1 Page

A
Report
on
Application of power electronics

Submitted for the partial fulfillment for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Electrical Engineering
College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur
Guided By: Submitted by:

Dr. R.R Joshi Mahendra Kumawat
HOD, Final Year B.Tech (2017-18)
Dr. Vinod Yadav Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

College of Technology and Engineering (C.T.A.E.)
MaharanaPratapUniversity of Agriculture and Technology,
Udaipur 2017
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This is a Seminar report based on application of power electronics in traction
system and is being submitted as a partial fulfillment for obtaining MAHARANA PRATAP
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICALTURE AND TECHNOLOGY, UDAIPUR in 4th year
B.Tech in Electrical Engineering.
I am extremely thankful to M. R.R Joshi, Head of Department for providing me the
opportunity to visit in the yard, his excellent guidance, his encouragement and support
throughout the duration of the training.
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Vinod Yadav for their efforts to give me the best
training in the limited time. Their guidance will definitely help me reaching higher goals and
motivate me to implement the knowledge, which I gained during the training.
Mahendra Kumawat
Electrical 4th year

2
ABSTRACT
Power system interface with electrified railways (ER), auxiliary power, hybrid trains,
electromagnetic interface (EMI) and traction are reviewed in this paper for diesel electric trains
and ERs. Auxiliary power supply is a low voltage AC/DC power supply for onboard devices
with an important consideration for safety equipment. In diesel electric railways because of
variable train speed, a sort of compromise is taking place between traction and auxiliary power
which usually affects auxiliary equipment performance. Hybrid trains energy storage unit can
compensate this deficiency. Other challenges in railways are their compatibility with power and
communication systems.
The advanced traction power supply system (ATPSS) is a new directional development for
traction power supply systems, which can totally remove the neutral sections and effectively
promote power quality. However, the existing converters suffer from small substation capacity.
In this paper, a new configuration based on a three-level neutral point clamped (3L-NPC) three-
phase to single-phase cascade converter in a substation is proposed for ATPSS, which can be
used to match the capacity of the converter for high voltage and large power applications. The
control strategy of the proposed converter is analyzed in depth, and the phase disposition
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PD-SPWM) with phase shift carrier SPWM (PSC-SPWM) is
employed in the inverters. Then, the inductance equalizing circuit is pplied for the voltage
balance on the DC-link. Besides, a LC filter circuit is designed to eliminate the double line-
frequency ripple of DC voltage. Afterwards, a simulation model and an experimental prototype
are developed, respectively. The simulation results show that the proposed converter in this
paper can not only meet the requirements of voltage and capacity for the traction network, but
also improve power quality. Finally, the experimental results verify the correctness and
feasibility of the proposed control strategy.
A multilevel inverter for traction drive systems has been implemented. The main advantage
of this kind of topology is that it can generate almost perfect current or voltage waveforms,
because it has many voltage steps. The pulsating torque generated by harmonics is minimized,
and power losses into the machine are also reduced. Another advantage of this kind of drive is
that the switching frequency and power rating of the semiconductors are reduced considerably.
The voltage waveform is based on a cascade of n converters scaled in a trinary form, using
three-state h converters. In the chain of n converters of each phase (n-stage converter), there is
a main converter that
manages more than 80% of the total power, and n-1 auxiliary converters that take the rest of
the power (less than 20%). Experiments show the high quality of the current waveforms
generated with this kind of frequency converter.
3
LIST OF CONTENT
Chapter 1 Introduction of power electronics
a. Thermal Management
b. Power Semiconductor device history
c. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
d. Power Converter Topologies
Chapter 2 Introduction of traction system
a. General
b. Direct Steam Engine Drive
c. Battery-electric Drive
d. Advantages of Electric Traction
e. Disadvantages of Electric Traction
Chapter 3 parameter of traction system
a. Current Control of Converters

b. Machine drives with sinusoidal supply.
c. Power electronics traction transformner
d. 81 level cascade converter
e. Solid state traction transformer
Chapter 4 application of traction system in power electronics
a. Application in railways
b. Application automobile
c. Application in off highways vehicle
d. Application in automotive industry
4
Chapter 1
Introduction of power electronics
Power Electronics is the art of converting electrical energy from one form to another in an efficient, clean, compact,
and robust manner for convenient utilisation. A passenger lift in a modern building equipped with a Variable-
Voltage-Variable-Speed induction-machine drive offers a comfortable ride and stops exactly at the floor level.
Behind the scene it consumes less power with reduced stresses on the motor and corruption of the utility mains.
Fig. 1.1 The block diagram of a typical Power Electronic converter
Power Electronics involves the study of
Power semiconductor devices - their physics, characteristics, drive requirements and their protection for
optimum utilisation of their capacities,
Power converter topologies involving them,
Control strategies of the converters,
Digital, analogue and microelectronics involved,
Capacitive and magnetic energy storage elements,
Rotating and static electrical devices,
Quality of waveforms generated,
Electro Magnetic and Radio Frequency Interference,
Thermal Management
The typical converter in Fig. 1.1 illustrates the multidisciplinary nature of this subject.
5
How is Power electronics distinct from linear electronics?
It is not primarily in their power handling capacities.

While power management IC's in mobile sets working on Power Electronic principles are meant to handle only
a few milliwatts, large linear audio amplifiers are rated at a few thousand watts.
The utilisation of the Bipolar junction transistor, Fig. 1.2 in the two types of amplifiers best symbolises the
difference. In Power Electronics all devices are operated in the switching mode - either 'FULLY-ON' or 'FULLY-
OFF' states. The linear amplifier concentrates on fidelity in signal amplification, requiring transistors to operate
strictly in the linear (active) zone, Fig 1.3. Saturation and cutoff zones in the V CE - IC plane are avoided. In a Power
electronic switching amplifier, only those areas in the V CE - IC plane which have been skirted above, are suitable.
On-state dissipation is minimum if the device is in saturation (or quasi-saturation for optimising other losses). In the
off-state also, losses are minimum if the BJT is reverse biased. A BJT switch will try to traverse the active zone as
fast as possible to minimise switching losses.
Fig. 1.2 Typical Bipolar transistor based (a) linear (common emitter) (voltage) amplifier stage
and (b) switching (power) amplifier
6
Fig 1.3 Operating zones for operating a Bipolar Junction Transistor as a linear and a switching
amplifier
Linear operation Switching operation

Active zone selected: Active zone avoided :
Good linearity between input/output High losses, encountered only during
Transients
Saturation & cut-off zones avoided: poor Saturation & cut-off (negative bias) zones
Linearity selected: low losses
Transistor biased to operate around No concept of quiescent point
quiescent point
Common emitter, Common collector, Transistor driven directly at base - emitter
common base modes and load either on collector or emitter
Output transistor barely protected Switching-Aid-Network (SAN) and other
protection to main transistor
Utilisation of transistor rating of secondary Utilisation of transistor rating optimized

Importance
An example illustrating the linear and switching solutions to a power supply specification will emphasise the
difference.
Spec: Input : 230 V, 50 Hz, Output: 12 V regulated DC, 20 W
Ferrite core HF transfr:

Light, efficient
Series regulator
-
high losses
230
V
230
V
Line freq
transformer: (a) (b)
heavy, lossy High-freq Duty-ratio
(ON/OFF)
control - low
losses
Fig. 1.4 (a) A Linear regulator and (b) a switching regulator solution of the specification above
The linear solution, Fig. 1.4 (a), to this quite common specification would first step down the supply voltage to
12- 0-12 V through a power frequency transformer. The output would be rectified using Power frequency diodes,
electrolytic capacitor filter and then series regulated using a chip or a audio power transistor. The tantalum capacitor
filter would follow. The balance of the voltage between the output of the rectifier and the output drops across the
regulator device which also carries the full load current. The power loss is therefore considerable. Also, the step-
7
In the switching solution Fig. 1.4 (b) using a MOSFET driven flyback converter, first the line voltage is
rectified and then isolated, stepped-down and regulated. A ferrite-core high-frequency (HF) transformer is used.
Losses are negligible compared to the first solution and the converter is extremely light. However significant high
frequency (related to the switching frequency) noise appear at the output which can only be minimised through the
use of costly 'grass' capacitors.
Power Semiconductor device - history
Power electronics and converters utilizing them made a head start when the first device the Silicon Controlled
Rectifier was proposed by Bell Labs and commercially produced by General Electric in the earlier fifties. The
Mercury Arc Rectifiers were well in use by that time and the robust and compact SCR first started replacing it in the
rectifiers and cycloconverters. The necessity arose of extending the application of the SCR beyond the line-
commutated mode of action, which called for external measures to circumvent its turn-off incapability via its control
terminals. Various turn-off schemes were proposed and their classification was suggested but it became increasingly
obvious that a device with turn-off capability was desirable, which would permit it a wider application. The turn-off
networks and aids were impractical at higher powers.
The Bipolar transistor, which had by the sixties been developed to handle a few tens of amperes and block a few
hundred volts, arrived as the first competitor to the SCR. It is superior to the SCR in its turn-off capability, which
could be exercised via its control terminals. This permitted the replacement of the SCR in all forced-commutated
inverters and choppers. However, the gain (power) of the SCR is a few decades superior to that of the Bipolar
transistor and the high base currents required to switch the Bipolar spawned the Darlington. Three or more stage
Darlingtons are available as a single chip complete with accessories for its convenient drive. Higher operating
frequencies were obtainable with a discrete Bipolars compared to the 'fast' inverter-grade SCRs permitting reduction
of filter components. But the Darlington's operating frequency had to be reduced to permit a sequential turn- off of
the drivers and the main transistor. Further, the incapability of the Bipolar to block reverse voltages restricted its use.
The Power MOSFET burst into the scene commercially near the end seventies. This device also represents the
first successful marriage between modern integrated circuit and discrete power semiconductor manufacturing
technologies. Its voltage drive capability giving it again a higher gain, the ease of its paralleling and most
importantly the much higher operating frequencies reaching upto a few MHz saw it replacing the Bipolar also at the
sub-10 KW range mainly for SMPS type of applications. Extension of VLSI manufacturing facilities for the
MOSFET reduced its price vis--vis the Bipolar also. However, being a majority carrier device
its on-state voltage is dictated by the RDS(ON) of the device, which in turn is proportional to about V DSS2.3 rating of the
MOSFET. Consequently, high-voltage MOSFETS are not commercially
viable.
Improvements were being tried out on the SCR regarding its turn-off capability mostly by reducing the turn-on
gain. Different versions of the Gate-turn-off device, the Gate turn-off Thyristor (GTO), were proposed by various
manufacturers - each advocating their own symbol for the device. The requirement for an extremely high turn-off
control current via the gate and the comparatively higher cost of the device restricted its application only to inverters
rated above a few hundred KVA.
The lookout for a more efficient, cheap, fast and robust turn-off-able device proceeded in different directions
with MOS drives for both the basic thysistor and the Bipolar. The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
basically a MOSFET driven Bipolar from its terminal characteristics has been a successful proposition with devices
being made available at about 4 KV and 4 KA. Its switching frequency of about 25 KHz and ease of connection and
drive saw it totally removing the Bipolar from practically all applications. Industrially, only the MOSFET has been
able to continue in the sub 10 KVA range primarily because of its high switching frequency. The IGBT has also
pushed up the GTO to applications above 2-5 MVA.
Subsequent developments in converter topologies especially the three-level inverter permitted use of the
IGBT in converters of 5 MVA range. However at ratings above that the GTO (6KV/6KA device of Mitsubishi)
based converters had some space. Only SCR based converters are possible at the highest range where line-
commutated or load-commutated converters were the only solution. The surge current, the peak repetition voltage
and I2t ratings are applicable only to the thyristors making them more robust, specially thermally, than the transistors
of all varieties.
8
200V Version 3 ASIPM
Presently there are few hybrid devices and Intelligent Power Modules (IPM) are marketed by some manufacturers.
The IPMs have already gathered wide acceptance. The 4500 V, 1200 A
IEGT (injection-enhanced gate transistor) of Toshiba or the 6000 V, 3500 A IGCT (Integrated Gate Commutated
Thyristors) of ABB which are promising at the higher power ranges. However these new devices must prove
themselves before they are accepted by the industry at large.
Silicon carbide is a wide band gap semiconductor with an energy band gap wider than about 2 eV that possesses
extremely high thermal, chemical, and mechanical stability. Silicon carbide is the only wide band gap
semiconductor among gallium nitride (GaN, EG = 3.4 eV), aluminum nitride (AlN, EG = 6.2 eV), and silicon carbide
that possesses a high-quality native oxide suitable for use as an MOS insulator in electronic devices The breakdown
field in SiC is about 8 times higher than in silicon. This is important for high-voltage power switching transistors.
For example, a device of a given size in SiC will have a blocking voltage 8 times higher than the same device in
silicon. More importantly, the on-resistance of the SiC device will be about two decades lower than the silicon
device. Consequently, the efficiency of the power converter is higher. In addition, SiC-based semiconductor
switches can operate at high temperatures (~600 C) without much change in their electrical properties. Thus the
converter has a higher reliability. Reduced losses and allowable higher operating temperatures result in smaller
heatsink size. Moreover, the high frequency operating capability of SiC converters lowers the filtering requirement
and the filter size. As a result, they are compact, light, reliable, and efficient and have a high power density. These
qualities satisfy the requirements of power converters for most applications and they are expected to be the devices
of the future.
Ratings have been progressively increasing for all devices while the newer devices offer substantially better
performance. With the SCR and the pin-diodes, so called because of the sandwiched intrinsic i-layer between the
p and n layers, having mostly line-commutated converter applications, emphasis was mostly on their static
characteristics - forward and reverse voltage blocking, current carrying and over-current ratings, on-state forward
voltage etc and also on issues like paralleling and series operation of the devices. As the operating speeds of the
devices increased, the dynamic (switching) characteristics of the devices assumed greater importance as most of the
dissipation was during these transients. Attention turned to the development of efficient drive networks and
protection techniques which were found to enhance the performance of the devices and their peak power handling
capacities. Issues related to paralleling were resolved by the system designer within the device itself like in
MOSFETS, while the converter topology was required to take care of their series operation as in multi-level
9
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
UNCONTROLL
ED CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER REGENERATI NON- INTEGRATE

S ACCESSORIES VE REGENERATIVE D
POWER SCR BJT IGCT

SILICON
DIAC TRIAC MOSFET PIC
DIODES
Zenner GTO IGBT INTELLIGENT
FREDS POWER
MOV MODULES
SCHOTTKY
Fig. 1.5 Power semiconductor device variety
Power Diodes
diF /dt
t0 t1 t2 SNAPPY
SOF
T
Q1 Q2
To
IRM
VRM
Fig. 1.6 Typical turn-off dynamics of a soft and a 'snappy' diode'
Silicon Power diodes are the successors of Selenium rectifiers having significantly improved forward characteristics and
voltage ratings. They are classified mainly by their turn-off (dynamic) characteristics Fig. 1.6. The minority carriers in the diodes
require finite time - trr (reverse recovery time) to recombine with opposite charges and neutralise. Large values of Qrr (= Q1 + Q2)
- the charge to be dissipated as a negative current when the and diode turns off and t rr (= t2 - t0) - the time it takes to regain its
blocking features, impose strong current stresses on the controlled device in series. Also a 'snappy' type of recovery of the diode
effects high di/dt voltages on all associated power device in the converter because of load or stray inductances present in the
network. There are broadly three types of diodes used in Power electronic applications:
Line-frequency diodes: These PIN diodes with general-purpose rectifier type applications, are available at the highest voltage
(~5kV) and current ratings (~5kA) and have excellent over-current (surge rating about six times average current rating) and surge-
voltage withstand capability. They have relatively large Qrr and trr specificationsFast recovery diodes: Fast recovery diffused
diodes and fast recovery epitaxial diodes, FRED's, have significantly lower Qrr and trr (~ 1.0 sec). They areavailable at high
powers and are mainly used in association with fast controlled-devices as free-wheeling or DC-DC choppers and rectifier
applications. Fast recovery diodes also find application in induction heating, UPS and traction.
Schottky rectifiers: These are the fastest rectifiers being majority carrier devices without any Qrr.. However, they are available
with voltage ratings up to a hundred volts only though current ratings may be high. Their conduction voltages specifications are
10
excellent (~0.2V). The freedom from minority carrier recovery permits reduced snubber requirements. Schottky diodes face no
competition in low voltage SPMS applications and in instrumentation.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier is the most popular of the thyristor family of four layer regenerative devices. It is normally
turned on by the application of a gate pulse when a forward bias voltage is present at the main terminals. However, being
regenerative or 'latching', it cannot be turned off via the gate terminals specially at the extremely high amplification factor of the
gate. There are two main types of SCR's.
Converter grade or Phase Control thyristors These devices are the work horses of the Power Electronics. They are turned
off by natural (line) commutation and are reverse biased at least for a few milliseconds subsequent to a conduction period. No fast
switching feature is desired of these devices. They are available at voltage ratings in excess of 5 KV starting from about 50 V and
current ratings of about 5 KA. The largest converters for HVDC transmission are built with series- parallel combination of these
devices. Conduction voltages are device voltage rating dependent and range between 1.5 V (600V) to about 3.0 V (+5 KV). These
devices are unsuitable for any 'forced-commutated' circuit requiring unwieldy large commutation components.
The dynamic di/dt and dv/dt capabilities of the SCR have vastly improved over the years borrowing emitter shorting and
other techniques adopted for the faster variety. The requirement for hard gate drives and di/dt limting inductors have been
eliminated in the process.
Inverter grade thyristors: Turn-off times of these thyristors range from about 5 to 50 secs when hard switched. They are
thus called fast or 'inverter grade' SCR's. The SCR's are mainly used in circuits that are operated on DC supplies and no
alternating voltage is available to turn them off. Commutation networks have to be added to the basic converter only to turn-off
the SCR's. The efficiency, size and weight of these networks are directly related to the turn-off time, tq of the SCR. The
commutation circuits utilised resonant networks or charged capacitors. Quite a few commutation networks were designed and
some like the McMurray-Bedford became widely accepted.
Asymmetrical, light-activated, reverse conducting SCR's Quite a few varieties of the basic SCR have been proposed for
specific applications. The Asymmetrical thyristor is convenient when reactive powers are involved and the light activated SCR
assists in paralleling or series operation.
MOSFET
The Power MOSFET technology has mostly reached maturity and is the most popular device for SMPS, lighting ballast type
of application where high switching frequencies are desired but operating voltages are low. Being a voltage fed, majority carrier
device (resistive behaviour) with a typically rectangular Safe Operating Area, it can be conveniently utilized. Utilising shared
manufacturing processes, comparative costs of MOSFETs are attractive. For low frequency applications, where the currents
drawn by the equivalent capacitances across its terminals are small, it can also be driven directly by integrated circuits. These
capacitances are the main hindrance to operating the MOSFETS at speeds of several MHz. The resistive characteristics of its
main terminals permit easy paralleling externally also. At high current low voltage applications the MOSFET offers best
conduction voltage specifications as the RDS(ON) specification is current rating dependent. However, the inferior features of the
inherent anti-parallel diode and its higher conduction losses at power frequencies and voltage levels restrict its wider application.
The IGBT
It is a voltage controlled four-layer device with the advantages of the MOSFET driver and the Bipolar Main terminal.
IGBTs can be classified as punch-through (PT) and non-punch-through (NPT) structures. In the punch-through IGBT, a better
trade-off between the forward voltage drop and turn -off time can be achieved. Punch-through IGBTs are available up to about
1200 V. NPT IGBTs of up to about 4 KV have been reported in literature and they are more robust than PT IGBTs particularly
under short circuit conditions. However they have a higher forward voltage drop than the PT IGBTs. Its switching times can be
controlled by suitably shaping the drive signal. This gives the IGBT a number of advantages: it does not require protective
circuits, it can be connected in parallel without difficulty, and series connection is possible without dv/dt snubbers. The IGBT is
presently one of the most popular device in view of its wide ratings, switching speed of about 100 KHz a easy voltage drive and a
square Safe Operating Area devoid of a Second Breakdown region.
The GTO
11
The GTO is a power switching device that can be turned on by a short pulse of gate current and turned off by a reverse gate pulse.
This reverse gate current amplitude is dependent on the anode current to be turned off. Hence there is no need for an external
commutation circuit to turn it off. Because turn-off is provided by bypassing carriers directly to the gate circuit, its turn-off time is
short, thus giving it more capability for highfrequency operation than thyristors. The GTO symbol and turn-off characteristics are
shown in Fig. 30.3. GTOs have the I2t withstand capability and hence can be protected by semiconductor fuses. For reliable
operation of GTOs, the critical aspects are proper design of the gate turn-off circuit and the snubber circuit.
Power Converter Topologies
A Power Electronic Converter processes the available form to another having a different frequency and/or voltage magnitude.
There can be four basic types of converters depending upon the function performed:
CONVERSION
FROM/TO NAME FUNCTION SYMBOL
DC to DC Chopper Constant to variable DC or

variable to constant DC
DC to AC Inverter DC to AC of desired voltage and

frequency
~
AC to DC Rectifier AC to unipolar (DC) current

~
Cycloconverter,
AC to AC AC-PAC, AC of desired frequency and/or
Matrix magnitude from generally line ~
Converter AC ~
All Over voltage at gate;

1. Excessive temperature rise;
2. Electro-static discharge;
Semiconductor devices of all types exhibit similar responses to most of the stresses, however there are marked differences.
The SCR is the most robust device on practically all counts. That it has an I 2 t rating is proof that its internal thermal capacities are
excellent. A HRC fuse, suitably selected, and in co-ordination with fast circuit breakers would mostly protect it. This sometimes
becomes a curse when the cost of the fuse becomes exorbitant. All transistors, specially the BJT and the IGBT is actively
protected (without any operating cost!) by sensing the Main Terminal voltage, as shown in Fig. 1.7. This voltage is related to the
current carried by the device. Further, the transistors permit designed gate current waveforms to minimise voltage spikes as a
consequence of sharply rising Main terminal currents. Gate resistances have significant effect on turn-on and turn-off times of
these devices - permitting optimisation of switching times for the reduction of switching losses and voltage spikes.
Protection schemes for over-voltages - the prolonged ones and those of short duration - are guided by the energy content of
12
the surges. Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV's), capacitive dynamic voltage-clamps and crow-bar circuits are some of the strategies
commonly used. For high dv/dt stresses, which again have similar effect on all devices, R-C or R-C-D clamps are used depending
on the speed of the device. These 'snubbers' or 'switching-aid-networks', additionally minimise switching losses of the device -
thus reducing its temperature rise.
Gates of all devices are required to be protected against over-voltages (typically + 20 V) specially for the voltage driven ones.
This is achieved with the help of Zener clamps - the zener being also a very fast-acting device.
Protection against issues like excessive case temperatures and ESD follow well-set practices. Forced-cooling techniques are
very important for the higher rated converters and whole environments are air-cooled to lower the ambient.
13
Chapter 2
Introduction of traction system
43.1. General
By electric traction is meant locomotion in which the driving (or tractive) force is obtained from electric
motors. It is used in electric trains, tramcars, trolley buses and diesel-electric vehicles etc. Electric traction has many
advantages as compared to other non-electrical systems of traction includ-ing steam traction.
43.2. Traction Systems
Broadly speaking, all traction systems may be classified into two categories :
(a) non-electric traction systems
They do not involve the use of electrical energy at any stage. Examples are : steam engine drive used in
railways and internal-combustion-engine drive used for road transport.
The above picture shows a diesel train engine. These engines are now being
rapidly replaced by electric engines
(b) electric traction systems
They involve the use of electric energy at some stage or the other. They may be further sub-divided into two
groups :
1. First group consists of self-contained vehicles or locomotives. Examples are : battery-elec-tric drive and
diesel-electric drive etc.
2. Second group consists of vehicles which receive electric power from a distribution network fed at suitable
points from either central power stations or suitably-spaced sub-stations. Examples are : railway electric
locomotive fed from overhead ac supply and tramways and trolly buses supplied with dc supply.
43.3. Direct Steam Engine Drive
Though losing ground gradually due to various reasons, steam locomotive is still the most widely-adopted
means of propulsion for railway work. Invariably, the reciprocating engine is employed because
1. it is inherently simple.
14
2. connection between its cylinders and the driving wheels is simple.
3. its speed can be controlled very easily.

However, the steam locomotive suffers from the following disadvantages :
1. since it is difficult to install a condenser on a locomotive, the steam engine runs non-con-densing and,
therefore, has a very low thermal efficiency of about 6-8 percent.
2. it has strictly limited overload capacity.
3. it is available for hauling work for about 60% of its working days, the remaining 40% being spent in
preparing for service, in maintenance and overhaul.
43.4. Diesel-electric Drive
It is a self-contained motive power unit which employs a diesel engine for direct drive of a dc
43.5. Battery-electric Drive

In this case, the vehicle carries secondary batteries which supply current to dc motors used for driving the vehicle.
Such a drive is well-suited for shunting in railway yards, for traction in mines, for local delivery of goods in large towns
and large industrial plants. They have low maintenance cost and are free from smoke. However, the scope of such vehicles
is limited because of the small capacity of the batteries and the necessity of charging them frequently.
43.6. Advantages of Electric Traction
As compared to steam traction, electric rac-tion has the following advantages :
1. Cleanliness. Since it does not produce any smoke or corrosive fumes, electric traction is most suited for
underground and tube railways. Also, it causes no damage to the buildings and other apparatus due to the absence of
smoke and flue gases.
2. Maintenance Cost. The maintenance cost of an electric locomotive is nearly 50% of that for a steam
locomotive. Moreover, the maintenance time is also much less.
3. Starting Time. An electric locomotive can be started at a moment's notice whereas a steam locomotive
requires about two hours to heat up.
4. High Starting Torque. The motors used in electric traction have a very high starting torque. Hence, it is
possible to achieve higher accelerations of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h/s as against 0.6 to 0.8 km/h/s in steam traction. As a
result, we are able to get the following additional advantages:
(i) high schedule speed
(ii) increased traffic handling capacity
(iii) because of (i) and (ii) above, less terminal space is requireda factor of great importance in urban areas.
15
5. Braking. It is possible to use regenerative braking in electric traction system. It leads to the following
advantages :
(i) about 80% of the energy taken from the supply during ascent is returned to it during descent.
(ii) goods traffic on gradients becomes safer and speedier.
(iii) since mechanical brakes are used to a very small extent, maintenance of brake shoes, wheels, tyres and
track rails is considerably reduced because of less wear and tear.
6. Saving in High Grade Coal. Steam locomotives use costly high-grade coal which is not so abundant. But
electric locomotives can be fed either from hydroelectric stations or pit-head thermal power stations which use
cheap low-grade coal. In this way, high-grade coal can be saved for metal-lurgical purposes.
7. Lower Centre of Gravity. Since height of an electric locomotive is much less than that of a steam
locomotive, its centre of gravity is comparatively low. This fact enables an electric locomo-tive to negotiate curves
at higher speeds quite safely.
8. Absence of Unbalanced Forces. Electric traction has higher coefficient of adhesion since there are no
unbalanced forces produced by reciprocating masses as is the case in steam traction. It not only reduces the
weight/kW ratio of an electric locomotive but also improves its riding quality in addition to reducing the wear and
tear of the track rails.
43.7. Disadvantages of Electric Traction
1. The most vital factor against electric traction is the initial high cost of laying out overhead electric supply
system. Unless the traffic to be handled is heavy, electric traction becomes uneco-nomical.
2. Power failure for few minutes can cause traffic dislocation for hours.
3. Communication lines which usually run parallel to the power supply lines suffer from elec-trical
interference. Hence, these communication lines have either to be removed away from the rail track or else
underground cables have to be used for the purpose which makes the entire system still more expensive.
4. Electric traction can be used only on those routes which have been electrified. Obviously, this restriction
does not apply to steam traction.
5. Provision of a negative booster is essential in the case of electric traction. By avoiding the flow of return currents
through earth, it curtails corrosion of underground pipe work and interference with telegraph and telephone circuits.
43.8. Systems of Railway Electrification
Presently, following four types of track electrification systems are available :
1. Direct current system600 V, 750 V, 1500 V, 3000 V
2. Single-phase ac system15-25 kV, 16 23 , 25 and 50 Hz

3. Three-phase ac system3000-3500 V at 16 23 Hz
4. Composite systeminvolving conversion of single-phase ac into 3-phase ac or dc.
43.9. Direct Current System
16
Direct current at 600-750 V is universally employed for tramways in urban areas and for many suburban
railways while 1500-3000 V dc is used for main line railways. The current collection is from third rail (or conductor
rail) up to 750 V, where large currents are involved and from overhead wire for 1500 V and 3000 V, where small
currents are involved. Since in majority of cases, track (or running) rails are used as the return conductor, only one
conductor rail is required. Both of these contact systems are fed from substations which are spaced 3 to 5 km for
heavy suburban traffic and 40-50 km for main lines operating at higher voltages of 1500 V to 3000 V. These sub-
stations themselves receive power from 110/132 kV, 3-phase network (or grid). At these substations, this high-
voltage 3-phase supply is converted into low-voltage 1-phase supply with the help of Scott-connected or V-
connected 3-phase transformers (Art. 31.9). Next, this low ac voltage is converted into the required dc voltage by
using suitable rectifiers or converters (like rotary converter, mercury-arc, metal or semiconductor rectifiers). These
substations are usually automatic and are remote-controlled.
The dc supply so obtained is fed via suitable contact system to the traction motors which are either dc series
motors for electric locomotive or compound motors for tramway and trolley buses where regenerative braking is
desired.
It may be noted that for heavy suburban service, low voltage dc system is undoubtedly superior to 1-phase ac
system due to the following reasons :
1. dc motors are better suited for frequent and rapid acceleration of heavy trains than ac mo-tors.
2. dc train equipment is lighter, less costly and more efficient than similar ac equipment.
3. when operating under similar service conditions, dc train consumes less energy than a 1-phase ac train.
4. the conductor rail for dc distribution system is less costly, both initially and in maintenance than the high-
voltage overhead ac distribution system.
5. dc system causes no electrical interference with overhead communication lines.
The only disadvantage of dc system is the necessity of locating ac/dc conversion sub-stations at relatively short
distances apart.
43.10. Single-Phase Low-frequency AC System
In this system, ac voltages from 11 to 15 kV at 16 23 or 25 Hz are used. If supply is from a generating station
exclusively meant for the traction system, there is no difficulty in getting the elec-tric supply of 16 23 or 25 Hz. If,
however, electric supply is taken from the high voltage transmission lines at 50 Hz, then in addition to step-down
transformer, the substation is provided with a frequency converter. The frequency converter equipment consists of a
3-phase synchronous motor which drives a I-phase alternator having or 25 Hz frequency.
The 15 kV 16 23 or 25 Hz supply is fed to the electric locomotor via a single over-head wire (running rail
providing the return path).
A step-down transformer carried by the locomotive reduces the 15-kV voltage to 300-400 V for feeding the ac
series motors. Speed regulation of ac series motors is achieved by applying variable voltage from the tapped
secondary of the above transformer.
17
Low-frequency ac supply is used because apart from improving the commutation properties of ac motors, it
increases their efficiency and power factor. Moreover, at low frequency, line reactance is less so that line impedance
drop and hence line voltage drop is reduced. Because of this reduced line drop, it is feasible to space the substations
50 to 80 km apart. Another advantage of employing low frequency is that it reduces telephonic interference.
41.11. Three-phase Low-frequency AC System
It uses 3-phase induction motors which work on a 3.3 kV, 16 23 Hz supply. Sub-stations receive power at a very
high voltage from 3-phase transmission lines at the usual industrial frequency of 50 Hz. This high voltage is stepped
down to 3.3 kV by transformers whereas frequency is reduced
from 50 Hz to 16 23 Hz by frequency converters installed at the sub-stations. Obviously, this system employs two
overhead contact wires, the track rail forming the third phase (of course, this leads to insulation difficulties at the
junctions).
Induction motors used in the system are quite simple and robust and give trouble-free operation. They possess
the merits of high efficiency and of operating as a generator when driven at speeds above the synchronous speed.
Hence, they have the property of automatic regenerative braking during the descent on gradients. However, it may
be noted that despite all its advantages, this system has not found much favour and has, in fact, become obsolete
because of its certain inherent limita-tions given below :
1. the overhead contact wire system becomes complicated at crossings and junctions.
2. constant-speed characteristics of induction motors are not suitable for traction work.
3. induction motors have speed/torque characteristics similar to dc shunt motors. Hence, they are not suitable
for parallel operation because, even with little difference in rotational speeds caused by unequal diameters
of the wheels, motors will becomes loaded very unevenly.
43.12. Composite System
Such a system incorporates good points of two systems while ignoring their bad points. Two such composite
systems presently in use are :
1. 1-phase to 3-phase system also called Kando system
2. 1-phase to dc system.
43.13. Kando System
In this system, single-phase 16-kV, 50 Hz supply from the sub-station is picked up by the loco-motive through
the single overhead contact wire. It is then converted into 3-phase ac supply at the same frequency by means of
phase converter equipment carried on the locomotives. This 3-phase supply is then fed to the 3-phase induction
motors. As seen, the complicated overhead two contact wire arrangement of ordinary 3-phase system is replaced by
a single wire system. By using silicon controlled rectifier as inverter, it is possible to get variable-frequency 3-phase
supply at 1/2 to 9 Hz frequency. At this low frequency, 3-phase motors develop high starting torque without taking
excessive current. In view of the above, Kando system is likely to be developed further.
18
43.14. Single-phase AC to DC System
This system combines the advantages of high-voltage ac distribution at industrial frequency with the dc series
motors traction. It employs overhead 25-kV, 50-Hz supply which is stepped down by the transformer installed in the
locomotive itself. The low-voltage ac supply is then converted into dc supply by the rectifier which is also carried
on the locomotive. This dc supply is finally fed to dc series traction motor fitted between the wheels. The system of
traction employing 25-kV, 50-Hz, 1-phase ac supply has been adopted for all future track electrification in India.
43.15. Advantages of 25-kV, 50-Hz AC System
Advantages of this system of track electrification over other systems particularly the dc system are as under :
1. Light Overhead Catenary
Since voltage is high (25 kV), line current for a given traction demand is less. Hence, cross-section of the
overhead conductors is reduced. Since these small-sized conductors are light, support-ing structures and foundations
are also light and simple. Of course, high voltage needs higher insula-tion which increases the cost of overhead
equipment (OHE) but the reduction in the size of conduc-tors has an overriding effect.
2. Less Number of Substations
Since in the 25-kV system, line current is less, line voltage drop which is mainly due to the resistance of the
line is correspondingly less. It improves the voltage regulation of the line which fact makes larger spacing of 50-80
km between sub-stations possible as against 5-15 km with 1500 V dc system and 15-30 km with 3000 V dc sysem.
Since the required number of substations along the track is considerably reduced, it leads to substantial saving in the
capital expenditure on track electrifica-tion.
3. Flexibility in the Location of Substations
Larger spacing of substations leads to greater flexibility in the selection of site for their proper location. These
substations can be located near the national high-voltage grid which, in our country, fortunately runs close to the
main railway routes. The substations are fed from this grid thereby saving the railway administration lot of
expenditure for erecting special transmission lines for their substations. On the other hand, in view of closer spacing
of dc substations and their far away location, railway administration has to erect its own transmission lines for
taking feed from the national grid to the substations which consequently increases the initial cost of electrification.
4. Simplicity of Substation Design
In ac systems, the substations are simple in design and layout because they do not have to install and maintain
rotary converters or rectifiers as in dc systems. They only consist of static transformers alongwith their associated
switchgear and take their power directly from the high-voltage national grid running over the length and breadth of
our country. Since such sub-stations are remotely con-trolled, they have few attending personnel or even may be
unattended.
5. Lower Cost of Fixed Installations

The cost of fixed installations is much less for 25 kV ac system as compared to dc system. In fact, cost is in
ascending order for 25 kV ac, 3000 V dc and 1500 V dc systems. Consequently, traffic densities for which these
systems are economical are also in the ascending order.
19
6. Higher Coefficient of Adhesion
The straight dc locomotive has a coefficient of adhesion of about 27% whereas its value for ac rectifier
locomotive is nearly 45%. For this reason, a lighter ac locomotive can haul the same load as a heavier straight dc
locomotive. Consequently, ac locomotives are capable of achieving higher speeds in coping with heavier traffic.
7. Higher Starting Efficiency
An ac locomotive has higher starting efficiency than a straight dc locomotive. In dc locomotive supply voltage
at starting is reduced by means of ohmic resistors but by on-load primary or secondary tap-changer in ac
locomotives.
43.16. Disadvantages of 25-kV AC System
20
Chapter 3
Parameter of traction system
INTRODUCTION
Power Electronics technologies contribute with important part in the development of electric vehicles. On the other hand, the
PWM techniques used today to control modern static converters for electric traction, do not give perfect waveforms, which
strongly depend on switching frequency of the power semiconductors. Normally, voltage (or current in dual devices) moves to
discrete values, forcing the design of machines with good isolation, and sometimes loads with inductances in excess of the required
value. In other words, neither voltage nor current are as expected. This also means harmonic contamination, additional power
losses, torque ripple, and high frequency noise that can affect the controllers. All these reasons have generated many research
works on the topic of PWM modulation [1-4].
Multi-stage converters [5-7] can work using PWM techniques, but can also work using only amplitude modulation, and this
fact makes the outputs of the converter very much cleaner. This way of operation allows having almost perfect currents, and very
good voltage waveforms, eliminating most of the undesirable harmonics. And even better, the bridges of each converter work at a
very low
switching frequency, which gives the possibility to work with low speed semiconductors, and to generate low switching frequency
losses. The objective of this paper is to show the advantages of multi-stage converters for traction applications. The drawbacks of
requiring isolated power supplies are solved using different techniques, and based on the fact that the first converter, called Main
Converter, takes more than 80% of the total power delivered to the load. A four-stage converter using three-state power modules,
which gives 81 different levels of voltage amplitude, is studied. The results are compared with conventional PWM inverters
working at a switching frequency of 10 kHz. All the load parameters of both types of converters are set at the same value
II. BASICS OF THE SYSTEM
A. Basic Principle
The circuit of Fig.1 shows the basic topology of a H converter used for the implementation of the multi-stage converter. It is
based on the simple, four switches converter, used for single-phase inverters or for dual converters. These converters are able to
produce three levels of voltage in the load: +Vdc, -Vdc, and Zero.
+
LOA
Driver Vdc D
Figure 1. H module for building the multi-stage converter
21
B. Multi-Stage Connection
The multi-stage connection can be implemented with two, three, or any number of three-level modules. The Fig. 2 displays the
main components of a four-stage converter, which
Aux 3
Aux 2
Aux 1
Main Converter
Figure 2. Main components of the four-stage multiconverter.
C. Power Distribution
One of the good advantages of the strategy described here for these multiconverters is that most of the power delivered comes
from the Main Converter (MC). The example of Fig. 5 shows the power distribution in one phase of the four-stage converter,
feeding a pure resistive load with sinusoidal voltage. A little more than 80% of the real power is delivered by the MC, and only
20% for the three Auxs. Even more, the second and third Aux only deliver 5% of the total power. That means, the dc power
sources needed by the Auxiliary Converters are small.
22
This characteristic makes possible to feed the Auxs with low power, isolated power sources, fed by a common battery from the
MC. These power sources need to be bi-directional, even in case of absence of regenerative braking, because the power factor of
the load can produce negative active power in some of the Auxs. The Fig. 6 shows a bi-directional dc-dc power supply, which can
be used for this purpose [8].
Figure 6. Bidirectional DC-DC Power Supply
Another attribute of the multi-stage configuration, which is possible to see in the oscillograms of figures 4 and 5, is the very
low switching frequency of each converter. But even better, the MC, which carries most of the power, operates at the lower
switching frequency. In large traction applications, like buses, electric locomotives or ships, the MC can be implemented
withTOs, and the Auxs with IGBTs.This characteristic makes possible to feed the Auxs with low power, isolated power sources,
fed by a common battery from the MC. These power sources need to be bi-directional, even in case of absence of regenerative
braking, because the power factor of the load can produce negative active power in some of the Auxs. The Fig. 6 shows a bi-
directional dc-dc power supply, which can be used for this purpose [8].
ne solution for the negative power problem can be solved using DC-DC converters like the one showed in Fig. 6, but
complexity and cost increases. Another solution is to avoid the negative power by resetting the corresponding Aux converter, and
using a combination of AM and PWM modulation. In this way, the required voltage levels are obtained and current distortion is
avoided.
E. Current Control of Converters
These multilevel converters can work as current-controller inverters in a quite simple way, because they are connected in series
at the machine side. Then, the same conventional current control for PWM inverters is used for this topology. Current is measured
at the machine side and compared with the desired reference template. The error signal is processed to control the voltage
amplitude of the 81-level inverter. Each value of voltage amplitude has only one state combination that is stored in a look-up table.
For example, if the Auxiliary Converter N 3 has a 4 Vdc source, then the scaling of three gives 12 Vdc, 36 Vdc and 108 Vdc for
Aux 2, Aux 1, and Main Converter respectively. These example values give a voltage amplitude of 4+12+36+108=160 Vdc. For
example, if the voltage requirement for desired current amplitude is -68 Vdc, then converter will generate (1)x4+(0)x12+(1)x36+(-
23
1)x108 = -68. If the required voltage does not matches exactly the discrete voltage combinations, then converters operate in a
PWM way between the two closest values.
III. SIMULATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS
The following results show a comparison between PWM strategy and a four-stage multilevel converter. These results have
been obtained using the software called PSIM [10], which has demonstrated its reliability for almost 10 years of simulations,
which have been corroborated with real experimental results. Shunt active power filters, static var compensators, sinusoidal
voltage power supplies, high power rectifiers, and machine drives have previously been simulated with PSIM.
A. Machine drives with sinusoidal supply.
With PWM techniques, it is not possible to implement a sinusoidal voltage power supply. The multiconverter topology, scaled
in power of three, with few H converters, can generate a very good sinusoidal voltage waveform. The four- stage converter can
generate 81 steps of voltage levels, as was shown in figure 3. The Fig. 10 shows a comparison of the current of the load when is
fed with a PWM power supply, and with a four-stage power supply. The switching frequency of the PWM inverter is 15 kHz, and
the output frequency is 50 Hz. It is clear the difference: the current in the four-stage converter is almost harmonic-free. This system
can operate at all output frequencies.
One solution for the negative power problem can be solved using DC-DC converters like the one showed in Fig. 6, but
avoided.
F. Current Control of Converters
JJJ. SIMULATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS
24
One solution for the negative power problem can be solved using DC-DC converters like the one showed in Fig. 6, but
avoided.
G. Current Control of Converters
KKK. SIMULATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS
25
Figure. 10. Armature currents from a PWM voltage source, and a four-stage voltage source.
Despite the system looks complicated, it can be adequately integrated. It is important to remember that the bidirectional DC-
DC converters used in the topology of Fig. 7 are small power devices. For example, for a 60 kW traction system for an electric
vehicle, the DC-DC converters for the first Auxiliary Converter are only 3 kW each. For the second Aux are 0.8 kW, and for the
third Aux only 200 W each. These converters can be small today with a switching frequency link of hundreds of kHz.
As the quality of sinusoidal current waveforms was already showed in figure 10, the figure 11 shows a comparison of current
for a brushless dc motor, using PWM converter, and four level converter. Again, the quality of the current obtained with the last
technology is superior.
B. Machine drives with non-sinusoidal supply.
Multilevel converters can also be used as choppers for controlling dc motors. In this case, only one phase is needed, and is used
for armature control. With the four-stage converter, the dc voltage of the armature can also be controlled with 81 levels: 40 for
motoring, 40 for regenerative braking, and zero.
Another important application is with brushless dc motors, because they need a special voltage modulation to get the typical
trapezoidal waveform of the armature current. In Fig. 11, a comparison between PWM and a four-stage multilevel converter is
displayed.
26
The Fig. 12 shows the voltage steps waveforms obtained with a 3 kW four-stage prototype. The figure shows only
half wave. On the other hand, the Fig. 13 shows the phase voltage and currents in one of the three phases of the
multiconverter when it feds an induction machine. The prototype used for the experiments is shown in Fig.14. It can be
observed that the voltages are quite sinusoidal and the resultant current is also very clean. These results justify the
research developed with this kind of converter because they generate almost perfect voltages and work at very low
switching frequency as shown in Fig. 4. For large traction vehicles they can be implemented with GTOs at the Main
Converter level, and with IGBTs at the Auxiliary levels.
Figure. 12. Voltage steps waveforms in a four-stage converter
Figure. 13. Voltage and current waveforms in a four-stage converter
Energy Storage for Traction Power Supply Systems
OVERVIEW: Environmental considerations have been factored into the development of traction power supply systems
in the past, but growing concerns about global warming call for even more innovative environmentally friendly system
solutions. Now Hitachi, Ltd. has developed a novel regenerative power management system that efficiently uses stored
regenerative train energy by adopting the same lithium-ion batteries used in hybrid drive vehicles, and the system is
now poised for practical deployment. The system mitigates voltage drop across the feeder problems with the stored
energy when trains are powered, and also effectively reduces peak power demand. A traction power simulator is used
to access and configure the optimum system before the regenerative power management system is actually deployed.
27
INTRODUCTION
WE have seen increasing demand in recent years for traction power supply systems that are more environmentally
friendly, energy efficient, and have a smaller footprint. Particularly the growing worldwide concern over global warming
calls for innovative new approaches that achieve significantly greater energy savings than in the past. As a responsible
global citizen committed to the reduction of greenhouse gases, Hitachi has developed a regenerative power absorbing
equipment using batteries called B-CHOP for application to the same lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries used in hybrid drive
vehicles, and the system is now up and running at various sites. This paper provides an overview of the system shown in
the photograph in Fig. 1, and gives a brief description of engineering tools used to tailor the system to different installation
sites.
DEVELOPMENT BACKGROUND
Beginning in 1985 with the goal of mitigating regeneration lapses, Hitachi developed first regenerative inverters, then
a regenerative power absorbing equipment using resister, and deployed these systems in traction substations. Table 1
reveals that these systems have had different strengths and weaknesses, and it was our objective to combine the strengths
of the two earlier approaches with this more recent work to develop a regenerative power absorbing equipment using
batteries that provides significant energy-saving benefits. The system proved effective not only for preventing
regeneration lapses by stabilizing feeder voltage levels, but also for mitigating voltage sag, thus improving train
acceleration performance. Stabilizing the feeder voltage also stabilizes the regenerative brake power that enables more
precise stopping and can reduce wear of mechanical brake shoe. Fig. 2 shows a schematic
flow of energy is reversed. After comparing various kinds of rechargeable batteries and compiling data on their service
life and other characteristics, we settled on Li-ion batteries. Compared with electric double-layer capacitors and NiMH
(nickel-metal hydride) batteries, Li-ion cells have higher energy and power densities, and are smaller and much lighter. In
short, Li-ion cells are superior to other equivalent secondary batteries, they are manufactured for applications demanding
rapid frequent switching back and forth between charge and discharge, and they are ideal for accommodating the loads of
electrified railroads. Advances in material science have extended the service life of Li-ion batteries, so there is no practical
problems with using the batteries continuously for 15 years or more under the environment and load conditions prevailing
in traction substations. Fig. 3 is a photograph of the general-purpose Li-ion battery module used in our system, which is
essentially the same type of module used in hybrid drive vehicles. Concern about the environment and the market for
hybrid vehicles will only continue to grow in the years ahead, and this will drive down the cost of Li-ion batteries as the
manufacturing economy of scale continues to grow.
B-CHOP SPECIFICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

B-CHOP Specifications
Let us briefly summarize the key specifications of the commercial version of the regenerative power absorbing
equipment using batteries B-CHOP:
(i) Rated capacity: 2,000/1,000/500 kW (20 second operation at 180 second cycles)
(ii) Rated voltage: 1,650 V/820 V (note however that the voltage varies at beginning of charging and discharging.)
(iii) Switching frequency: 600 Hz/720 Hz
(iv) Li-ion battery module configuration: Twenty 4-series-connected cells connected in parallel (for 2,000 kW
capacity)
These and other specifications are detailed in Table 2.
Fig. 3Lithium-ion Battery Module (Manufactured by Hitachi Vehicle Energy, Ltd. )

Lithium-ion batteries are used in hybrid vehicles. Module is rated at 170 V 5.5 Ah.
28
Circuit Configuration
Fig. 4 is a circuit diagram showing that the B-CHOP system consists of three blocks: the chopper panel, filter panel,
and battery panel. A key advantage of the system is that there are no restrictions on where it has to be deployed so it can
be installed virtually anywhere. The chopping frequency of the B-CHOP is the same as that of the regenerative power
absorbing equipment using register with which we have a good deal of experience, and the ripple of the 12-pulse rectifier
is standardized at 600 Hz for the 50-Hz domain and 720 Hz for the 60-Hz domain. These frequencies can be readily
modified even in the presence of interference, so B-CHOP seamlessly interworks with other systems.
test voltage for auxiliary

Circuit configuration of the commercial version of the system.
3,300 V 1,200 A IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) is used for the DC/DC converter, and ripple current to the feeder
lines and batteries is mitigated by implementing the bidirectional chopper as a 4-multiplex configuration.
The system is designed so that even if 1 system fails, the remaining 2 systems will continue to operate. For the
batteries, we adopted twenty 4-series-connected cells as the standard Li-ion battery module. Optimum operational control
over the batteries is achieved using battery controllers to monitor and protect the charging state and anode resistance of
each Li-ion battery, and send this information to the chopper panel. The chopper panel achieves both fixed feeder line
voltage control and prolonged battery life by incorporating feeder line voltage control that maintains the feeder line
voltage within a prescribed range using charge/discharge of the batteries, and state of charge control that lowers the state
of charge for the next charge (recovery of kinetic energy) during standby.
B-CHOP Applications
B-CHOP
Schematic plan showing a system deployment. This arrangement also effectively reduces peak power demand.
Fig. 5 shows a typical operation waveform when a 1-MW B-CHOP was connected to an actual feeder system. One can see
that the system contributes significantly to stabilization of feeder line voltage: when the feeder voltage dips below 1,500
V, the drop in voltage is checked as the batteries start to discharge, and when the feeder voltage climbs above 1,650 V, the
increasing voltage is restrained as the batteries start to charge. It is thus apparent that the device greatly contributes to
feeder voltage stabilization. Fig. 6 shows that when B-CHOP is installed in 1 bank of a conventional 2-bank substation
when the rectifier is upgraded, this complements the rectifier and permits recovery of regenerative energy. Even in the
event of a power outage, B-CHOP is unaffected and continues to operate. Power is supplied from the discharging
Fig. 7Railway Comprehensive Power Simulator.

Markedly improved over our existing simulator, and endowed with powerful engineering tools.
for application to electrified railways to determine the optimum placement and capacity of B-CHOP systems. The
simulator includes an energy storage analysis model, calculates the most effective deployment sites and minimum required
capacity, and provides valuable engineering support tools for assessing the effects of implementing the system before it is
deployed. As illustrated in Fig. 7, use of New-Jumps enables us to design and propose optimum traction power systems
tailored to different system needs and requirements.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper described an energy storage for traction power supply system that effectively reduces greenhouse gas
emissions. Hitachi remains committed to environmentally friendly technological solutions that reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, and to research and development on innovative traction power supply systems that address the pace and
direction of various changes.
batteries, so trains in the vicinity of the substation continue to run.
Engineering Support for B-CHOP Deployments

In order to derive the most effective use from B-CHOP while making the minimum required investment, a certain
amount of engineering is required to determine
system installation sites,
29
optimum system capacities, and
alignment with other peripheral systems.
When planning a B-CHOP deployment, this engineering work is aided by New-Jumps, a comprehensive power
simulator developed by Hitachi
stractElectrical drives efficiently convert electrical power into mechanical power. As factory automation,
comfortable lifestyle and energy conservation are growing businesses, the number of drives produced worldwide
keeps growing. The increased use of information technology (computers, digital control) and communication
systems not only has created new markets for drives, e.g. disc drives but also enforces more electrical drives to be
used in systems as actuators and mechatronic systems. In this paper, the author reviews the present state of
development of drive technology and probes into future application and technology trends.
Keywords- electrical drives, electrical machines, power electronics, embedded control, rapid control prototyping
= INTRODUCTION
In general, as illustrated in Fig. 1, an electrical drive can be defined as a power conversion means characterized by its
capability to efficiently convert electrical power from an electrical power source (voltage and current) into mechanical
power (torque and speed) to control a mechanical load or process. In some cases, this power flow is reversed or can
even be bi-directional. Today, modern drives make use of power electronic converters to (digitally) control this electro-
mechanical energy conversion process. In addition, as drives are being integrated more and more in systems,
communication links to higher level computer networks are essential to support commissioning, initialization,
diagnostics and higher level process control. Consequently, the main drive components consist of an electro-mechanical
energy converter (typically an electro-magnetic machine or actuator), a power electronic electrical-to-electrical power
converter and an embedded digital control unit. The digital control unit directly controls the power electronic
semiconductor switches of the power electronic converter. To this end not only suitable control hardware, sensors, high-
speed digital logic devices and processors are needed but also suitable control algorithms. From this perspective, drive
technology is a fairly modern development. Indeed, although electrical machines were first developed over 150 years
ago, power electronic converter have been available for only 45 years, dynamic torque control algorithms for induction
machines (field oriented control) have been around for
about 30 years and high -speed digital control using DSPs have been available for less than 25 years. Even today,
with all components (machine, power electronics, control hardware and software) being developed, drive technology
is still evolving at a rapid pace. Over the past 20 years, new machine types have been developed, optimized and
investigated, such as linear machines, surface PM magnet and buried PM magnet machines, switched reluctance
machines, transversal flux machines, axial flux machines, etc. Each machine type requires its specific control and
sensors. During the past 10 years, (position) sensorless drives have been investigated to eliminate expensive sensors
and make drives more robust (reliable).
PowerSourc
L
h
d
e
c
c
a
a
i
l
e
Convert
er Machine
30
Switching
signals
Control
signals
Sensor
signals
Sen
sor Contro
ller
sign Electrical
als Drives
Communication
Link Computer
System
Figure 1. Electrical Drive System
The power range of modern drives spans many decades, from milliwatts up to hundreds of megawatts, which
demonstrates the flexibility and the broad application of this technology.
II. MARKET TRENDS
A recently published report of ZVEI, illustrates the market of electrical drives in Germany [1]. Production technology,
primarily driven by continued automation of industrial processes, energy efficiency and automotive applications has
steadily increased over the past 10 years with a growth rate of 5-6 % annually. Sales are reaching 9 billion , creating
work for at least 60,000 people, not including maintenance and service personnel.
igure 3. Sales, production of electrical drives in Germany.
Similar growth rates can be noticed in the US [2]. Figure 4 shows a breakdown of the different drive technologies.
Interestingly, the classical dc machine drives (with field excitation winding or with permanent magnets) maintain a
constant (in absolute numbers) market share of around 1 billion $. The market increase is primarily due to the increased
sales of ac induction machines but also PM synchronous (brushless DC) and switched reluctance machines.
31
Figure 4. Growth and market share of electrical drives in U.S.
Clearly, electrical drive technology represents growing markets, albeit less spectacular than recent IT and nano-
technologies, but has proven to be a robust market segment which has been affected less by speculation and global
market fluctuations or crisis. One can say that electrical drives literally are robust systems which keep the worlds
economy moving towards higher prosperity (more work done by machines) and more efficient use of primary energy
(as variable speed drives are more efficient when production rates need to be adapted).
III. TECHNOLOGY TRENDS
A. Electrical machines
As was shown above, most drives sold today are based on induction machines, PM synchronous machines and
increasingly switched reluctance machines (SRM) (see Fig. 5).
Back in 1980, it was thought that power density of electrical machines was saturating according to the classical S-
curve, which is typical for a maturing technology. For example, Fig. 6, shows the evolution of power density of
traction machines in 1980. This view was based on the fact that the materials used to build electrical machines were
well developed and no innovations to improve power density (requires higher operating temperatures or less lossy
materials) were to be expected. Furthermore, market demand had settled on standard machines with speeds up to
3,000
that power density of all electrical machines strongly depends on its maximum operating speed as power equals torque
times speed and rated torque is the key variable which determines machine size in the first place. So, for constant power
applications, higher speed machines have lower torque requirements and consequently can be built smaller and lighter.
Today, electrical machines still are built with the same silicon-steel alloys (max. induction still about 2 Tesla) for the
laminations, copper or aluminum for the windings (same losses) and insulation materials, although the latter now reach
somewhat higher maximum allowable hot spot temperatures of up to 225 C for 50,000 hours operating life, as shown
in Fig. 7. We can conclude that, in contrast to the first century of machine development, which relied greatly on
material improvements, it were several engineering achievements which have allowed over the past 25 years to improve
significantly power density of traction and industrial machines up to 1.2 kW/kg. These engineering developments can
be situated in several areas:
Improved quality control, automated production as well as new production techniques, for example copper
injection (instead of aluminum) to form squirrel cage induction machines [3].
Improved design tools (finite elements and physics based dynamic models linked to inverter and control
simulations) allow the analysis of the drive under varying loading conditions and controls. Hence, they allow
designs (synthesis) with less derating.
32
Improved cooling avoids local hot spots, which allows for a better utilization of the available materials while
keeping life constant (insulation materials with better thermal conductivity and improved thermal design of the
cooling system)
Reduced derating (used to be at least 15%) of inverter fed machines because less harmonics are being produced by
power converters as higher switching frequencies are attainable today without compromising efficiency and cost
of the inverter
Applications have moved, with improved bearing and gear technology as well as improved converter technology,
to higher speed applications. Fig. 8 shows an integrated inverter-machine drive with gear capable to operate above
3000 rpm [7].
The latter can also be seen, for example, in modern traction applications which are now pushing machine speeds
over 6,000 rpm. In electrical and hybrid vehicles electrical machines typically operate up to 16,000 rpm. Large high-
power compressor drives operate up to 25,000 rpm. Recently, several manufacturers have implemented high-speed
switched reluctance machines in vacuum cleaners at speeds reaching 100,000 rpm, well above the practical limits of
universal dc machines. These machines reach, due to their high speed and inherent excellent cooling, power densities
up to 3.5 kW/kg.
B. Power converters
It should be noted that power density of power converter systems (including auxiliaries, switchgear, cooling system)
has improved even more dramatically over the past 25 years. This can be explained by the fact that power electronic
converters are a more recent technology development having more opportunities to improve in several areas. Key to
improve power density was the development of improved (less lossy) turn-off power semiconductors, improved
heatsink technology, improved control minimizing losses, compact controller design and better design tools which
allow the converter designer to push for the limits without compromising life of the inverter. However, in the
authors opinion, deploying voltage source topologies (instead of current source topologies) and improving design
and technology of passive components, in particular of capacitors, had an equally strong impact on power density of
converter systems over the past decade.
Over the past 25 years volumetric power density of industrial air-cooled ac-to-ac converter systems improved from
30 kVA/m3 up to 500 kVA/m3. Several examples of commercially available converter units and converter systems
are shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.
Figure 10. Modern vector controlled (FOC) inverters (source Lenze) with standard communication interfaces [9he
most important limiting factor in designing high-power density converter modules is thermal, i.e. maximum operating
temperature and thermal cycle life of power semiconductors and their packages. Significant difference can be noticed
between disc type devices [27] and plastic modules with bond wires [28]. Hence, power converter density depends
greatly on the specific losses of the devices (less losses requires less heatsinks), coolant temperature and operating
conditions.
Disk package < 1% failure rate
Figure 11. Thermal cycle life as function of temperature excursion of double sided cooled press pack devices (top
curve) and power modules for 50 % failure rate (middle curve) and 10% failure rate (bottom).
33
In electric and hybrid vehicles, where power density plays an important role, it is not uncommon to see optimized liquid
cooled dc-to-ac inverter designs with a power density of up to 6,000 kVA/m 3 or 6 kVA/l, as illustrated by the 55 kW
(peak 75 kW) propulsion unit for electric vehicles shown in Fig.12-14 [4,5]. In this example, a four-phase switched
reluctance machine was developed for the propulsion system. The rated power density of the machine is around 1.2
kW/kg. Figure 15 illustrates the efficiency of the drive (tested only up to 10,000 rpm). This demonstrator proved that
SRMs can be equally efficient as induction machines (IMs) or PM machines. Testing this propulsion system over
different driving cycles showed that the energy consumption was better (up to 5%) than IMs or PM machines because
partial load efficiency remains higher. In aerospace applications, power density and weight density are even more
critical and converters with a power density of 20 kVA/l have been reported in literature [6].
Journal of Electrical Engineering
www.jee.ro
Figure 15. Speed-Torque diagram, showing efficiency contours of the 75 kW propulsion unit.
Figure 16. Field Oriented Control (FOC) for AC rotating filed machines
C. Embedded control and communication links
As was shown above, most drives sold today are based on induction machines, PM synchronous machines and
increasingly switched reluctance machines (SRM) (see Fig. 4). Each machine type requires dedicated control
algorithms, some of which have been developed over the last decades. Note that SRMs were first introduced in the
market in 1984. Since then they have been steadily improved upon so that SRM drives can be considered now for high
quality servo drive systems, potentially offering lower cost. Control developers made several key contributions which
34
made drives with servo performance possible and cost effective. Several control innovations (algorithms, software and
hardware) developed over the past 30 years are worth mentioning:
Principle of field oriented control (FOC) for ac rotating field machines maximizes torque per ampere of the drive
[10-13] (Fig. 16)
Space vector PWM modulation augmented with 15% the dc bus voltage utilization of three-phase inverters [14]
Synchronized (space vector) PWM reduces low frequency harmonics and minimizes filter size
Direct torque control [15-16], in particular of SRMs enables servo drive performance of this simple but highly
non-linear drive [17-18], see Fig. 15.
Position sensor elimination [19,22] or reducing number of current sensors (for example measuring output current
via dc link current sensor) as well as sensor integration (integrating current sensor in power devices) makes drives
more robust and cheaper.
Fast fixed point or floating point digital signal processors (DSPs) and programmable logic devices (PLDs) made
implementation of complex control (FOC) and protection algorithms possible in a small space while offering
high flexibility and avoiding expensive ASICs [23]
Higher level programming languages C++ and tools shorten control development time, allowing flexible
adaptation of the drive to new applications
As a result, drives have become programmable, tunable devices which can be adjusted for different applications. In
the low to medium power level (0.5 to 50 kW), the cost reduction due to higher volume production can offset the
cost overhead of the more flexible control hardware, especially when diagnostic functions need to be integrated in
the drive. The classical distinction between adjustable speed drives and high performance drives is becoming less an
issue as adjustable speed drives can be obtained by leaving out position sensors and fast communication ports while
keeping control hardware identical. Plug-and-play concepts are becoming a reality for factory automation by
integrating power, sensor wires and communication links in one cable and standardized connectors. Furthermore,
more and more drive products can be easily integrated via fast communication links in a larger computer controlled
environment.
IV. MODERN DRIVE DESIGN TOOLS
Design of new drive systems more and more uses powerful numerical design tools which can take specifications,
fabrication rules and control algorithms into account. Design of drives requires an electro-magnetic design of the
electro-mechanical energy converter (machine, actuator), the power electronic converter and control methodology. In
some cases, such as ac rotating filed machine, the design of the machine can be greatly decoupled form the design of
the converter. However, design of switched reluctance drives requires a coupled design process which includes
machine, converter and control aspects. The electro-magnetic calculations of the machine are essential to calculate:
winding and core losses
machine efficiency
hot spot temperatures, temperature cycles and life expectancy
acoustic performance
Converter design involves:
calculation of VA ratings of all components to determine weight and size and to select materials
loss calculations to calculate efficiency, determine cooling concept
temperature distribution calculation, temperature cycles, life of the converter
EMI analysis and LF and EMI filter design
35
Prototype
Control design and simulation is essential to assess stability, response performance of the drive or to optimize for specified
design criteria. Clearly, control design can have a profound effect on inverter and machine efficiency, drive power density, EMI
and acoustic noise. Usually, a closed loop design process which optimizes the entire drive system is needed. This design process
requires iterative design steps, which is time consuming but allows different design tools to be used for each element of the drive
and each step in the process as illustrated in Fig. 18.
To validate performance, thermal cycling, etc., the models need to be time domain, dynamic and physics based models which
can be calculated quickly but still offer high accuracy and wide applicability. Detailed finite element simulations can be done to
extract from complex geometries the parameters for these dynamic models. Most rotating machine can be modeled 2D, however
more and more specialized products require 3D simulations. Embedding these FE simulations in dynamic models (including
converter and control simulation) is possible but requires powerful computing environments and takes many resources (time). In
some case, this coupling between dynamic models and FE is essential when parasitic effects are strongly coupled and difficult to
model, for example eddy currents coupled with saturation and heating effects.
Control functions can be modeled in graphical programming environments (e.g. MatLab/Simulink). Pspice simulations are used
to study the parasitic effects during switching of the inverter. Several companies offer idealized converter simulation tools which
can be linked to the control simulation tools (MatLab/Simulink). These models offer much higher computation speed at the
expense of HF details.
Device losses are calculated in postprocessing mode. Advanced control design concepts follow the rapid control prototyping
principles, i.e. control software is coded in the off-line simulation the same way as in the actual control hardware. Time delays
between inputs and outputs are simulated by the simulator. Real-time simulation of complex
An example of a complex drive is shown in Fig. 20-21. A spherical machine was developed to integrate three-degrees of
motion, providing very high stiffness for robot applications. The spherical machine has 96 independent phases to control the
rotor with high torque and high precision (m scale). Due to the tilt of the rotor, the pole pitch of each magnet appears to be
variable from a stator perspective. Each phase was controlled using synchronized current regulators to avoid low-frequency
beating and vibrations of the rotor. Six DSPs calculated the transformations and vector rotations such that each active phase
was under field oriented control. Several search algorithms were developed to select quickly those phases which can produce
the required force vectors most effectively (minimizing force per ampere) [25]. In this project, it was found that off-line
simulations of the spherical machine (which was concurrently designed and constructed by other research groups) was too
complex and too slow to test control algorithms for all practical purposes. A real-time simulation of the machine was built
using the same hardware platform as the control hardware [23, 24]. Complete functionality of the control algorithms was
proven within short time by working directly in this real-time environment. Due to small mechanical deviations from its
initial design, only little tuning of parameters was required during initial testing when the spherical machine was first taken
into service.
Command signals Data signals
Figure 22. DSP architecture showing control modularity. Flexibility is guaranteed by using programmable logic devices on all
I/O.
V. FUTURE DRIVE TRENDS
36
Although improvements in dynamic performance (torque response) and efficiency (already high) will be incremental (market
does not demand major improvements in these areas), it is anticipated that in the next decade drive technology will offer:
higher power densities. Indeed, converter designers are just starting to investigate more integrated packaging techniques
as well as integrated passive components [26]. In addition, all auxiliaries, such as protective relays, switches, fuses,
blowers, which all take considerable space, will be integrated or coordinated more effectively as converters designers are
paying more attention to the overall system
more diversity in machine types. More specialized drives require complete different designs. Amorphous powder metal
instead of laminations offers more flexibility to adapt magnetic circuits to particular geometries and applications
higher speed operation. More drives will operate at higher speeds as it reduces weight of the machine. One can speculate
that, from this perspective, more SRM will come to market because SRM rotors can operate at higher speeds due to the
fact that no magnets, windings or squirrel cages need to be supported in the rotor.
high-temperature machines, power converters and control electronics. Machine winding isolation is limited to about 200
C
propulsion systems with high-torque direct drives. High torque machines using powerful permanent magnets are very
efficient at low speeds. Reactive power consumption at high-speed operation can be reduced by proper magnetic circuit
design (saturation effects) or using so-called memory effect concepts.
high-temperature superconductors will be used more and more in high power drives. To eliminate the maximum
induction (2 Tesla) barrier of Si-steel lamination, large airgap machines or core-less machines are the only viable way to
further reduce size of high power machines
more intelligent drive controllers which takes away the burden of initialization and optimization of the drive
performance. More diagnostic tools will be integrated in the drive as sensors at the system level can be avoided. High-
speed field bus systems are already common place to transfer all data which can be extracted form a drive system. More
drives will link to the Internet the same way as web cameras do today. Plug-and-play will become necessary to serve
new applications which directly impact quality of life (domotica, mechatronics, automotive, alternative energy, power
quality and medical).
1 The railway electrification systems of Europe
Unfortunately, the basic size and weight of a transformer are limited by the laws of physics. Factors determining the minimum size
of a transformer include the frequency and the power rating lower frequencies require larger trans-formers. A higher frequency
transform-er would permit weight savings as well as space savings. This is the motivation behind ABBs power-electronic traction
transformer (PETT).
Principle of the PETT

The power conversion path found in most modern AC trains is shown in 2. Current from the AC catenary (overhead line) flows
through the primary windings of a low-frequency transformer (LFT) to the rail (which provides the return path). The reduced
voltage available at the secondary windings of the transformer is fed into a four-quadrant line chopper converting it to DC-link
voltage. An in-verter converts this to variable-frequen-cy and variable-voltage AC for the trac-tion motors. Auxiliary supplies can
also be fed from the DC link.
To use a medium-frequency transformer (MFT), a frequency converter must be placed before the transformer as shown in 3. On
the secondary side of the transformer, a rectifier converts this to the DC link voltage.
3 Conversion path using a medium-frequency

2 Conversion path in a modern AC train transformer
37
AC catenary 15 KV, 16.7 Hz / 25 KV, AC catenary 15 KV, 16.7 Hz / 25
50 Hz KV, 50 Hz
Medi
Low- Main um- Traction
freque
frequency converter Traction motor ncy motor
main transfo
transformer rmer
(LF (MFT
T) DC HV DC ) LV DC
link link link
1 1
M M
3 3
3 3
Rail (ground) Rail (ground)
The incoming AC from the catenary passes through a filter inductor before entering
(v) PETT with series cascade of converter modules on the

primary side and outputs connected in parallel on the secondary
side
Catenary
Cell 1
Cell 2
Cell N
Rail
adaptation for the 1.5kV DC load voltage considering the 3.6kV intermediate
38
inductances and the external circuits capacitors, a resonant LLC circuit is cre-ated
(Lr, Lm and C r as shown in 5). The advantages of an LLC circuit include:
Wide output-regulation range
Reduction of switching losses on the primary side through zero voltage switching
(ZVS) over the entire load range
Low turnoff current controlled by the design (not truly zero current switch-ing,
ZCS)
Low-voltage stress and ZCS on the secondary side diode rectifier
Load-independent operation at resonant frequency
As an LLC circuit is based on the princi-ple of resonance, variation of the switch-ing

frequency can be used to control the output voltage. However, in the present
PETT implementation, this feature has not been used and the LLC resonant DC/ DC
converter operates in the open loop with a fixed switching frequency of 1.75kHz,
which is below the resonant frequency.
The control system

The control targets can be summarized as:
Maintaining sinusoidal input current
Near-unity power factor
Constant average DC-link voltage
Grid harmonic rejection
The hardware is ABBs AC 800PEC con-troller, a platform that permits the inte-
gration of fast and slow control functions.
The PETT
39
8 The complete PETT
The pilot installa-tion was complet-ed in mid-2011, and homologation with the Swiss Federal Office for Transport (FOT) was
achieved by the end of the year.
under development will exceed this by a considerable margin, achieving values of 0.5 to 0.75.
Further advantages include:

Improved energyefficiency from AC input to DC output from
88 to 90 percent to more than
95 percent (todays average efficiency of 15kV / 16.7Hz stand-alone Traction transformer is in the range of 90
to 92 percent)
Reduced EMC and harmonics
Lower acoustic emissions
All these factors make the PETT ideal for its stated goal of providing a small, lightweight but powerful converter
solu-tion that can be accommodated on the trains of tomorrow, and that is suited for operation in close proximity to
pas-sengers.
The transformer of tomorrow?

As most other types of large transform-er, tend to be stationary, traction is probably the application that stands to
benefit most from reducing the trans-formers weight, and hence the area where this innovation must occur first.
40
Although the PETT in this article is in-stalled in a shunting locomotive, its real area of
potential lies in multiple-unit trains for passenger service, such as commuter or high-
speed trains. The PETTs compact size means it can eas-ily be fitted under the floor of
the train or on the roof, maximizing space available for passengers while reducing the
trains power consumption.
Max Claessens
ABB Power Products, Transformers Zurich, Switzerland
max.claessens@ch.abb.com
Draen Dujic Francisco Canales

ABB Corporate Research Baden-Daettwil, Switzerland
drazen.dujic@ch.abb.com francisco.canales@ch.abb.com
Juergen K. Steinke
ABB Power Electronics Turgi, Switzerland
juergen.steinke@ch.abb.com
Philippe Stefanutti
Christian Vetterli
ABB Scheron SA Geneva, Switzerland
philippe.stefanutti@ch.abb.com
christian.vetterli@ch.abb.com
41
Traction transformation 17
Solid State Transformer Concepts in Traction and Smart Grid Applications
Introduction
Transformer Basics
Future Traction Vehicles
Classical Transformer - Basics
- Magnetic Core Material * Silicon Steel / Nanocristalline / Amorphous / Ferrite
- Winding Material * Copper or Aluminium
- Insulation/Cooling * Mineral Oil or Dry-Type
- Operating Frequency * 50/60Hz (El. Grid, Traction) or 162/3 Hz (Traction)
- Operating Voltage * 10kV or 20 kV (635kV) - Distribution Grid MV Level (uSC = 46% typ.)
* 15kV or 25kV - Traction (1ph., uSC = 2025% typ.)
* 400V - Public LV Grid
- Voltage Transf. Ratio * Fixed
- Current Transf. Ratio * Fixed
- Active Power Transf. * Fixed (P1=P2)
- React. Power Transf. * Fixed (Q1=Q2)
- Frequency Ratio * Fixed (f1=f2)
Magnetic Core
42
Cross Section
Winding Window
5/166
- Advantages
Relatively Inexpensive
Highly Robust / Reliable
Highly Efficient (98.5%...99.5% Dep. on Power Rating)
- Weaknesses
Voltage Drop Under Load
Losses at No Load
Sensitivity to Harmonics
Sensitivity to DC Offset Load Imbalances
Provides No Overload Protection
Possible Fire Hazard
Environmental Concerns
Construction Volume
Pt . Rated Power
kW . Window Utilization Factor (Insulation)
Bmax ...Flux Density Amplitude
Jrms Winding Current Density (Cooling)
f .. Frequency
43
No Controllability
Low Mains Frequency Results in Large W
Scaling of Core Losses
Scaling of Winding Losses
44
Next Generation Locomotives
- Trends * Distributed Propulsion System Weight Reduction (pot. Decreases Eff.)
* Energy Efficient Rail Vehicles Loss Reduction (would Req. Higher Vol.)
* Red. of Mech. Stress on Track Mass Reduction (pot. Decreases Eff.)
Replace Low Frequency Transformer by Medium Frequ. (MF) Power Electronics Transformer (PET)
Medium Frequ. Provides Degree of Freedom Allows Loss Reduction AND Volume Reduction
El. Syst. of Next Gen. Locom. (1ph. AC/3ph. AC) represents Part of a 3ph. AC/3ph. AC SST for Grid Appl.
45
1
Applications of Power Electronics in Railway Systems
Abstract Power system interface with electrified railways (ER), auxiliary power, hybrid trains, electromagnetic
interface (EMI) and traction are reviewed in this paper for diesel electric trains and ERs. Auxiliary power supply is a
low voltage AC/DC power supply for onboard devices with an important consideration for safety equipment. In diesel
electric railways because of variable train speed, a sort of compromise is taking place between traction and auxiliary
power which usually affects auxiliary equipment performance. Hybrid trains energy storage unit can compensate
this deficiency. Other challenges in railways are their compatibility with power and communication systems.
Index Terms active filters, electrified railways, hybrid trains, electrified railway power system, power
electronics.
I. INTRODUCTION
Railways are basically categorized to Electrified and Diesel-electric systems. This classification dictates a
majority of their characteristics.
Auxiliary power is a low voltage AC and DC power supply for different onboard devices. The other challenge in
railways is desirable performance of auxiliary power supply to keep lights, air condition etc. regardless of trains running
mode and rail conditions. Considering that safety equipment is powered by an auxiliary power supply elucidates its
importance. When it comes to auxiliary equipment reliability in diesel electric because of varying running mode a sort of
compromise is taking place between traction and auxiliary power. This usually affects auxiliary equipment performance.
Hybrid trains energy storage unit can make up this inefficiency. Different kinds of railways ex. high speed, trams, intercity,
freight etc. has these challenges in diverse extents. There are some general approaches that can be involved in all or some of
coming categories like [74] which briefly reports about a railway system simulation considering all various aspects of
control, traction, auxiliary power, braking etc. Another general assertion is [14] which explain chinas railway potential for
new technologies.
II. TRAIN SYSTEMS
MW) and high speed intercity (4-6 MW) trains. Very high speed commuters (TGV: 8-10MW) and freight trains (EU: 6-
10MW, US: 18-24MW) are high demand railways. To establish a railway system its economical and technical feasibility,
compatibility with other power system customers and adjacent communicational systems should be considered
[3]. Light trains are designed to stop every 2 or 3 km to cover a wide urban area and they require accelerating and
decelerating fast enough to be efficient. When the working field of railway is wider to cover suburban areas, commuter trains
come along. They travel in longer distances and longer intervals (5 to 10 miles) between each stop and with higher speeds
(125 mile/h). Their feeder voltage needs to be AC to reach high enough voltage levels of 15kV or 25 kV. If frequency of
46
stops is reduced to achieve higher speeds and more carriage, high speed intercity trains will be defined. An identical ex. for
high speed train is TGV which has a single phase 25kV; 50Hz on its catenary TGV can travel up to 330 miles/h. the power
supply of TGV is handled by French national grid on voltage levels of 275 kV or 400 kV to increase reliability and power
quality. There are other high speed railways (HSR) like ICE in Germany or HSR 350X and KTX in Korea [5] Sinkansen and
Maglev in Japan. For general information about worldwide high speed trains are described in [17].
However very high power traction motors are applied in freight trains especially those are running in US. They run in a
low speed high power manner. Because of this high power and lower priority of freight in comparison to passenger carrying
railways, freight electrification has more power quality problems and less economical justification.
III. POWER QUALITY
One of main problems regarding to electrified rail ways is power quality shortage that can reduce other customers usage
efficiency below standards. Railway produced power disturbances which can be classified as below:
A. Power Unbalance
There is a general power based classification in [3]: Light rails with less than 1MW. Medium loads are commuter (3-4
Manuscript received September 17, 2007. Arash A. Boora, Firuz Zare, Arindam Ghosh and Gerard Ledwich are with the
School of Engineering Systems, Queensland University of Technology
Since electrified trains are single phase loads inherently, connection of these time varying (as much as they are high
speed) unbalance (as much as they are high power) loads to three phase power system will lead to huge power unbalance.
This problem has been facing different solutions. Firstly some
Since electrified trains are single phase loads inherently, connection of these time varying (as much as they are high
speed) unbalance (as much as they are high power) loads to three phase power system will lead to huge power unbalance.
This problem has been facing different solutions. Firstly some countries devoted a specific power system to their ERs and
made other customers isolated from power quality disturbances produced by railway. The other solution is to use DC
transmission systems for trains. This strategy is working and different standard and a few not standard DC voltage levels are
used to supply railway system. In this approach railway is connected to a main power system trough an AC\DC rectifier and
all of the power turbulences are cut off at a point of common coupling by this high voltage rectifier. The other solution was
to design railway train to work as AC load but not necessarily with standard frequency of 50/60 Hz. There are different
voltage levels for this type of railway power feeding.
The solutions before power electronics viability for this level of voltage were limited to a few balancing transformations in
AC feeders namely: V transformer, Scott transformer and Le Blanc transformer all of them well compatible with simple
single phase transformation in capability of unbalance reduction. (Fig 1 from 80)
47
ig 1: Common traction system to grid configurations
Also to keep unbalance system within standard levels a strong network (high short circuit duty) should be used at the
voltages of 220kV, 115kV or 69kV at least.
B. Harmonic distortion
There are speed drives, power conversion equipment or frequency converters that inject harmonic in to railways suppling
power system. These harmonics can disturb other power systems or lead to high frequency electromagnetic fields
incompatible with close equipment as well as train signalling system. There are some classic solutions for harmonic
distortion reduction like third sequence harmonic eliminator transformers. An active power filter is a modern solution for
these problems such as unbalance, harmonic distortion and low power factor problems.
C. Flicker
As the train passes between two adjacent substations voltage sag may happen and affect other customers electrical light
performance so called flicker. There are some structural solutions regarding to all of these challenges which are used in
different countries. In Germany and Sweden low frequency systems are used which are low frequency power system in
Germany and frequency conversion in Sweden. However in England, France, USA and Africa higher voltages has reduced
the problem in different manners which are connecting railway supply system to main network in a high voltage point of
common coupling or designing railway system to work under a higher catenary voltage. All of abovementioned methods are
relying on a strong power system at the PCC to keep unbalance under 2% and harmonic distortion within standard limits as
well.
IV. ACTIVE POWER FILTERS
Considering power electronics facilities new frontiers opened to power quality compensation solutions. Load unbalance
can be attenuated by making controlled power transmission paths between two or three single phases owing to power
electronic switching circuits.
In [16] 25 kV feeder characteristics are presented and reasons for power quality problems in railway systems are
mentioned, followed by brief description of methods for compensating these shortage. Namely:
1) Reducing the distance between 25kV supply substations.
2) A higher fault level at each 25 kV supply station.
3) Using static VAR compensator as voltage support at each supply point.
4) More switching stations between each two adjacent substations to limit faults.
5) Series capacitors either in substations or overhead wiring.
6) Shunt connected capacitors either as circuit-breaker capacitors or reactive power compensator.
7) Transformer type series regulators in the overhead line.
8) On-load tap changing transformers installed for each substation.
9) Paralleling feeders to share load between them and alleviate unbalance.
10) Engineering the geometric configuration of feeders to reduce its series impedances.
11) Single phase transition to distant stations at a higher voltage to decrease voltage loss.
48
12) Paralleling of adjacent substations via the overhead line.
13) Installing switching capacitors on board.
14) Twining contact overhead lines to reduce inductance and resistance and increase the lines current capacity.
15) Unbalanced autotransformer voltage.
16) Storage batteries connected by inverters to collect extra power and support overhead line voltage.
A. . Active filters structural characteristics
In [26], [27] and [65] power electronic compensators are designed, simulated and experimented to control voltage form
factor on 25 kV ERs. The presented active power filter in [26] and the hybrid (passive and active filters) multi level ones
presented in [65] and [27] are shunt connected to solve both harmonic distortion of 3 rd , 5th and 7th harmonics and low power
factor. The shunt compensator is installed at the end of overhead line and works regarding to the voltage which senses at its
connection point. In [67] an algorithm to achieve high performance selective harmonic extraction is revised. In [68] same
active filter as [65] is deal as impedance connected to end of feeder line. The paper is optimizing this impedance to find the
most effective control strategy for proposed active filter to achieve acceptable voltage pantograph along the whole line. In
[64] another shunt connected active power compensator is presented that suppose to compensate unbalance created by
railway application on power system in addition to reactive power required by traction motor. The method is upgrading a
traditional Scott transformer with a bidirectional inverter that can balance two output phases of Scott transformer by
transmitting a fraction of overloaded phase to under loaded one. By side the inverter compensates harmonics. [33] has
realized same but more advanced strategy for Shinkansen high speed railway (HSR). (Fig 2 from [33])
In [76] hybrid active power filter (passive filter + active filter) configurations are classified and modelled and their
characteristics are tabulated (Table. 1) and explained. In addition the problem of unbalanced harmonic distortion is
mentioned. To solve this problem in an exact way, positive, negative, and zero sequence harmonic compensation should de
revised. A novel configuration and control strategy is presented. In [56] a power electronic system stabilizer is utilised for
HSR distribution system. The proposed method assesses relationship between power loss and stability in railway supply
system. The case study in [56] is Korean HSR. It claims that by reducing voltage drop through compensating reactive power
system stability will increase. The stabilizer produces required reactive power. In [34] voltage switched capacitors are
applied to regulate voltage on a 25 kV railway system. [34] uses a cheaper device (thyristor) in comparison with mentioned
references. As a drawback, compensation in this method can be conducted in steps and not continuously. In addition
thyristor is a source of harmonics because of its low switching frequency. In [66] a different compensating method is
introduced which adds a medium voltage level between
49
main supply and railway lines. The compensator which is a two phase inverter is connected to this medium voltage line and
senses and then regulates this voltage. (Fig 3 from [66])
Fig 3: an intermediate voltage level between to regulate voltage
B. . Active filter equipped power systems analysis
In [51] a power system simulation has been directed to extract unbalance vulnerability of a test network. According to
[51] voltage and current unbalance are related to train load and motion conditions and power supply configuration. Classic
methods of unbalance alleviation which generally are 3 phase to 2 phase transformers are considered in this unbalance effect
study (3 phase to 4 phase transformation for rail way application is proposed in [75]). To compare different railway load
distribution effect four experiments with varying loads and different arrangement has been prepared.
[48] specifically focuses on active filter for tram. Unlike above mentioned active filters this one acts as an input or series
filter. In [37] the mathematical technique of Diakoptics is applied for railway system solutions. Diakoptics is to tear a given
system into a number of independent, then joining the solutions of separated parts together for the solution for complete
problem. It is a good idea for railway power system with indispensable characteristic of changing loads and more identical:
changing structure of under study railway system by its trains movement. In [69] harmonic analysis for Korean railway
system has been implemented. To direct this study an eight-port model for considered railway is defined and presented. In
addition, to certify proposed model simulations based on the model is compared with measurement in. Further more
amplification of harmonic by resonance in railway electrification system is studied. In [31] a mathematical approach to
extract general control strategy for advanced 25kV-50Hz ERs has been performed. The objective of nonlinear control is to
attain current and voltage balance in power system regardless of uncertainties and nonlinearities. In
[79] a purely structural approach calculates the optimal positioning of RC-banks to reduce harmonic distortion in a given
railway network. Then Optimization is focused on R and C amounts to alleviate harmonic amplification. In [78] the case of
Taipei MRT DC system is studied, focusing on harmonic quantity and quality. In [78] practical measurement method
which is used in this study is explained and measurements results are presented and compared with mathematical
predictions. Then parameters that can not be easily considered in mathematical harmonic analyse methods are named and the
difference they make is shown in measurement results. In [49] Olympic electric train is studied in the power quality point of
view. Chargeable batteries are used to improve power quality in case study system. In [86] and [92] probabilistic methods
for load flow in ER suppling power systems is suggested. They purpose to layout Probability density functions of voltage or
power flow in certain point of the power system which indicates the ranges of variations of these parameters. In [80] traction
unbalance problem is discussed and some methodologies to analyse are presented. Then a new method is offered which is
based on sensing and compensating the negative sequence of three phase power supply. The point about this idea is that
multiple sources of unbalance do not interact because their effect on negative sequence is additive and can be deal
separately.
50
In [70] three level PWM inverter which is used for the HSR traction drive is studied. The purpose is to analyses its
harmonic current characteristics in steady state mode. A comparison between a three level converter harmonics with a pair of
interlaced two level converters is presented and resulted to their equality in this point of view.
In [71] a model of an auto transformer fed AC HSR is presented. Voltage pantograph in HSR is more problematic because
of fast change of load and structure by trains movement. [71] has utilised its proposed model to introduce a generalized,
multi rout, and efficient method to solve complicated system of working HSR. In [72] a mathematical work is done to
estimate voltage unbalance due to HSR power demands. Different main power supply and feeder connections are considered
and there potential to reduce unbalance is compared. [90] has suggested a rigorous way to evaluate voltage unbalance
produced by single phase HSR application on power system. This new methods results are compared with traditionally
formulas for unbalance estimation. In [90] the case of Taiwan HSR is studied. Another study concerning about unbalance
estimation is presented in [91], which uses dynamic load estimation (DLE) to predict railway produced unbalance. In this
way an algorithm is illustrated which is used to estimate dynamic load of Taiwan HSR and then foresee unbalance affect of
this changing load. In [93] the regarding power system (Taipower) which -due to geographical situations- is a longitudinal
power system is studied to extract impact of HSR on such a power system.
VII. ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND POLLUTION REDUCTION
In electrified as well as diesel electric rail energy efficiency and pollution reduction are strongly coupled and important
issues. There are some methods to save energy in railway systems which are addressed in [25] and [62]:
1) Reduction of braking losses by optimized driving.
2) Optimization of speed profile
3) Avoiding rout conflicts to keep optimal speed.
4) Tuning time tables in ER to fit nearby trains to exchange energy.
5) Optimization of power chain.
6) Devising smarter and more efficient auxiliary equipment.
7) Automatic railways, which allows optimization of transportation as a whole.
8) Vehicle structure optimization.
9) Eergy recovery and storage:
The last one is studied more. When it is about ERs, depending on other trains dynamic situations a certain decelerating
(down-hill running) trains kinetic energy can be transferred to another accelerating (up-hill running) one. This approach is
deeply limited to railway supply power system structure and trains position, so can not increase efficiency more than a few
percents. However this method faces more problems in DC supplied lines due to incapable rectifiers. The other general lack
of this approach is energy loss in feeder lines when it is transmitted between trains. This deficiency increases by voltage
level of feeders reduction. The other approach is based on energy storage modules. Some papers are reviewed to assess this
concept:
A. Hybrid trains
In [1] a diesel traction system has been upgraded with storage battery. Battery is managed to store brake energy and
reuse it for acceleration periods and to stabilize the auxiliary power converter DC link (Fig 4 from [1]). In other words
energy storage module decouples power produced by diesel engine and the power consumed by traction motor and auxiliary
power, by storing and reusing energy. In addition, mentioned decoupling between diesel engine and electric motor allows the
engine speed to be controlled irrespective of the train speed; instead it can be set to increase fuel consumption efficiency by
51
working on an optimum point. [96] is focusing on battery application on hybrid trains from various angles: tractive effort,
power, economics, and etc. In [45] Hitachi prototype of a hybrid train manufactured by employing a 10 kWh battery as
energy storage device is introduced. In conclusion future adventures of purely battery powered trains or trains which their
diesel engine is replaced by fuel cell or other environmental friendly energies are named. To mention realized examples, [97]
can be named which explains about a photovoltaic energy supported funicular installed in Leghorn, Italy. Or [95] which is
referencing to an experimentally realized rail vehicle that employs SuperCaps as lone power source.
Fig. 4 a typical configuration of hybrid vehicle system
In [2] another diesel electric locomotive efficiency has improved by means of a SuperCap. Same structure and two
approaches in [1] are considered in [2], except battery is replaced by SuperCap. Ideally, if there be sufficient energy storage,
the suggested structure can remarkably reduce engine rating. SuperCaps have their limitations and their situation along
working should be monitored to keep them within healthy condition [98]. [30] has mentioned some other advantage of
energy storage capability in railway systems. Such as:
Substations can be established farer
More trains can move on a given feeder system.
Running in limited areas of electrical railway without catenary. Running with switched off diesel engine in highly polluted
areas for diesel.
Reducing travelling time or CO2 emission.
A comparison between battery and supper capacitor usage is presented as well. In addition [30] has considered
SuperCaps potential as a booster of power in acceleration or up hill running modes. The main problem with braking
recuperation is non-ideal energy storage units which mean rather low energy capacity for Super Capacitor (SuperCap) or not
enough power rating for batteries. Here the idea of combining batteries and SuperCaps to cover their shortages comes along.
In [32] SuperCaps and batteries are applied to achieve mentioned advantages with an enhanced performance in addition to
smoother and more efficient application of both battery and SuperCap. High power capacity of SuperCap is used to release
battery from peak power. This has economical promote of increasing costly batterys life time. On the other hand high
energy density batteries are used and need for high energy storage in SuperCaps is removed, which means another cost
reduction in construction stage. In [54] a state of art hybrid train is presented in which battery or flywheel is implemented to
cooperate with a fuel cell as prime energy source. [54] concludes that the most suitable train for regenerative braking are
long distance intercity commuters. And the least likely to profit hybrid traction are high speed and heavy cargo operations. In
52
part one; it is focused on middle distance transport with diesel base hybrid locomotives. In part two; fuel cell instead of
diesel- application in passenger transport is under study. [59] focuses on dynamic brake energy recuperation on North
American freight locomotives. It suggests hybridisation for a rout that has two characteristics: it contains 25 miles long down
grade and it has a heavy traffic of about 80 traversing trains a day. [73] and [99] has approached Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage (SMES) and battery energy storage combination as a load levelling device. Simultaneous application of
SMES and battery is optimized to increase life cycle of both. Another optimization in [77] is undertaken to minimize volume
of storage unit. In [99] SMES is connected to feeders unlike [73] and [77]. (Fig 5 from [77])
Grid
SMES
Overhead Line
Fig 5: SMES application in electrified railway
VIII. POWER SYSTEM
A. Traction
A part of traction system related papers are about traction motors. Other important part is power converter which is
strongly related to power electronic availabilities [38].
[18] and [19] are two first parts of R.J. Hills tutorial papers which are about DC and AC machines as traction motors
respectively. In [18] General mechanical equations describing train masss behaviour is presented at first. Then the drive
characteristics are presented. Different modes of operation for DC traction motor motoring, resistive braking and
regenerative braking- are discussed. In [19] Practical advantages of induction motor have made it attractive for harsh
application of railways. Drives applied for AC traction motors are presented. In [20] Different categories of DC and AC
53
motor motivated trains in British railways are compared in different views of working environment, power/weight ratio,
motor make up, mounting methods, cooling problems, etc. In
[42] a sensor less control system for an induction motor for railway traction system is presented. Rotor speed in this system
is estimated by electrical measured quantities. Elimination of rheostatic steps for speeding and braking has improved
movement smoothness and thereby passenger comfort. In [39] some power electronic circuits for traction
application either in electrified or in diesel electric systems are presented. Fundamental information of this paper can be
useful. Other reviewed papers which utilize early power electronic equipment are [40] and [57]. [15] is explaining a diesel
electric train serving in Indonesia.
[41] Has improved traction system to act as reactive power compensator. To achieve optimal result a central control
system dictates each trains reactive power to minimize power loss along the line. [46] is a general paper which covers power
electronics enhancements which are interesting for traction application. It has focused on a comparison between IGBT and
IGCT at last. [43] introduces new generation of IGBT switches tailored for traction. The presented IGBTs are employed in
an experimental trains traction system. [44] has concentrated on AC/DC and DC/AC converters in HSR traction application.
It has suggested a modular topology to supply multiple induction motors with multi level modulation satisfactorily. For
auxiliary power an extra transformer winding is devoted. [47] introducing a tram traction system which aims to reduce the
energy consumptions in addition to increased safeness and travellers comfort. The tram is running in Croatia and results are
experimental. In [50] a vector controlled tram traction system is presented and manipulated. Regenerative braking is
considered for [47] and [50]. [63] is a vector control induction motor study realized for traction application. [75] presents a
control system for motor suppling power electronic circuit, which suppose to feed traction motor without a regulated DC
link. [84] analyses traction system as a whole including inverter, rectifier, and contactor and DC traction motor.
B. Auxiliary systems
[9] is IEEE standard for passenger train auxiliary power systems interface, which describes auxiliary power
requirements as a standard. [11] and [53] are technical papers which list considerations required in auxiliary power design to
satisfy railway operators requirements. In [10] auxiliary power configuration in whole train combined of motor cars and
passenger cars is explained. In [12] a novel power control method suitable for auxiliary power supply system is presented,
which targets to achieve high reliability by redundancy. It keeps power factor of auxiliary converters high. To avoid
circulating currents between Auxiliary power converters, one of them is controlling its power factor and others obey it. In
[13] the new topology of full-bridge three-phase isolated DC/DC converter is suggested. The input DC voltage is inverted to
three-phase AC and then is rectified by a full-bridge rectifier. A new type of multi level DC/DC converter designed for
auxiliary power supply application is proposed in [82]. The proposed converter is based on half bridge converter. [55]
suggests some ideas to have more effective and efficient auxiliary equipments. Like fibre optic
application in rolling stock (realized in [35] as well), smart battery and charger control methods, etc.
[58] Introduces a specific prototype of auxiliary power supply system, which has applied IGBT as high power
switches. In [81] an adaptive inverse model controller is devised to compensate non-linearity and imperfections of
components. Switching strategy is a modified PWM to adapt duty cycle with nonlinear and non-ideal system.
In [83] a two-switch high frequency flyback converter is developed to achieve ZVS. A few modules of proposed converter
can be paralleled for higher power. The input voltage of dc/dc converter in [83] is obtained from a fuel cell. The
characteristic of this circuit is the application of energy transfer from leakage inductance of transformer. Due to the fact that
auxiliary power despite of input voltage fluctuation has to provide a regulated voltage at output, some papers around this
purpose reviewed:
In [85] a phase modulated full-bridge converter is improved to decrease output voltage harmonics and enhance it to show
more robustness against input voltage fluctuation. In [86] a ZVS multi level resonant converter is proposed as well as [85]
54
phase shift modulation is utilized. For ZVS, leakage inductance of transformer is brought into play. In [88] a novel AC three
phase input DC output converter is introduced. The previous circuit that the new one is based on is a three parallel full bridge
rectifiers followed by buck-boost converters, which proposed paper has merged rectifiers together and uses a single buck
boost converter. [89] has presented a new scheme for switching which decouples gate switching voltages from input voltage,
and then it is a desirable configuration for situations with varying input voltage.
Power-Electronics Issues of
Modern Electric Railway Systems
Abstract After de-regulation of the former state-owned railways and severe restructuring of the railway industry
in the last 15 years, more innovative vehicle concepts saw the light of the day. Power electronics, already formerly
being a pacemaker for progress of traction vehicles, brought forth an utmost standardization of the main drive by
means of the IGBT-converter-fed induction motor drive. This is independent of the railway supply voltage system or
of a diesel prime mover, for locomotives, high-speed and mass-transit trains as well as for tramways. Vehicles able to
operate on all four European railway voltage systems have become feasible and are used now widely. New trends as
Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors or Medium-Frequency Transformers are discussed, and a short overlook
over actual field-oriented high-performance motor control systems including a speed-sensorless variant is given.
Power electronics dominates the field of conversion of the 16.7-Hz railway supply power, typical for Central Europe,
from the 50-Hz three-phase utility grid.
I. INTRODUCTION
During the second half of the 20th century, the railways im-portance declined due to the rise of individual transport, in
the form of the private motor car and the truck, as well as the air- plane, whose speed and versatility the railway could not
apparently match. Only by the close of the century, a change of mind set in: Due to congestion of public traffic by individual
transport, track-bound public mass transit becomes more and more appealing. But governmental control proved inadequate
to meet the demands to the railway systems; thus, programs of decentralization and deregulation were applied to railway
transit. EU Directive 91/440 intended to enable and organize the barrier-free coexistence and competition of governmental
and private railway operators, splitting the formerly state-owned railways into industrially-organized, competing train
operators and further-on state-owned infrastructure providers.
Ever since the beginning of the 1990s, the European railway industry had to face constant change; the restructuring of the
railway organisations by deregulation and privatization led first to a decline in orders and in consequence to amalgamation.
Engineering industry divisions formerly responsible for the supply of the mechanical components of traction units were
integrated into the transportation divisions of the electrical large-scale industrial companies, the latter now acting as leaders
of system technology. This holds most directly for ALSTOM, Siemens and the former ABB/ADtranz; Bombardier
Transportation which absorbed ADtranz and most of the remaining European carbuilders is part of the Canadian global
transportation company Bombardier, while the Swiss "newcomer" Stadler Rail is a carbuilder, who founds on inverters from
ABB Industry. More innovative and by standardization at the same time economically competitive vehicle concepts were
to be developped.
JJ. INNOVATIVE TRACTION MATERIAL A. Locomotives
Since WWII, the four-axle bogie locomotive has been standard in passenger and goods service. The converter-fed
induction motor drive allowed "universal" locomotives with high tractive effort at low speed, a rated power of up to 6.4 MW,
running stably at maximal speeds up to 357 km/h ([1]; Fig. 1).
55
The bogies are mostly supported by Flexicoil springs; the cardan hollow-shaft drive with rubber joints is standard ([2];
Fig. 2), except for lower-power vehicles, where simpler forms as the "axle-riding" drive with the motor mounted in the bogie
and an elastic coupling between motor and gear to the axle or axle-hung motors for low-speed vehicles are sufficient [1]10th
International Conference on DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION SYSTEMS, Suceava, Romania, May 27-29, 2010
The line-friendly Four-Quadrant Converter (4q-C, [3]) is standard with all AC-fed traction vehicles.
B. High-Speed Trains
lines in an environment of some 150 km and revert to DC street-level operation when approaching the very centres of
these cities.
first generation of high-speed trains (HST) as TGV in France and ICE in Germany pursued the Power Head concept (Fig.
3, top), with special asymmetric, streamlined locomotives and trailers. Due to the heavy axle-load of 1820 to, this is not
suited for speeds over 250 km/h. The distributed drive with about half or three-quarter of the axles driven with lighter motors
prevails now, as in Japanese design, while the electronic equipment and the transformers are mounted underfloor (Velaro [4],
AGV [5], vmax = 350 kph; Fig. 3 bottom). Tilting [6] raises commercial speed up to 220 kph on curved secondary main-lines,
where high-speed upgrading is not justified.
Figure 3. High-speed trains with power heads and as EMUs.

56
C. Mass Transit Trains
The classical EMU Metro Train is supplemented by modern design as bogieless lightweight articulated trains with self-
steering axles or more conventional articulated trains with small-wheel bogies and depressed floors, to ease access from
standard 750-mm platforms (Fig. 4); the power-electronic equipment (and transformer, if AC) is mounted underfloor.
Modern trains allow to ambulate freely through all coaches, raising the passengers feeling of safety and thus the acceptance
in the late night hours. Self-propelled double-deck commuter EMUs which use the restricted platform lengths of existing
suburban and regional railway systems best are ordered increasingly.
57
IV. MAIN DRIVE CONCEPTS
In former times, the power system and the main-drive concept were rather rigidly tied together [1]: AC 16.7 Hz 15 kV
appeared mainly with transformer, switch-gear and series-wound, compensated commutator motors; in the seventies,
thyristor-control was introduced, mainly in Austria. 50 Hz necessitated thyristor phase-control, as already mentioned, and
DC motors, mainly with separate or mixed excitation. In DC grids, the original camshaft-resistor control of series-wound
commutator motors was replaced by thyristor chopper control in the sixties. Multi-system vehicles capable to run on more
than two systems were extremely expensive and thus seldom.
The French system of synchronous motors, fed by load-commutated thyristor converters, as in the TGV-A [9], have
shown an intermediate step to the now generally preferred drive system with squirrel-cage induction motors, fed by
Voltage-Source Inverters (VSI, [10]). Fig. 6 shows the identical drive structure of DC-fed trams, diesel-electric locomotives
and full-electric locomotives with the VSI-IM drive system.
3
= ~
3~ M
3
~
Nahverkehrsfahrzeug direkt am GS-

Netz
Light-rail vehicle, fed directly from

DC 750 V
= 3
~
M
58
construction thus that in the same carbody with identical bogies and motors the electric "E-PowerPackage" can be replaced by a "D-
PowerPackage" [14].
Fig. 9 shows a recent air-cooled 200-kW IGBT inverter for 600750 V from the German manufacturer Vossloh-Kiepe, for tramways
and trolley busses, Fig. 10 a converter TC 3200 from Bombardier, for one bogie of a high-power locomotive or a HST power-head.
Figure 10. Inverter Bombardier TC 3200 for high-power locomotives.
NEW TRENDS IN DRIVE CONCEPTS A. On-Board Energy Storage
Energy storages are of interest for intermediate storage of the brake energy, for reduction of the peak power demand and infrastructure
losses, to enable short sections without catenary in historic cities, in shops or at track works and for relieving a diesel motor at
acceleration, rated for the average power only.
Flywheel storages have been tested in hybrid busses and trams, e.g. in Rotterdam. They are built of very strong carbon-fibre materials
and driven by inverter-fed permanent-magnet synchronous machines (PMSM); the maximum attained speed is at 12,000 rpm, the usable
energy 1.5...2 kWh.
Supercap storages, coupled with two-quadrant converters to the DC link, have been tested for several years at the municipal tramways
of Mannheim [15]; now an order of 18 trains for Heidelberg is under delivery (Bombardier MITRAC Energy Saver).
59
Introduction
Over the last few decades, electrical loads in an auto-motive system have evolved from lighting and battery-charging towards
infotainment, sensors and safety, thanks to component miniaturization. This has made the car smarter and more fun to drive! While the
trend of electronics in infotainment systems continues, a future trend is electronics in power train systems for better engine propulsion,
like the engine blocks, transmission and controls. Incorporating electrical loads and replacing the conventional mechanical and
hydraulic loads in the power train improves efficiency. This trend is seen with more and more focus on electric vehicle concepts hybrid
(HEV) and pure (EV). This trend is also expected to lower C02 emission standard requirements.
This increasing nee
uctors such as silicon carbide have much higher operating
temperature (known as the junction temperature), thermal conductivity is two to three times higher
than Si,
higher breakdown voltage, and has a capability of switching at much higher frequencies with
negligible power loss.
The higher operating temperature of the silicon carbide allows the circuit to be placed close to the
location where
the temperatures are high. High thermal conductivity of silicon carbide eliminates the need for big
copper blocks
and water jackets. Higher switching speed in the MHz enables the overall power circuitry to
become smaller in size.
To address these concerns, TI offers the UCC27531, a gate driver developed to drive these SiC
power FETs very
efficiently.
60
Conclusion
The value of SMPS using power electronics, particularly with the requirement for higher voltage
systems in the automotive power train system, was discussed. This was followed by a review of the
power conditioners involved to drive various loads in the power train system, followed by the type of
topologies being designed into these systems. The type of semiconductor switches, controller and gate
driver requirements were discussed for DC/ DC bi-directional power supplies and DC/AC traction
inverters. Finally, the value of implementing wide-band gap semiconductors such as SiC was
discussed for high-temperature applications in the power train.
61

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A

Application of power electronics

College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur

Guided By: Submitted by:

Department of Electrical Engineering

This is a Seminar report based on application of power electronics in traction

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICALTURE AND TECHNOLOGY, UDAIPUR in 4th year

B.Tech in Electrical Engineering.

I am extremely thankful to M. R.R Joshi, Head of Department for providing me the

throughout the duration of the training.

motivate me to implement the knowledge, which I gained during the training.

Electrical 4th year

Chapter 1 Introduction of power electronics

Chapter 2 Introduction of traction system

Chapter 3 parameter of traction system

a. Current Control of Converters

Chapter 4 application of traction system in power electronics

Introduction of power electronics

Fig. 1.1 The block diagram of a typical Power Electronic converter

Power Electronics involves the study of

It is not primarily in their power handling capacities.

Linear operation Switching operation

Utilisation of transistor rating of secondary Utilisation of transistor rating optimized

Spec: Input : 230 V, 50 Hz, Output: 12 V regulated DC, 20 W

Ferrite core HF transfr:

Power Semiconductor device - history

RECTIFIER REGENERATI NON- INTEGRATE

POWER SCR BJT IGCT

Fig. 1.5 Power semiconductor device variety

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Power Converter Topologies

DC to DC Chopper Constant to variable DC or

DC to AC Inverter DC to AC of desired voltage and

AC to DC Rectifier AC to unipolar (DC) current

All Over voltage at gate;

Introduction of traction system

43.2. Traction Systems

(a) non-electric traction systems

rapidly replaced by electric engines

(b) electric traction systems

43.3. Direct Steam Engine Drive

3. its speed can be controlled very easily.

2. it has strictly limited overload capacity.

43.4. Diesel-electric Drive

43.5. Battery-electric Drive

43.6. Advantages of Electric Traction

As compared to steam traction, electric rac-tion has the following advantages :

(i) high schedule speed

(ii) increased traffic handling capacity

(ii) goods traffic on gradients becomes safer and speedier.

43.7. Disadvantages of Electric Traction

43.8. Systems of Railway Electrification

Presently, following four types of track electrification systems are available :

1. Direct current system600 V, 750 V, 1500 V, 3000 V

2. Single-phase ac system15-25 kV, 16 23 , 25 and 50 Hz

43.9. Direct Current System

5. dc system causes no electrical interference with overhead communication lines.

43.10. Single-Phase Low-frequency AC System

41.11. Three-phase Low-frequency AC System

43.12. Composite System

1. 1-phase to 3-phase system also called Kando system

43.13. Kando System

43.15. Advantages of 25-kV, 50-Hz AC System