CD Ma Mobile Technology Overview

CDMA Mobile Technology Overview
U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 1

Contents and Session Aims

Multiple Access This session aims to cover some
basic CDMA terminology and
Strategies Explained technology before dealing with
CDMA for Cellular UMTS in more detail
Key generic areas of CDMA
include
Codes in CDMA
! How CDMA works and relates to
other multiple access schemes
Soft Handover ! How the codes are generated and
what their properties are
! Soft Handover - what and how?
! The pilot channel
The Pilot Channel

Multiple Access Explained

Imagine you are in a cocktail party
Now imagine you are trying to talk to somebody
! (rather than fighting your way to the punch bowl again...)
If you are trying to listen to somebody you need to be able to
pick out their speech from everybody elses speech.
Everybody is using the same medium to talk - the air in the
room

Clich Explanation
This is Multiple Access
! Many conversations/channels share the same medium
There are a number of different Multiple Access (MA) strategies
you can try:
! Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
! Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
! Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

TDMA at the Cocktail Party

We divide time into a number of timeslots
Everybody takes turns to speak within a timeslot
Once everybody has spoken we go back to the start of the list and begin
again - this is a frame
This ensures that two conversations/channels dont get confused.
Conversation/Channel separation is provided in time.
Bit of problem if people speak late or early
! We may need guard periods between timeslots when nobody speaks
People need to know when to speak
! We need signaling to tell people their timeslot

TDMA
Timeslot Period Frame Period
frequency
Available
Frequency
Band
time
User 1 User 1 Idealised TDMA
(with no guard
periods)

FDMA at the cocktail party

We divide the available frequency band into a number of frequency channels
of the same channel bandwidth
People speak continuously at different frequencies/pitches, and use
earpieces to filter out frequencies theyre not interested in.
Again this ensures that two conversations dont get confused.
Conversation/Channel separation provided in frequency.
Bit of a problem as the filters arent perfect
! We may need guard bands between timeslots when nobody speaks
People need to know the frequency of the conversation
! We need signaling to tell people their frequency channel

FDMA
Frame Period (we may still need
frequency
frames/timeslots for signaling)
Channel
Bandwidth
User 1
time
Idealised FDMA
(with no guard
bands)

FDMA/TDMA
Of course we could also be clever and use a combination of
TDMA and FDMAlike in GSM
This is commonly referred to as simply TDMA

FDMA/TDMA
frequency
Channel
Bandwidth
User 1 User 1 Idealised time

FDMA/TDMA (with
no guard bands or
guard periods)

FH at the Cocktail Party

If we combine TDMA and FDMA and change the frequency of transmission
every frame we have Frequency Hopping
Frequency hopping improves the received quality of the
conversation/channel
! We can tolerate the occasional collision of words:
" The next word is almost certain to get through
" We can always repeat the odd word
" This generally wont have too great an impact on the meaning of the conversation.
This is sometimes called frequency hopping spread spectrum
! This is because the total bandwidth used for an individual conversation is greater
than that strictly required for the individual conversation
" i.e. the spectrum has been spread

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

frequency
Channel
Bandwidth
User 1
time
User 1 Idealised FH (with
no guard bands or
guard periods)

Frequency Hopping Power Spectrum

Power
Frequency
Power
Power
Frequency
Frequency
Power Time Averaged
Power Spectrum
Frequency
Instantaneous Power
Spectra for a channel in
different frames

CDMA at the Cocktail Party

We can actually be more sophisticated than this.
If we know the characteristics of the persons voice we can tune in to what
they are saying and ignore what other people are saying
This is like CDMA where the conversation/channel separation is provided by
the characteristics of the channel
! i.e. the code
The only problem is that we do pick up some of the noise from the other
channels
! This limits the number of conversations/channels that can use the same medium
We also need to know the code in use
! We need signaling to tell people their code
This is sometimes called Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

CDMA - Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

frequency
code
Frame Period (we may still need

frames/timeslots for signaling)
time

CDMA Power Spectrum
Power Power
Frequency Frequency
Power Spectrum for the Power Spectrum post

equivalent unspread spreading
channel
Note: The power spectrum
has been spread similar to
that in a Frequency
Hopping system

More CDMA permutations

Of course we can start getting a bit clever again...

CDMA/FDMA
frequency
code
CDMA/FDMA can be used to

provide multiple carriers OR to Idealised time
provide Frequency Division CDMA/FDMA (with
Duplexing - separate carriers for no guard bands)
the uplink and downlink

CDMA/TDMA/FDMA...
frequency
code
Combining CDMA and TDMA can be used

Idealised
CDMA/TDMA/FDMA
time
to provide Time Division Duplexing (with no guard bands or
guard periods)

CDMA Spreading
Essentially Spreading involves changing the symbol rate on the air interface
Spreading Despreading
P P
Channel
f f
P
Tx Bit Stream P P Rx Bit Stream
f
f Air Interface f
Chip Stream
Identical
codes
Code Chip Stream Code Chip Stream

Spreading and Despreading
1
Tx Bit Stream
-1
Spreading X
Code Chip Stream
Air Interface
Chip Stream
Despreading X
Code Chip Stream
Rx Bit Stream

Spreading
If the Bit Rate is Rb , the Chip Rate is Rc, the energy per bit Eb
and the energy per chip Ec then
Rc
Eb = Ec .
Rb
We say the Processing Gain Gp is equal to:

Rc
Gp =
Rb
Commonly the processing gain is refereed to as the Spreading
Factor

Spreading in noise
Tx Signal Rx Signal (= Tx Signal + Noise)
P P
f f
P P
Channel
f f
Signal Spreading Code Spreading Code Signal

P
Wideband Noise/Interference
The gain due to despreading of the signal over wideband noise
is the Processing Gain

Types of Codes
There are essentially two types of
codes used in CDMA networks: S2
! Channelisation Codes C1 C2 C3
"Are used to separate channels
from a single cell or terminal
! Scrambling Codes
"Are used to separate cells and
S1
terminals from each other rather C1 C2 C3
than purely channels
Channelisation/scrambling codes
may be either:
! short (the length of the code is
equal to the bit period) S3
! long (longer than the bit period) C1 C2 C3

Channelisation Codes
Channelisation codes are orthogonal and hence provide
channel separation
Number of codes available is dependant on length of code
Channelisation codes require an equal number of 1s and -1s
to be orthogonal
! This is because we use integration to demodulate the signal
Typically channelisation codes are used to spread the signal

Channelisation Code Generation

Channelisation codes can be generated from a Hadamard
matrix
A Hadamard matrix is: x x
x x

" Where x is a Hadamard matrix of the previous level
For example 4 chip codes are:

! 1,1,1,1
! 1,-1,1,-1
! 1,1,-1,-1 Note: These two codes
correlate if they are time
! 1,-1,-1,1 shifted

Scrambling Code Generation

Scrambling codes are not orthogonal since they are not
synchronised to each other at the receiver
Hence it is sufficient to use Pseudo Random sequences
Maximal length sequences used which repeat after 2R-1 bits
! R relates to the number of taps in the generator
Scrambles signals but can also be used to de-scramble
Sequences with different offsets do not correlate
! Generate a single code
! Plan the offsets on the downlink (for CDMAone only)

Scrambling Code Generation
1 2 3 R-1 R
Start value 1 2 3 4 5 OUTPUT

1 0 1 0 1 -
for offset 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
Output sequence: 1,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,...

Orthogonality of Codes
If orthogonal mean interference power over a bit is zero
Bit Period Chip Period
1
Code
-1
0.25 X
Signal Chip Stream
-0.25
0.25
Bit Value
-0.25
Sum = 0 Sum = 1 Sum = -0.75

=> Orthogonal => Correlated => Non-orthogonal

Multi Channel Spreading and Despreading

P P
f f
P P
f f
c1 Channel c1
P P
f f
P
P
f f
c2 c2
Since the channels are orthogonal the resulting interference is

entirely removed by the despreading process

CDMA in Cellular
Cellular systems have multipath channels with a delay spread
! Channels from the same transmitter are no longer perfectly orthogonal
" Channelisation codes are no longer perfectly synchronised
! Downlink Channels on the same cell interfere with each other
" Worst case scenario can be treated as white noise
" Otherwise use orthogonality factor (0.6 in urban macrocells typically)
The orthogonality factor gives the percentage of interference that is rejected

CDMA in Cellular
P P
f P P f
f f
c1 Channel c1
P P
f P
P f
f f
c2 c2
Multipath reduces the orthogonality of the downlink codes

resulting in interference between channels from the same
transmitter

Visualising the Processing Gain

W/Hz W/Hz W/Hz
Ec
Before After
Spreading Spreading With Noise Io
f f f
Eb
W/Hz W/Hz dBW/Hz
After Post Eb/Io
Despreading/ Filtering Eb
Correlation Orthog = 0 Io Io
f f f
Signal
W/Hz dBW/Hz
Eb
Intra-cell Noise Post
Eb
Eb/No
Filtering
Inter-cell Noise Orthog > 0 No No
f f

A Channelised Transmitter
Channel 1 Pulse Shaping and

Modulation
Bit Stream
c1 s1
Typically in a multi-channel transmitter,
Channel 2 channels are first spread and channelised
Bit Stream using the channelisation codes, then
c2 combined and finally scrambled together.
Channel 3
Bit Stream
c3

Rake Receiver
Correlator Phase Rotator Delay Equalizer I
I
Code Generators Channel Q

(S & C) Estimator Q
A typical rake receiver with three

Matched Filter fingers

CDMA Noise Calculation

We can say (approximately - assuming perfect power control)
that the Eb/No is equal to:
Eb 1 1 1
Gp
N0 M (1 ) + i v
Where:
" Eb/No = Energy per bit/Noise Power Spectral Density
" M = Number of Users or Codes Used
" = Loading factor in the cell
" Gp = Processing Gain
" v = Voice activity factor
" = Orthogonality Factor
" i = the other to own cell interference ratio

CDMA Capacity Calculations

The Eb/No required to achieve a desired BER can be
calculated/simulated for a given receiver
We can say that the number of users we can support is
approximately equal to:
1 1 1
M Gp
Eb 1 + i v

N 0 required

CDMA Capacity Calculations

However imperfect power control will create a 30-40%
reduction in the capacity on the uplink (downlink channels will
always be ideally weighted)
Soft handover also impacts the capacity on the downlink -
approximately 20-40% of channels will be required for
handover
Control and pilot channels require transmitted power - again
impacting the downlink

Pilot Channels
Pilot channels are effectively channels used in the cell selection
process
Pilots contain no baseband information - no bits
The pilot is spread by the all 1s channelisation code
! Effectively the pilot is the scrambling code
The required pilot channel SNR is referred to in Ec/Io
Pilots allow channel estimation
In cdmaOne the pilot also gives the mobile phase and timing
information

Soft Handover
Soft Handover is where more then one cell is in communication
with a terminal
The cells in communication with the terminal are known as an
active set
The best serving cell is known as the primary cell - and
maintains the primary channel
Other channels are known as handover channels
The gain associated with soft handover is known as the
macrodiversity gain
! This occurs due to the uncorrelated nature of fast fading between cells
and the variation in slow fading between cells
! Note that slow fading is not entirely uncorrelated for different cells

Hard Handover (e.g.GSM)
Direction of Travel
RX_Lev
Cell A Cell B
A hard handover
between cells A and
B in GSM Handover
Hysteresis
In a hard handover
Margin
the mobile is only
ever instantaneously
connected to a single
cell
Distance

Soft Handover (e.g. in cdmaOne)
Active set = 1 =2 =1
Pilot Ec/Io Cell A Cell B
Cell A and Cell B
Direction of Travel
A soft handover
between cells A and
B in cdmaOne
In a soft handover the T_ADD

mobile is may be T_DROP
instantaneously
connected to more
than one cell
Distance
Add Time Delay Drop Time Delay

Why Soft Handover is Good in CDMA

Why Soft Handover is Good in Why Soft Handover is Bad in
CDMA CDMA
! Near- Far Effect ! Transmission overhead in backhaul
"Hard Handover can lead to ! Addition of downlink noise into the
relatively deep penetration into system
neighbour cells
! Engineering of handover zones
"Soft Handover allows Power
Control from all Active Set cells becomes highly critical
! Probability of dropped call reduced
due to link redundancy in handover
region
! Macrodiversity gain

More CDMA at the Cocktail Party - Cell
Breathing
The more noise the louder you have to speak to hear the same amount of
the conversation
You get to a point where you cant shout louder and cant have a
conversation where you are standing
The further away you are the louder you have to speak
If it is noisy only people standing close together can have a conversation
As it gets noisy the area that can be covered by a conversation decreases
If it is quiet then the area covered by a conversation can be larger
This is called Cell Breathing and occurs in mobile CDMA networks

Cell Breathing
An increase in traffic results in an increase in interference
Mobiles at the extremities of cells may be pushed out of the
cells effective coverage area due to decreased Eb/No
This effect may occur over the course of 24 hours due to
changes in traffic demand over peak hours
6am Noon 9pm

More CDMA at the Cocktail Party - Power
Control
If somebody is shouting louder than they need it increases the
overall noise
This is inefficient as it reduces the number of people who can
have conversations
We need to speak as quietly as possible to maximise the
number of simultaneous
This is called Power Control in mobile networks
In CDMA networks it is very important that this power control is
efficient
! We use fast power control with a much quicker feedback loop than in
TDMA networks

Power Control
MSb
The Near-Far Effect
If equal transmit powers
! Received Signal Strength from Path Loss = 150dB
MSa higher than required
MSa
! MSb Eb/No significantly reduced
Near mobiles dominate on the Path Loss = 100dB
uplink
Cell area and capacity reduced
Solution
! Fast power control
! Large Dynamic Range for mobiles

Questions
What is a pilot channel?
How does soft handover differ from hard handover?
How do scrambling codes differ from channelisation codes?
Why is multipath fading bad from a CDMA point of view?

Session Summary
In this session we have discussed:
! CDMA and how it relates to and differs from other multiple access
technologies
! What channelisation and scrambling codes are and what they do
! What we mean by a pilot channel
! How soft handover works
! What we mean by cell breathing and the near far effect

CD Ma Mobile Technology Overview

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CDMA Mobile Technology Overview

CDMA Mobile Technology Overview

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 1

Contents and Session Aims

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 2

Multiple Access Explained

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 3

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 4

TDMA at the Cocktail Party

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 5

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 6

FDMA at the cocktail party

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 7

frames/timeslots for signaling)

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 8

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 9

User 1 User 1 Idealised time

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 10

FH at the Cocktail Party

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 11

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 12

Frequency Hopping Power Spectrum

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 13

CDMA at the Cocktail Party

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 14

CDMA - Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Frame Period (we may still need

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 15

CDMA Power Spectrum

Power Spectrum for the Power Spectrum post

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 16

More CDMA permutations

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 17

CDMA/FDMA can be used to

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 18

Combining CDMA and TDMA can be used

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 19

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 20

Spreading and Despreading

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 21

We say the Processing Gain Gp is equal to:

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 22

Signal Spreading Code Spreading Code Signal

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 23

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 24

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 25

Channelisation Code Generation

For example 4 chip codes are:

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 26

Scrambling Code Generation

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 27

Scrambling Code Generation

Start value 1 2 3 4 5 OUTPUT

Output sequence: 1,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,...

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 28

Sum = 0 Sum = 1 Sum = -0.75

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 29

Multi Channel Spreading and Despreading

Since the channels are orthogonal the resulting interference is

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 30

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 31

Multipath reduces the orthogonality of the downlink codes

U101 UMTS Network Systems Overview 32