Period from 8th to 12th century showed a remarkable groeth of regional kingdoms and

integration and also a period of cultural growth. There was development of trade and
commerce and agriculture in south India. Foreign trade under Cholas flourished.

Chola empire can be said to be the climax in South Indian History. By the 8th century
powerful kingdoms of Pallava and Pandyas in the area which is today TN, Cheras in Kerala
and Chalukyas in Maharashtra had developed. Chalukyan King Pulakesin II defeated Harsha
and didnt allow him to expand towards Deccan.

Pallavas and Pandyas had strong navies. They developed an strengthened cultural, economic
and religious relations with countries in South East Asia and China. They invaded Sri Lanka
and captured some areas there for some time.

Chola Empire rose in the 9th century. It had a powerful navy which enabled it to conquer Sri
lanka and leave a powerful impact of SE Asian countries.

Rajaraja (985-1014):
Defeated Pandyas; Destroyed Chera Navy and captured norther Sri Lanka to bring trade with
SE Asian countries under his control. He even conquered Maldives. Coromandal coast and
Malabar were main centres of trade of India with SE Asian countries. He brought part of
Ganga Kingdom in KN under his control.

His successor Rajendra I continued the expansionist policy and brought whole of Sri Lanka
under his control. Cholas were very harsh and ruthless in their wars and massacred people,
Children and Brahmins on a large scale in the military colonies, mainly to overawe the
people. For eg- Anuradhapura, the capital of rulers of SL was completely destroyed. This is a
huge blot on Cholas. But once conquered they set up sound administration. Pandya and
Cheras were completely overrun. He assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (Chola who
conquered Ganga) as his armies crossed Ganga to defeat local kings in Bengal. He built a
new capital at the mouth of Kaveri- Gangaikondacholapuram.

They both marked their victories by erecting Shiva and Vishnu temples. Brihadishwara
temple at Tanjore, completed in 1010 is most famous and finest example of Dravidian
temples style. The inscriptions on the walls of the temples gave historical narratives of their
victories.

Rajendra I sent a naval expedition to Sri Vijaya empire in Malay peninsula and conquered
Kedah, other places in Malay peninsula and Sumatra. Cholas has good relations with
Buddhist Sailendra dynasty of Sri Vijaya Kingdom. Sailendra rulers had even built a
Buddhist monastery in Nagapatnam and Rajendra I had endowed one village for its upkeep at
the request of Sailendra ruler. But Chola eagerness to remove all obstacles to Indian traders,
expansion of trade to China led them to undertake this naval expedition as Sumatra, Java and
other islands under Sailendra kings controlled trade routes to China.
The Chola navy was the strongest in the area and for sometime Bay of Bengal was
converted to Chola Lake.

Chola rulers sent embassies to China- both diplomatic and commercial.

Most remarkable feature of Cholas was their impetus and encouragement to local self
government in the villages in their empire. (Rashtrakuta empiresome villages under self-
government) Chola empire declined by the early 13th century, replaced by Pandyas and
Hoysalas. Chalukyas in MH were also replaced by Yadavas and Kakatiyas.

Venetian traveller Marco Polo visited Kerala in 13th Century. He wrote that King has
bodyguards and all of them burnt themselves in the funeral pyre of the monarch.

Cholas had a strong army consisting of elephants, cavalry and infantry. They had a very
strong navy and dominated Malabar and Coromandel coast.

More and more land was brought under agricultural cultivation by increasing irrigation works
like wells, tanks, ponds etc; converting hill people and tribes into agriculturists and giving
Brahmins land grants, River Kaveri was used for irrigation purposes. Elaborate survey of
land to fix land revenue were carried out by Cholas. There was toll on trade and taxes on
professions. The basic unit of administration was NADU which consisted of a number of
villages. The Chola state was divided into 4 provinces or Madalams.

They built a network of roads. Trade and commerce flourished and gigantic trade guilds
traded with Java and Sumatra.

Chola inscriptions talk of 2 types of assembliesUr or general assembly of the village and
Mahasabha/Sabhaadult men in Brahman villages called agraharams. The affairs of the
village were managed by a number of executive committees to which educated persons
owning land were elected. There were other committees to assist in like justice committee,
land and revenue committee, maintenance of law and order etc. Mahasabha could distribute
land, raise loans for the village, levy taxes etc. The self-government enjoyed by these Chola
villages (Brahmins with land grants) was a very fine system.

Cultural Life

Temple architecture in the South attained its climax under Cholas. They had huge resources
and built magnificent cities and temple structures. Literature and inscriptions of the period
talk of huge, multi storeyed palaces. Capitals-- Tanjore, Kanchi, Gangaikondacholapuram etc
were most magnificent.

The style of architecture that developed during this period came to be known as Dravidian as
it was confined mainly to the South of India. Main feature was building of many storeys, 5 to
7, above the garbhgriha; this style came to be called Vimana. A pillared hall called mandapa
with elaborately ornate pillas came up in front of the sanctum. This was an audience hall and
various activities took place here including ceremonial dances. Devadasis or women
dedicated to God performed them. There were passages around the sanctum and devotees
could go around the main deity. These passages had images of many other gods. This entire
structure was built in a courtyard which was surrounded by walls and gates called gopurams.

Eventually vimanas rose higher and higher; pillars ore ornate and gopurams more lofty.
Temples became miniature cities or palaces. There came about living rooms for priests.
Temples enjoyed land grants for their expenses; grants from wealthy merchants and became
very rich. So much so they even lent money and took part in business enterprises! Even spent
money on irrigation, cultivation etc. Cholas installed the images of Kings and Queens in the
temple courtyards. Hence the Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore is also called Rajaraja temple.
Kailasanath at kanchipuram is another example of this style.

Chalukyas and Hoysalas also built temples. Most magnificent is Hoysalesvara temple and is
the best example of Chalukyan style. Apart from images of Gods and their attendants, men
and women (Yaksha and Yakshini), temples also had panels which showed scenes of life
including dance, drama, love, war and music. Thus religion was closely integrated into
everyday life and temples werent merely places of worship but also social and cultural
centres of people.

The art of sculpture attained heights and great standards. Giant statue of Gomateswara at
Sravan Belgola and dancing figure of Siva, Nataraja are exemplary. Natraja figurines of this
period in bronze are masterpieces.

There was further growth and climax of Bhakti movement in Chola rule.

Sanskrit was regarded as the language of scholars and high culture but a remarkable
development is the growth of literature in local languages. Popular saints Nayanmars were
devoted to Shiva and Alvars to Vishnu and they flourished between 6th to 9th centuries. They
composed in Tamil. Writings of Shaivite saints Nayanmars is collected in 11 volumes and
called Tirumurai in 12th century. It is considered sacred and looked upon as the 5th veda.

Age of Kamban is the golden age of Tamil literature. Kamban Ramayan is a classic of Tamil
literature and he lived at the court of a Chola King. Ramayana and Mahabharata were written
in local languages, taking them closer to common people. Kannada became a literary
language during this period even though it was younger to Tamil.

Rashtrakutas, Hoysala and Chalukya rulers patronised Kannada and Telegu. Rashtrakuta
King Amoghavarsha wrote a book on poetics in Kannada. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna3 gems
of Kannada poetry; They were under the influence of Jainism but they wrote on themes from
Ramayana and Mahabharata. Nanniah (lived at court of Chalukyas) began a Telegu version
of Mahabharata which was completed by Tikkanna in 13th century. Themes reflecting popular
or rural sentiments were written about.

800-1200 Social and Economic Life; Religious developments

Agriculture was expanded. Brahmins were given rent free land grants so that rulers could
strengthen their positions like in Sind and Tamil country. Many tribes and nomads etc were
induced to take to agriculture as the land granted was uncultivated. The position of local
chiefs, samants strengthened

Local self sufficiency and growth of small towns catering to local trade developed together.
North Indiadecline of long distance trade within the country as decline of Shrenis or trade
guilds and sanghs is seen. The shrenis had their own rules of conduct which members were
legally obliged to follow. They could borrow money, lend or receive endowments. With
decline in long distance trade their importance declines. Very few references of endowments
are written about in this period. many older shrenis emerged as sub castes like Dvadasa
Shreni became a subcaste of Vaishyas. Jainism which patronised the mercantile section too
received a setback in north India. Some Dharmashastras of the period speak of a ban on
foreign travel as travelling across salt seas or to areas where munja grass is not grown is
considered polluting. This was not taken seriously as there are accounts of Indian merchants,
philosophers, craftsmen etc who visited Baghdad and other Muslim towns in West Asia
during this period. This was perhaps meant as a discouragement as Islamic ideas of the West
and Buddhist ideas of the east, when brought by travellers to the region could endanger
Brahmin and the ruling position.

Such a ban had no effect on South Indias trade with SE Asia and China.

Harisenas Brihatkatha-kosh talks of habits and dresses, features and languages of the SE
Asian area. Stories of adventures Indian merchants became the basis for Sindbad the sailor.

Indian merchants were organised in guilds most famous being Manigraman and Nandesi.