make the existence of life very difficult. Now days, Ethiopia is facing an environmental
crisis and it is becoming the most serious challenges of socioeconomic development of
the study area.

Sewerage Water Pollution

Table-5.9 depicts the changes in the volume of sewerage water discharge from
different industries in the study region. The growth rates of the volume of these sources
of pollutants are calculated using the following formula.

Percent change = [(volume of present pollutant Volume of the past

pollutant)/Volume of the past pollutant] * 100

85
Table-5.9 Volume of Wastewater Discharge from Different Industries in the Study Area
Growth Rates Annual Rate of
Type of Industry 2000 2010 Change
Iron and Steel 23,120 146,239 530
53
Non-ferrous metals 230 2,217 860
86
Food and Beverages 521,344 1,795,252 240
24
Paper and Printing 12,000 45,967 280
28
Petrochemicals 2,500 11,421 360
36
Rubber 74,520 205,746 180 18
Pharmaceuticals 8,521 50,089 490
49
Soap and detergents 231 1,089 370
37
Tobacco 13,850 31,080 120 12
Textiles 108,523 1,992,597 1,740 174
Leather and Footwear 66,723 547,860 720
72
Wood 9,235 47,805 420 42
Total 842,797 4,877,362 479 48
Source: CSA, 1999

According to this result, textile industry had the highest growth rate (174 percent).
This means that it had grown by 174 percent per year in ten years. The second highest
growth rate in the volume of sewerage water was observed in non-ferrous metals industry
with about 86 percent per year. Food and beverages were the dominant sources of
sewerage water in 2000, while textiles became major sources of water pollution in 2010.
Textile industry showed the maximum absolute change in the total volume of sewerage
water between the year 2000 and 2010. The second major change in the volume of waste
water was observed in food and beverages. As can be observed from Table-5.9, greater
proportion (40.9 percent) of the annual waste water was discharged from textile
industries, followed by food and beverage industries constituting about 36.8 percent. The
proportion of waste water discharged from Leather and footwear industry forms about
11.2 percent.

86
Table-5.10 Temporal Variations in Liquid Waste Characteristics

Annual Trend
Indicators
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
3
Daily Liquid Waste generated in M
136,893 136,027 149,392 155,013 161,668
/day
Daily Liquid Waste Collection
10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
Capacity M3 /day
Daily per capita liquid waste
88 88 88 88 88
generated in M3
Daily liquid waste treated in M3 8,530 8,592 8,760 8,024 6,728
AAWSA, 2010

As details are presented in Table-5.10, there is an increasing trend in the daily

liquid waste generated over years under discussion. For instance, the daily liquid waste
generated in 2005 was 136,893 m3 while that of 2007 was 149,392 m3. The figure was
grown to 161,668 m3 by 2009. The total liquid waste generated in 2009 exceeds that of
2005 by 24775 m3. The amount of liquid waste generated shows increasing trend between
the year 2005 and 2009.

However, the daily liquid waste collection capacity of the city is much lower than
the total generated. Throughout the period under study, the capacity of the citys liquid
waste collection capacity was 10,000 m3/ day, and the actual daily liquid waste treated
was much lower in volume. Particularly, the gap between the volume of liquid waste
generated and treated was much higher during the years 2008 and 2009.

This degradation of river water quality becomes one of the major environmental
problems that we are facing today. This is because, most of the industries directly
discharge their waste into the water bodies near to them; without any treatments and there
is no law which prohibits them not to do so (EPA, 2005). This condition definitely
results in poor environmental conditions and chronic of diseases and epidemics, which in
turn present a formidable threat to the health and productivity of the inhabitants of the
city. The threat of this severe sewerage pollution in the city is also a serious challenge
and contaminant to the citys agricultural practices and livestock production (Plate-5.1).

87
 Plate-5.1 Sewerage Waste Pollution in the Study Area
Solid Waste Pollution

Cities generates various types of wastes arising from human activities such as
residential, commercial, medical, industrial and construction. Development associated
with urbanization and industrialization and rapid population increase have contributed to
massive generation and uncontrolled solid waste in developing countries of the world.
Similar to many developing cities, a rapid population growth poses environmental
challenges in the Addis Ababa city. One of these challenges is related to dry waste
management. The inadequate solid waste management system has resulted in the
accumulation of waste on open lands, in drains and around the residential area of the city,
causing huge trouble especially due to unclean smelling pools, water and soil pollution
and burning of waste (air pollution), blockage of drains, and consequently aggravates the
spread of diseases. In many areas of the city, unattended piles of waste are becoming a
breeding place for disease vectors (insects and rats). This situation is believed to result in
poor urban environmental conditions and chronic of epidemics, which in turn present a
formidable threat to the health and productivity of the inhabitants of the city (Tadesse,
2002).

88
 According to AACG (2010), the total amount of waste collected per annum is
about 65 per cent of the total volume generated in a year, i.e. 35 percent uncollected
every year. This demonstrates that despite of relative improvement in waste collection by
employing more efficient means as planned, the volume of actual uncollected waste will
continue to increase in proportion to the population. The phases involved in municipal
solid waste management in the study area do not conform to the standard phases
indicated in the Bernstein (2004). In the study area, solid waste management includes
the collection, recycling and disposal phases only. However, Municipal solid waste
management should involve refuse storage and collection, street and drain cleaning,
solid waste transfer and transport, solid waste disposal, and resource recovery. It also
involves vehicle maintenance and repair, financial management, administrative activities
such as routing, scheduling, and record keeping, staff management and development, and
strategic MSWM planning (Bernstein, 2004). Therefore, starting from the steps used,
the MSWM system in the study area is not adequate enough to fully deal with the waste
management systems.

Table-5.11 Volume and Composition of Solid Wastes in the Study Area

Weighted % composition by weight and years of

Major instruments information

1982 1994 2003 2011

All fine 53.6 65.58 60.5 65.0
Combustible 25.2 15.13 15.1 15.1
Vegetables 8.7 4.19 4.2 4.2
Rubber or Plastic 1.2 2.93 2.9 2.9
Paper 2.2 2.47 2.5 2.5
Non Combustible stones 6.3 2.53 2.5 2.5
Textiles 1.5 2.37 2.4 2.4
Wood 1.3 2.37 2.3 2.3
Source: EPAAA, 2010; AAWSA, 2011

According to Table-5.11, out of the total waste generated in the city in 1982,
about 54 percent is organic (all fine/ useless and are mostly generated by households,
commercial and industrial institutions) in nature, while about 25 percent of the waste is
characterized as combustible or recyclable in nature. Table-5.11 also indicates that

89
except for the organic waste (all fine) the trend of composition of solid wastes over the
year 1994, 2003 and 2011 shows similar figures. Out of the total waste generated in the
city over the three years, about 65 percent (60.5 percent in 2003) is organic in nature,
while about 15 percent of this waste is characterized as recyclable waste.

As can be seen from Table-5.12, the amount of total solid waste generated show
an increase in trend between the year 2005 and 2007. Then, the trend declined in the year
2008, and in 2009 it started to rise up. One can observe from Fig-5.2 and Fig-5.3 that
there was a fluctuating trend in the amount of formally disposed wastes, with an
increment starting in 2008. Regarding the amount in the informally dumped solid wastes,
the figure shows a declining trend between year 2006 and 2009.

Table-5.12 Variations between Formally and Illegally Dumped Solid Wastes

Dumping System 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Formally Disposed Wastes(m3) 623,624 540,266 615,335 537,050 669,645
Illegally dumped(m3) 139,591 232,058 171,970 141,562 47,501
Annual Solid Waste Generation(m3) 763,215 772,324 787,305 678,612 717,146
Source: AACG, 2010

Table-5.13 discloses that peripheral sub cities emit larger amounts (69.2 percent)
of solid waste than central sub cities (30.8 percent). This wide gap is mainly because of
the fact that most industries which are potentially susceptible to emanate solid wastes are
concentrated in peripheral sub cities. At sub city level, Kolfe Keranio is the top in
discharging greater proportion (14.8 percent) of the total solid waste, followed by Yeka
constituting about 13.9 percent. The Bole sub city ranks third with 12.1 percent of the
total.
Peripheral sub cities are higher in the proportion of both means of disposal. It
constitutes about 62.4 percent of the total formally disposed solid wastes and 84.9 percent
of the total informally disposed wastes. This indicates that peripheral sub cities use
informal means of solid waste disposal system than formal means. In contrast to this,
central sub cities use formal means of solid waste disposal system than informal one.

90
Fig-5.2 Temporal Variations in the Mode of Solid Waste Disposal Systems, (in Percent)

Fig-5.3 Temporal Variations in the Mode of Solid Waste Disposal Systems, Actual
Comparison

91
 At individual sub city level, the proportion of formally disposed solid waste is
higher than informally disposed solid wastes in Gullele, Lideta, Kirkos, Arada and
Addis Ketema. For the rest sub cities, the proportion of informal means of solid waste
disposal system is higher than informal means.

Therefore, this study showed that the amount of solid waste generation of the
study area is very high and its collection rate is low. In many part of the city, the
significant proportion of the total amount of solid waste was not formally disposed.
This situation would result in poor urban environmental conditions and chronic of
epidemics, which in turn present a formidable threat to the health and productivity of
the inhabitants of the city.

Table-5.13 Percentage Distribution of Waste Disposal Systems by Housing Units and

Sub Cities
Formally Informally Total Waste
Sub Cities
Disposed Disposed Disposed
Akaki Qaliti 6.2 9.6 7.3
Nifas Silk Lafto 11.3 13.5 11.9
Kolfe Keranio 12.6 20.0 14.8
Peripheral

Gullale 9.3 8.9 9.2

Yeka 11.5 19.2 13.9
Bole 11.5 13.7 12.1
Total 62.4 84.9 69.2
Lideta 8.5 3.8 7.1
Kirkos 10.8 2.9 8.4
Arada 9.4 3.3 7.5
Central

Addis Ketema 8.9 5.2 7.8

Total 37.6 15.2 30.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: CSA, 2009

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Fig-5.4 Percentage Distribution of Solid Waste Volume According to Sub Cities

Pollution by Solid Waste Disposal Site/ Damping Yards

Solid waste disposal sites are usually space intensive (A landfill site with a 20-
year lifespan covers approximately 100 ha & should have an 800m buffer around it).
It can be incorporated within recreational space system with careful design. Essential
facilities that must be planned within the Municipalitys Integrated Development Plan
require professional engineering advice and environmental impact assessment (EPA,
1997; Yirgalem, 2001).

However, the characteristic of dumping site which is found in the study area is
far from the above standard. Reppi/Koshe dumping site (Fig-5.3) is approximately
square in shape with an area of about 25 hectares. The south side of the dumping site
is bounded by a ring road of the city. Other boundaries are straight without fences and
other means of protection for man as well as for animals. Dumping area is
compartmentalized into two zones: the first zone is filled zone and the other one is
exploitation zone. The filled cell occupies an area of about 20 hectares and has piled
up to a height of 5 m. The height of the landfill from the bottom of the cell today is
expected to be 11 meters above ground level.

93
Source: AACG, 2010
Plate-5.2 Solid Waste Management Cycle in the Study Area

Different researchers (Tamiru Alemayehu et al., 2003; Bjerkli, 2005; Tadesse,

2004) show that Koshe or Repi open dumping site has been posing negative
impacts on the environment and public health such as downstream water pollution,
soil pollution and health problems in the surrounding community. The problems
resulted due to not considering environmental and social factors during site selection.

94
Source: AACG, 2010

Plate-5.3 Solid Waste Dumping Site Reppi

According to the study made by Gizachew (2011) on landfill site suitability

analysis of Addis Ababa, the current dumping site falls in unsuitable site. The site is
located near a main road and surrounded by residential area resulted in health and social
problems such as nuisance, health hazard stigma and hampering of societal activities
practiced near the site due to the large number of waste picker are continuously working
daily. Moreover, the area is vulnerable to ground and surface water pollution as it is
located at the very highly permeable area and near rivers/streams and faults. Moreover, all
types of solid wastes from domestic, market, industry, commercial and hospitals, which
may contain leachable toxic compounds, have been dumped without any treatment and
separation. Furthermore, there are no daily covering of solid waste after disposal to
reduce environmental and public health problem. These practices signify the risk to the
public health and the environment. Hence, the location of dumping site does not satisfy
the international landfill standards. Furthermore, open dumping is not acceptable from
international and national environmental point of views. Therefore, the current solid
waste disposal system is not environmentally friendly and socially acceptable.

95
IMPACT ON SURFACE WATER

An assessment was made based on data obtained from the Environmental

Protection Authority of Addis Ababa regarding the existing level of water pollution.
The result shows that the existing level of non point and point source of water
pollution are highly deviating from the international standard. As details are presented
in Table-5.14, the biochemical oxygen demand in point source surface water of the
study area was 505.9 Mg/L, while that of chemical oxygen demand was 3771.1 Mg/L.
However, the standard for the former indicator is 100 Mg/L while that of the latter
indicator is 520 Mg/L. The volume of total suspended solid in point source surface
water was about 2583.7 Mg/L, and that of Chromium was 45 Mg/L. But like that of
the above two indicators, these figures are much higher than the standard level. This
indicates that surface water in the study area is much polluted.

Table-5.14 Point Source Water Pollution for All Categories of Industries

Indicators Standard (Mg/L) Addis Ababa(Mg/L)
Biochemical Oxygen
100 505.9
Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand 520 3771.1
Total Suspended Solid 50 2583.7
Chromium <1 45
Source: EPAAA, 2010

Table-5.15 Non Point Source Water Pollution

Indicators Standard (Mg/L) Addis Ababa (Mg/L)

Biochemical Oxygen
5 130
Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand <35 566
Total Suspended Solid 25 312
Source: EPAAA, 2010

As it can be seen from Table-5.15, non point source surface water chemical
composition shows the same pattern with the point source surface water chemical

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composition. There is much variation between the actual measurements and the
standard. Therefore, the pollution level of surface water in the study area is very high.

Table-5.16 also shows that water sources of the study area have increasingly
become polluted. There is a high concentration of coli-form and nitrate in the surface
and ground water. The nitrate concentration in streams was 270.1 mg/l while that of
springs was 419 mg/l. This is higher than the accepted normal concentration of 10
mg/l.

Table-5.16 Water Pollution in the Study Area

Standard
Coli-form Nitrate
Sources Count/ Standard mg/L)
Count/ ml Concentration(mg/l)
ml
Streams 743 0 270.1 10
Springs 320 0 419 10
Storm 189040 0 N/A 10
drain
Boreholes 83 0 0.5 10
Source: Tamiru Alemayehu et al., 2003; WHO, 2008

According to study made by Zewdie (1994), major sources of pollution are

from municipal sewage, industrial waste, industrial toxins, heavy metals, fertilizers,
chemicals, radioactive substances, land sediment, and oil. For down streams, which
lack proper water treatment and filtering facilities, public health is seriously
threatened by polluted drinking water.

The concentration above the WHO standard of the materials explained in

Table-5.17 is most likely to be considered as pollutants. Accordingly, the
characteristics of streams, springs and ground water are shown in this Table. The
concentration of hydrogen ion (PH) in streams and springs is normal. While its
concentration in Boreholes is beyond the normal standard set by the World Health
Organization. Of these heavy metals listed in the table, the concentrations of
manganese, chromium, nickel and arsenic in streams, springs and ground water
exceeded the standard set by the WHO.

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Table-5.17 Mean Concentrations of Heavy Metals and Nitrogen in the Catchments
Heavy
Streams Springs Boreholes WHO Standard
Metals
PH 7.72 6.61 8.62 6.5-8
Manganese 2187.4 29.88 5.14 -
Chromium 4.24 1.84 1.30 0.05
Nickel 9.03 0.32 0.51 0.02
Arsenic 1.2 8.44 0.44 -
Lead 0.0 4.64 16.58 0.01
Zinc 0.0 3.05 35.25 5.00
Source: Tamiru et al., 2003; Tesfaye, 2007

This may be due to the dumping of mixed waste in the site that includes lead
battery and petroleum compound, cadmium, chromium, and Nickel (Tesfaye, 2007).
The pollution of Akaki Rivers may have also a contribution to the higher level
concentration of heavy metals in the study area. The study area lies in the drainage
basins of little and greater Akaki Rivers. Since there are no adequate facilities in the
municipal solid wastes management system of the city, solid wastes are piled on
available open grounds, streams banks and bridge areas and transported by rain and
runoff into the Akaki Rivers. The total tracks, which are supposed to be involved in
the collection of solids, and liquid wastes, were 45 but only 29 trucks are the only
involved. Hence, municipal wastes are the sources of pollution of Akaki Rivers and
their tributaries (Feyera, 2007).

Liquid wastes discharged into the Akaki River through different drainage line,
domestic liquid waste from overflowing and seeping pit latrines, septic tanks, public
and communal toilets, open ground excreta defection and gray water from kitchens
and bathrooms flow through different drainage lines.

SOUND POLLUTION

Sound pollution of Addis Ababa is a real problem where its sources are
primarily factories, transportation, ambulance sirens, loud music from hotels and
restaurants, highway advertisements through loud speakers, public worship sites like
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churches and mosques and others. Workplaces in developing countries like Ethiopia
are characterized by unsafe buildings, old machineries, poor ventilation, excessive
noise, heat and with limited education, skill and training and limited financial
resources (EPHA, 1995; ILO, 2007).

According to Addis Ababa Labor Office Inspection Documentations, many of

the different types of factories in the city have hazardous noise levels to their
respective workers due to the fact that machineries being used are old and not
maintained periodically. Poor handling and layouts of machines, design and other
factors are also contributing to these problems.

Hence, the majority of the working conditions are unsafe and highly
vulnerable to serious occupational injuries and death. In relation to this, the economic
costs of occupational injuries and accidents, reduction of productivity, loss of
productive time are some of the impacts associated with it.

With rapid urbanization and corresponding increase in the number of vehicles,

the noise pollution is increasing at an alarming in Addis Ababa. Environmental noise
is produced from various sources, out of which road traffic is a major one that is
disturbing large segment of the urban population. Noise is a disturbance to the human
environment that is escalating at such a high rate it will become a major threat to the
quality of human lives. Due to rapid urbanization in the study area, the transport
sector is growing rapidly and a number of vehicles on the roads are increasing at an
alarming rate (Fig- 5.5 & Plate-5.4).

As can be seen from Table-5.18, number of individual noise complaints ware

becoming enormous when compared over the study period (2004-2010). In 2005, the
number of individuals who were complaining about their environments noise
pollution was 5 in peripheral sub cities. There was no complaint from central sub
cities.

By 2010, this figure was grown to 123 in central sub cities and 303 in
peripheral sub cities. This shows that, sound pollution is becoming the area of concern
in the study area. In individual sub cities, Yeka had the maximum number (151) of

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complaints between 2008 and 2010. The fewest number (15) was recorded in Arada
Sub City over two years (2009 and 2010).

Source: Addis Ababa Road Transport Authority, 2012

Fig-5.5 Growth Rates of Year Wise Registered Vehicles

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Plate-5.4 Sound Pollution by Vehicles

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Table-5.18 Sound Pollution Complaints to Kebele Law Enforcement Offices

Year Number of Individual Complaints Number of Institutional Complaints

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Total 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Total
Arada 5 10 15
Qirkos 4 4 40 48 7 2 9
Lideta 3 49 80 1 1
Addis Ketema 1 13 24 38 2 1 3
Total 5 25 123 181 9 4 13
Bole 26 4 4 34 68 1 1
Yeka 1 3 147 151 1 1 2
Kolfe Keranio 5 3 2 10 38 58 1 3 4
Nefas Silk
35 84 119 1 1
Lafto
Total 5 3 26 7 52 303 396 1 1 1 1 4 8

Source: Adopted from Yonas, 2011

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