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LEAD PAPER 1.
TITLE: THE BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF GROUNDWATER MOVEMENTS
AROUND UNIDIRECTIONAL-FLOW RIVER SYSTEMS IN THE
FRESHWATER ZONE OF THE NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA.
By:
Sir (Professor) So-ngor Clifford Temefnmgs; fnsme; fnaege.
HOD Geology Dept. /Inst. of Geosciences & Space Technology (IGST),.
Rivers State University of Science & Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt.
ABSTRACT:
The Freshwater Zone of the Niger Delta sub-region of Nigeria(Fubara&Teme 1986) is that zone
immediately north of the Transition or Mangrove zone of the delta. It is bounded on the north by Aboh
close to the bifurcation of theRivers Niger and Benue and extends eastwards and westwards beyond the
boundaries of Rivers State. Within the zone are rivers, rivulets, creeks and ponds which are predominantly
freshwater.The influence of ocean tides in the zone is very minimal but it is subjected to annual floods
which sometimes submerge a greater part of it during the rainy season. The rivers of the zone flow in a uni-
directional pattern from the north towards the Atlantic Ocean in the south. The range of water levels
between the peak of the flood and dry seasons may extend from 15.00 18.00 m in the upper reaches to as
low as 2.50 4.50m in the lower reaches of the zone. Consequently, the soils within the Freshwater zone
are submerged during the rainy seasons and become very dry and indurated during the dry seasons, thus
giving a false strength during the dry seasons. The soil profiles in this zone comprise an upper clayey,
lateritic or silty-clayey layer (usually 1.50 ~3.50m deep as in parts of Delta State); which are usually
underlain by silty-sands and poorly graded sands. Beneath these are usually well-graded sands and gravels
that extend to depths beyond 40.00 -50.00m in places in Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta and AkwaIbom states. Both
gradation patterns, consistency limits (Liquid Limits, Plastic limits, Plasticity Indices etc), shear strengths,
compactive strengths and bearing capacities of the soils in this zone have been observed to increase with
depth in consonance with the observed c- soils at shallower depths to the basically -soils at greater
depths. These are the upper parts of the Benin Formation.Owing to the differencein water levels between
Low-Low and High-High flood levels in this zone, the behaviour patterns of the groundwater movements
during the Dry season is very different from those during the Wet season. This paper attempts to
unravel these behaviour patterns of groundwater movements between these typically unidirectional-flow
river systems within the zone, using the Orashi River system as an example. Further complicated
groundwater modelling techniques are being developed for these river systems in comparison with those of
bi-directional-flow river systems observed in the Transition or Mangrove zone of the Niger Delta.
.
Key Words: Niger Delta,Freshwater Zone, Unidirectional flow; behaviour patterns.
15
INTRODUCTION:
The Niger Delta within which Rivers State is situated lies at the southern extremity of the entity referred to
as NIGERIA. It is an arcuate structure that lies between Latitudes 4 o 15 00 and 6 o 30 00 North of the
Equator and between Longitudes 6o 37 42 and 7o 30 00 East of the Greenwich Meridian. Thus,
sensustricto, it is defined geographically and geologically as that area extending from a northern apex
situated at Aboh, bound on the east by the Imo River, on the west by the Benin Riverand on the south by
the Atlantic Ocean. The Niger delta basin serves as the receptor of the water and sediments generated
upstream of the Niger and Benue catchments. These excess water and sediments generated during the
annual floods are released through an anastomosing network of rivers, creeks, rivulets and in some cases
canals into the Atlantic Ocean. The sediments upon reaching the mouths of the rivers are acted upon by
both the waves and long shore drifts to form the various barrier beaches and islands such as Bonny, Brass,
Akassa and Forcadosin the present day delta. To the east of the of the Niger Delta proper are the Eastern
Lowlands which comprise the present day AkwaIbom, Cross River and Imo states.
To the west of the Niger Delta proper are the Western Lowlands which comprise the present day central
and western Edo, Ondo and even Lagos states.
A Zonation based on hydro-meteorological factors has been made for the Niger Delta sub-region by the
Institute of Geosciences and Space Technology (IGST, ) formerly known as the Institute of Flood, Erosion,
Reclamation and Transportation (IFERT) of the Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port
Harcourt (Fubara, Teme et al., 1988). These zones are namely:-
The Niger Delta sub-region and its drainage system is shown schematically on Figure 1.
This zone consists mainly of sand bars and ridges and the water bodies here are saline in nature. The area is
subjected to diurnal ebb and flow tides and thus not prone to the annual floods of the Freshwater zone. The
sub-soils here consist of sand, silts and highly plastic clays in some inlet areas.
The vegetation of this zone is basically mangrove trees with a preponderance of nippa palms (a recent
development in this zone). Some freshwater trees such as palm trees are also found within the few elevated
beach ridges within this zone.
The climate of the zone is basically that of tropical monsoon with rainfall occurring almost all through the
year except the months of December, January and February which are not completely free from rainfall in
some years. Rainfall within the zone reaches highs of over 4000mmm at Akassa, Bonny and Forcados
during the peak of the wet seasons (Institute of Geosciences and Space technology Meteorology division
records 1988-2000)
Towns within this zone are Bonny, Akassa, Brass, Bekinkiri, Koluama I (wiped out by wave erosion),
Koluama II, Oyorokoto.
16
LEGEND
I = Coastal Zone
II = Transition or
Mangrove Zone
This area coincides with the Mangrove brackish water zone with its numerous inter-tidal flats and
mangrove vegetation. Sub-soils here are characterized by a typical fibrous, pervious clayey mud that
exhibits large values of compressibility and consolidation. Usually beneath these fibrous layers are silty
sands which most often grade into poorly-graded sands and further downwards into well-graded sands
and gravels. Lateritic clays also occur in certain old residual depositson which are usually located
densely populated towns such as Bakana, Buguma and Abonnema in Rivers State. The vegetation within
the Transition zone comprise basically mangrove trees especially within the saline swamps and along the
banks of the numerous rivers, rivulets and creeks.
The climate of the zone is basically that of tropical monsoon with rainfall occurring almost all through the
year except the months of December, January and February which are not completely free from rainfall in
some years. Rainfall within the zone reaches highs of over 600mmm at Port Harcourt, Opobo and Warri
during the peak of the wet seasons (Institute of Geosciences and Space technology Meteorology division
records 1988-2000)
Just like the Coastal Zone, this zone experiences diurnal ebb-and-flow of the tides with maximum values
obtained during the once-a-year Spring tides.
17
Notable settlements and towns within this zone comprise Port Harcourt, Opobo, Sapele, Buguma,
Abonnema, Bakana and Warri.
This zone of interest comprises the remaining northern portion of the Niger Delta sub-region. This covers
the predominantly fresh water rivers, creeks and ephemeral depressions. Generally, soil profiles within this
zone comprise of a top lateritic clay layer usually underlain by silty clays and silty sands which are
further underlain by poorly-graded sands and sands and gravels. Notable towns in this zone include
Agbere, Odoni, Ndoni, Isampou, Patani, Asamabiri, Yenegoa and Amasoma.
The vegetation within the Freshwater zone comprise Palm trees, broad-leafed trees with very thick
undergrowth characterized by creepers and climbing varieties. Tall grasses are not uncommon within the
zone.Climatically, rainfall occurs in over nine months of the year, especially during the annual flood
periods of May through October and ranges in intensity between 200 and 600mm in towns such as Ahoada
and Omoku in Rivers State(Institute of Geosciences and Space technology Meteorology division records
1988-2000)
LITERATURE REVIEW.
Generally, the flow or movement of fluids (especially water) in both porous and semi-porous media has
been studied over time as documented by a few of several authors such as (Harr, (1962); Polubarinova-
Kochina (1962); Hazel (undated); Freeze and Cherry (1979); Fetter (2007); Rice and Gorelick; Todd and
Mays (2011) and others.
Groundwater flow and abstraction studies have been carried out in the field by Offodile (2013). Studies of
groundwater movement patterns in or near Watersheds between two or more rivers have been carried out by
Hollet (1985) and Scott and Thorpe (1986).
In the Nigerian setting, few studies on the movements of groundwater in the Western Wetland zone of the
Niger Delta have been carried out by Akpoborie (2011), Oseji also in (2011) and Offodile (2013).
With the advent of electronic applications in geohydrology in recent times, Groundwater Modeling as
applied to groundwater flow has been copiously studied by the following few workers: Fenemor in New
Zealand (1988); von Tonder, who described a Computer Code for the calculation of the relative
transmissivities distributions in an aquifer for steady-state groundwater levels (1989); Harbaugh and
McDonalds update of the Programmers Documentation for MUDFLOW-96 Programme of the U.S.
Geological Survey Department (1996) and Anderman& Hills update of MUDFLOW-2000Modeling
Programme of the USGS (2000) to mention but a few.
Thus, this paper also attempts to look at the groundwater movements in between unidirectional-flow river
systems, such as the Orashi River in the Freshwater zone of the Nigerian Niger Delta.
18
Offodile, 2013 has looked at the hydrogeology of the Niger Delta region focusing mainly on the River
basins of Rivers and Bayelsa states (Figure 2b). According to him, the geological sequence in the coastal
Niger Delta is made up predominantly of the following:
The Deltaic plains (Upper and Lower) consist of coarse to medium-grained unconsolidated sands forming
lenticular beds with intercalations of peaty matter and lenses of soft, silty clay and shales. Gravelly beds of
up to 10m thick forming prolific aquifers have been reported by Hazel (GSN Report # 5198) The geology
of the Coastal areas of parts of the South Eastern Nigeria is shown (after Offodile 2013) in Figure 3.
19
Study Site
Figure 2a: Approximate Location of the study site in the morphological setting of the Niger Delta.
20
Figure 2b.Geography and Geology of the Niger Delta.
The general topographic profile of the River systems (as depicted by the Orashi River system) is that of a
low to very low Back-swamps behind, culminating into a high River front that may rise to heights of
between 5 12 meters, during the peak dry season. This height may reduce to as low as 0.10m, and in
extreme flood seasons to about + 4meter or above(that is, a total submergence of the settlement)for a
period of between 1.5 to > 2 months during the peak flood period.
The concept of Flow-net analyses has been applied in a number of groundwater studies.[Fetter
(2007].,Hollet (1985) and Fenemor (1988) have used flow net analyses to provide initial transmissivities
prior to trial and-error numerical calibrations.
Also the use of Flow-net systems for conceptualization of flow systems have been successfully carried out
by Rice and Gorelick (1985), Scott and Thorpe (1986) and vonTonder (1989). This concept will be equally
applied in the analysis of the problem demonstrated in this work.
The lithologic cross-sections of two (2) boreholes sunk for water supply at the town of Akinima on the right
bank of the Orashi River are shown schematically in Figures 5(a) and (b). Figure 5(a)was located near the
21
river front while Figure 5(b)was located further 200m away within the back-swamp of the town. Two
scenarios of Peak Dry Season and Peak Wet Season were used in the examples used in this case.
StudyAreaA
rea
.
Figure 3: Geology of the Coastal Area of South-Eastern Nigeria (in Offodile 2013)
22
Figure 5a: Lithologic Cross-sections of two (2) Boreholes drilled at River bank (i) and at
Back-swamp (ii) - During Peak Dry period
Figure 5(b): Lithologic Cross-sections of two (2) Boreholes drilled at bank (i) and at Back-
23
swamp(ii)During Peak Flood period
OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Peak Dry Seasons.
During Dry Seasons (peak dry season) it was observed that the Outflow of Water from the Orashi River
Banks into the Unidirectional-flow River Systems took place and consequently there was a Bank Storage
Loss.(Figure 5a).
When River banks in a unidirectional-flow rivers are saturated at peak flood the above equation (i)
becomes:
T = (-) tan - - - - - - - - - (ii)
(for peak Wet Season)
where:
= pore water pressure induced on the river bank by the entrapped flood waters
When the drainage capability of the bank soil materials is high, the water is drained off quickly leaving the
= 0.00 kPa.
On the other hand when the = , then the shear strength of the soil becomes zero Pascal [ie, T = (-) tan
= 0.00 tan = 0.00 kPa and the river bank collapses.].
Thus there is an outflow of water from the banks into unidirectional-flow river systems during the
dry season, but this flow reversal into the river banks during the Peak flood periods.
GROUNDWATER MODELING:Due to the complicity of the flow systems observed, studies to examine
the behaviour patterns of groundwater flow in these settings may be better amenable to the use of computer
programmes employing Groundwater Flow modeling techniques. The basic equation in this study remains
the Darcysafter Anderson and Woessner (1992& Anderson and Hill (2000).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
The writer greatly appreciates colleagues and research assistants who helped in the construction of the two
boreholes used in this study. Of special mention is my former postgraduate student and colleague, Professor
A.E. Edet of the Department of Geology University of Calabar, who discussed the conceptscitically with
the writer during the initial stages of the study and paper preparation stages.
REFERENCES CITED.
Akpoborie, I. A.(2011), Aspects of the Hydrology of the Western Niger Delta Wetlands: Groundwater
Conditions in the Neogene (recent) Deposits of the Ndokwa Area. Proceedings of the
Environmental Management Conference, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
Nigeria.Pp334-350.
Anderman, E.R. and M.C Hill (2000), MUDFLOW-2000.The U.S. Geological Survey Modular
GroundwaterModel Documentation of the Hydrogeologic Unit Flow (HUF) Package. U. S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report (x) -342.89 pages.
Fenemor, A.D. (1988), A three-dimensional model for management of the Wainea Plains Aquifer, Nelson.
Dept of Scientific and Industrial Research, Hydrology Centre Publication No. 18. 33 Christchurch,
New Zealand.
Fetter, C.W. (2007), Applied Hydrogeology 2nd Edition. CBS Publications & Distributors Pvt Ltd. New
Delhi. 592 pages.
Freeze, R.A. and J.A. Cherry (1979), Groundwater, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff, New Jersey.604 pages.
Harbaugh, A.W. and M.G. McDonald (1996), Programmes Documentation for MUDFLOW-96. An
Updateto the U.S. Geological Modular Fiite Difference Groundwater Flow Model, U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report 96 486. 220 pages.
25
Harr, M.E. (1962), Groundwater and Seepage. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 315 pages.
Hezel, J.R.T. (undated). Hydrogeology of Eastern Nigeria. Geological Survey of Nigeria (GSN) Report
Nos1185 and 5198.
Hollet, K.J. (1985), Geohydrology and Water Resources of the Papago Farms Great Plain Area, Papago
Indian Reservation, Arizona and the Upper Rio Sonoyta Area, Sonoram Mexico. U.S. Geological
Survey Water Supply Paper 2258.
Offodile, M.E. (2013), Hydrogeology: Groundwater Study and Development in Nigeria. 3rd Edition. Mecan
Geology & Engineering Services Ltd. 636 pages.
Oseji J.O. (2011), Groundwater flow direction in Ndokwa-East Local Government Area of Delta State,
Nigeria. Journal of Geology and Mining Research. Vol. 3(2), 21-24.
Polubarinova-Kochina, P.Y. (1962), Theory of Groundwater movement, DeWiest, R.J.M. Princeton N.J.,
Princeton University Press, 613 pages.
Rice, W.A. and S.M. Gorelick (1985), Geological inferences from Flownetstransmissivity determination.
Three Case Studies.Water Resources Bulletin.Vol. 21. No 6. Pp 919-930
Scott D.M. and H.R. Thorpe (1986), Groundwater Resources the Rakaia and Ashburton Rivers, Ministry of
Works and Development for the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority. Hydrology Centre
Publication No. 6. Christchurch, New Zealand.
Todd, D.K. and L.W. Mays (2011), Groundwater Hydrology, 3rd Edition.Wiley India Pvt Ltd. 636 pages.
vonTonder, G.J. (1989). A computer code for the calculation of the relative transmissivity distribution in
an aquifer for steady state groundwater levels. Water SA, vol, 15, no.3.pp149-152.
26
LEAD PAPER 2:
A.Y. ANDA
WATER RESOURCES SPECIALIST NEWMAP-FPMU
13TH 15TH FEBRUARY, 2017
AT THE INSTITUTE OF EROSION STUDIES, FUTO
27
28
Project Overview
Project Components
Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component
4
29
Sub- A. Gully A. Federal MDA A. Policy
compnt Rapid Action effectiveness & and
s and Slope services Institutional
Stabilisation B. State MDA Framework
B. Integrated effectiveness & B. Low
Catchment services Carbon
Management C. Local Developmen
C. Adaptive Government t
Livelihoods capacity
D. Private
sector capacity
Main Stabilise Strengthen the Strengthen Procure
activiti severe gulley enabling government goods
es erosion sites environment for capacity to &specilt
and conduct effective erosion promote low services to
community- and catchment carbon, support
based management. climate project
catchment resilient mangt,
interventions developmen safeguards
t. , M&E &
oversight.
Main Priority More capable, Government Established
outcom erosion sites modernized and better systems for
e rehabilitated, coordinated equipped to project
and more federal, state, respond to manageme
secure and local climate nt, M&E
livelihoods institutions change & and best-
and low-carbon practices
catchment developmen for future
services t options replication
established. demonstrate
d
30
INSTITUTIONAL
ARRANGEMENTS
31
32
33
34
Other water management issues includes:-
Poor database and management system;
Fragmented sectorial development, that led
critically to near neglect of quality management
of water, land and other natural resources;
Absence of effective flood forecasting and
draught management system;
Institutions with conflicting mandates which
makes themselves referees and players in the
sector, thus creating problems of accountability
and transparency etc.
These problems and issues collectively have led to
wasted investments, drying-up of our river systems,
inefficient utilization, pollution and harmful practices.
35
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF
NEWMAP
NEWMAP will take an integrated watershed
management approach to erosion that will be
informed by lessons learned on the interlinked
challenges of poverty, ecosystem services,
climate change disaster risk management,
biodiversity and institutional governance.
Watershed management is a major part of
component 1- Erosion and Watershed
Management investments
The components objective is to support on-
the-ground interventions to help reduce
vulnerability to land degradation.
36
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF
NEWMAP
NEWMAP will take an integrated watershed
management approach to erosion that will be
informed by lessons learned on the interlinked
challenges of poverty, ecosystem services,
climate change disaster risk management,
biodiversity and institutional governance.
Watershed management is a major part of
component 1- Erosion and Watershed
Management investments
The components objective is to support on-the-
ground interventions to help reduce vulnerability
to land degradation.
37
Key outcomes are achieved through a
strategic approach that:
Stabilizes severe erosion sites, and/or
Prevents emerging erosion problems
early while intervention costs are
relatively low,
Improving landslide and flood
preparedness. Physical interventions will
include a range of engineering/structural
and vegetative measures, supported by
a participatory sub-watershed planning.
In addition, communities will benefit
from livelihood support
38
Sub-component 1A. Gully Rapid Action
and Slope Stabilization (GRASS); supports
actions to stabilize and rehabilitate major
erosion-related sites and underline causes
of gully erosion using both structural and
vegetative measures
Emergency and temporary halting
of gully and landslide formation;
Complimentary structural erosion
and water control works;
Preventive erosion control works;
and
Community monitoring
39
Sub-component 1B. Integrated Watershed Management;
supports the development of integrated watershed
management plans through a participatory process for
the wider area that affects the gully system
Community organization and mobilization;
Participatory sub-watershed management
planning;
Associated development of Community Action
Plans with soil and water conservation zones and
livelihoods sub-projects, and disaster risk
preparedness measures;
Implementation of sustainable land management
measures such as vegetation regeneration; and
Resource monitoring
41
42
Atakpa : The mixture of civil works, flexible
structure and vegetation: a game changer to
Gully erosion remediation
43
Atakpa : The mixture of civil works, flexible
structure and vegetation: a game changer
to Gully erosion remediation
Before Intervention
44
Before Intervention
45
After
46
CRS IKOT ANWATIM
MAIN GULLY
47
CRS-NYANGASNG
GULLY SITE
48
Project Livelihood
activities
49
50
Before NEWMAP intervention, interconnected roads
between the communities were affected while eight
houses were on the verge of being consumed by the
gully. The area rehabilitated stands at 1Ha ; 8 houses
saved from being consumed by the gully with 29
households benefitting from the livelihood options in
the areaand 75 persons empowered under
alternative Livelihood options
51
52
53
Combination of civil works and
bioremediation
54
Beneficiaries here documented with their
cheques
55
36 Project staff across the states
have been successfully trained on
sub-Catchment planning and Management
States have been assisted by the FPMU
through community participation to
develop one pilot Sub-catchment
management plan for one site, in each of
the 7 old NEWMAP states.
2nd phase of training on sub-Catchment
planning and Management for the
Northern states scheduled for 20th
-24th Feb., 2017
56
Component 2: Contd.
57
Hydromet and
Automated Flood Early
Warning Systems
58
Component 3: Climate
Change Response
59
Component 3: Climate
Change Response/Contd.
60
Old oven with
piled firewood
61
62
Fuel-Efficient
Cook Stoves
63
Leadership workshop in Abuja
64
Magnitude of Environmental
Degradation Nationwide demanding
NEWMAP intervention is on the
increase
Low level of Counterpart fund
contribution to support project
implementation.
Expansion of NEWMAP to 19 states as
against 11 intended, and the need for
additional funding
High expectations from Stakeholders
and Communities
65
CONCLUSION
66
LEAD PAPER 3:
67
We are International Project Contractors offering a comprehensive package of consultation,
equipment supply & technical support to both public and private sectors.
We are project management specialists who can offer a single source of supply providing:
Consultancy, procurement &project implementation expertise,
Advanced analytical, medical, scientific & laboratory Instrumentation for universities,
schools ,vocational training establishments & research organisations,
Installation, commissioning & training services in operation & maintenance of equipment
& instrumentation,
Comprehensive in country after sales service.
68
What is a Watershed?
69
What is a Watershed? Not Just a Hydrological Entity
To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the
watershed.
To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wild life
resource.
To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the
watershed.
To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wild life
resource.
71
Weather Station at the Institute of Erosion Studies at the
Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State Nigeria, as part of the Nigeria Erosion &
Watershed Management Project (NEWMAP). Installation & Operator Training by Eagle Scientific Ltd.
72
Meteorological Parameters Measured
73
Determining when optimum
temperature conditions for
growing high quality crops are most likely
to occur.
74
75
GS1 Dome Solarimeter
76
77
Poor Land Management - The Dust Bowl: 1930s United States of America
78
Irrigation & Drainage
79
Irrigation & Drainage - In-Situ Watershed Management
80
Irrigation & Drainage - Ex-Situ Watershed Management
81
1. Structural flood Defenses,
82
Navigation (1) Canal Systems
83
Power Generation
84
Water Quality, Fisheries & Conservation
85
Management of Drinking Water Supply
86
To Archive Meteorological Data for Multiagency Use,
To Monitor Meteorological Trends in Relation to Climate Change,
Advise Farmers Regarding Optimum Growing Conditions,
Advise Farmers Regarding Practices to Reduce Erosion & Facilitate Water Retention
& Groundwater Charge,
Advise on Flood Management & Control,
Advise on the Operation, Management &Maintenance River Navigation Systems,
To Provide Advice on Ecology, Fisheries & Wildlife Conservation & Strategies to
Minimise Pollution,
To Advise on How to Manage the Water Supply Including Drinking Water.
87
Greetings from Nottingham, England
88