DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

SUBJECT CODE/TITLE :AE6604 / AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

YEAR/SEMESTER : III YEAR/ VI SEMESTER

ACADEMIC YEAR : 2016-17

UNIT 1: ELEMENTS OF AEROSPACE MATERIALS

1. Classify solids.
crystalline
Atoms show short and long range order
amorphous (non-crystalline)
Atoms show short range order only

2. Define crystal.
A crystal may be defined as a solid composed atoms, ions or molecules arranged in a pattern
periodic in three dimensions.

3. What are the two concepts of crystallography?

crystals have two parts
lattice - regular periodic array of points in space
basis - a group of atoms located at each point in the lattice

4. Define miller indices.

Miller indices form a notation system in crystallography for planes in crystal
(Bravais) lattices. In particular, a family of lattice planes is determined by three integers h, k,
and , the Miller indices.

5. What are the different types of bonding?

Ionic bond
Covalent bond
Metallic bond
Van der Waals bond

6. Define atomic packing factor.

It is derived by the ratio of volume of atoms in unit cell to the volume of unit cell.
APF = Volume of atoms in unit cell / Volume of unit cell

7. List the point crystal defects.

Frenkel defect
Schottky defect
Impurity defect
8. What is Frenkel defect?
The Frenkel defect involves a single ion, which is displaced from its normal lattice point
and shifts to a nearby interstice, or space, between atoms in the lattice

9. What is Schottkydefect?
In the Schottky defect, two ions of opposite sign leave the lattice.

10. What is Impurity defect?

Impurity defects are foreign atoms that replace some of the atoms making up the solid or
that squeeze into the interstices; they are important in the electrical behaviour of
semiconductors, which are materials used in computer chips and other electronic devices.

11. Define Line defects.

Line defects, or dislocations, are lines along which whole rows of atoms in a solid are
arranged anomalously. The resulting irregularity in spacing is most severe along a line called
the line of dislocation. Line defects can weaken or strengthen solids.

12. Define surface defect

Surface defects may arise at the boundary between two grains, or small crystals,
within a larger crystal. The rows of atoms in two different grains may run in slightly
different directions, leading to a mismatch across the grain boundary. The actual external
surface of a crystal is also a surface defectbecause the atoms on the surface adjust their
positions to accommodate for the absence of neighbouring atoms outside the surface.

13. What is physical metallurgy?

Physical metallurgy is the science of making useful products out of metals. Metal
parts can be made in a variety of ways, depending on the shape, properties, and cost desired
in the finished product. The desired properties may be electrical, mechanical, magnetic, or
chemical in nature; all of them can be enhanced by alloying and heat treatment.

14. What are the general requirements of aerospace materials?

Aerospace materials are materials, frequently metal alloys, that have either been
developed for, or have come to prominence through, their use for aerospace
purposes.
These uses often require exceptional performance, strength or heat resistance,
even at the cost of considerable expense in their production or machining. Others
are chosen for their long-term reliability in this safety-conscious field, particularly
for their resistance to fatigue.

UNIT 2:MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

1) Define Strain hardening.

 It is also known as work hardening, cold working. It is the strengthening of a metal by
plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and
dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material.

2) What is yield strength?

A yield strength or yield point is the material property defined as the stress at which a
material begins to deform plastically.

3) Define fracture.

A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the
action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain
displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid.

4) Define Bauschinger effect.

The Bauschinger effect refers to a property of materials where the material's

stress/strain characteristics change as a result of the microscopic stress distribution of the
material.

5) What is Creep?

In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid
material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of mechanical stresses. It
can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the
yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for
long periods, and generally increases as they near their melting point.

6) What is Fatigue?

In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly

applied loads. It is the progressive and localised structural damage that occurs when a
material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such
damage may be much less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate
tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit.

7) Define composite material.

A composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to composite)

is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different
physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics
different from the individual components.

8) Define Ceramics.

A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid material comprising metal, non-metal or

metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. The crystallinity of ceramic
materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, and often completely amorphous
(e.g., glasses).

9) Define Plastics.

Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic

organics that are malleable and can be moulded into solid objects of diverse shapes. Plastics
are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other
substances.

10) What is linear elasticity?

It is the mathematical study of how solid objects deform and become internally
stressed due to prescribed loading conditions.

11) What is nonlinear elastic properties?

It is a type of constitutive model property for ideally elastic material for which the
stress-strain relationship derives from a strain energy density function.

12) Define notch toughness.

It is the ability that a material possesses to absorb energy in the presence of a flaw.

UNIT 3: CORROSION & HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS AND ALLOYS

1. Define corrosion.

Corrosion can be defined as the degradation of a material due to a reaction with

its environment.
Degradation implies deterioration of physical properties of the material. This can
be a weakening of the material due to a loss of cross-sectional area, it can be the
shattering of a metal due to hydrogen embrittlement, or it can be the cracking of a
polymer due to sunlight exposure.

2. What are the most important types of corrosion?

Uniform corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Pitting
Errosion corrosion
Fretting
Crevice corrosion
Stress corrosion
3. Define De-alloying.
De-alloying, or selective leaching, is the selective corrosion of a specific
element in an alloy. The most common type of de-alloying is de-zincification of
unstabilizedbrass. The result of corrosion in such cases is a deteriorated and porous
copper.
4. What is anodizing?

Anodizing is a method of increasing the corrosion resistance of a metal part by

forming a layer of oxide on its surface.
The process of creating this protective oxide coating is achieved
electrolytically.

5. List the corrosion preventive techniques.

Corrosion prevention techniques can be generally classified into 6 groups:

Environmental Modifications
Metal Selection and Surface Conditions
Cathodic Protection
Corrosion Inhibitors
Coating
Plating

6. Define Stress corrosion cracking.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a
corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile
metals subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature. SCC is highly
chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when
exposed to a small number of chemical environments.

7. Define aluminium alloy. And give its compositions.

Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the predominant

metal. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese silicon, tin
and zinc.There are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought
alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-
heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminium is used for wrought products, for example
rolled plate, foils and extrusions. Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products
due to the low melting point, although they generally have lower tensile strengths than
wrought alloys. The most important cast aluminium alloy system is AlSi, where the
high levels of silicon (4.013%) contribute to give good casting characteristics.
Aluminium alloys are widely used in engineering structures and components where
light weight or corrosion resistance is required.
8. Define Heat treatment.

Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving heating at a

specific rate, soaking at a temperature for a period of time and cooling at some
specified rate. The aim is to obtain a desired microstructure to achieve certain
predetermined properties (physical, mechanical, magnetic or electrical).

9. Write down the objectives of heat treatment.

The major objectives are

To increase strength, harness and wear resistance (bulk hardening, surface

hardening)
To increase ductility and softness (tempering, recrystallization annealing)
To increase toughness (tempering, recrystallization annealing)
To obtain fine grain size (recrystallization annealing, full annealing,
normalising)
To remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by cold
working, non-uniform cooling from high temperature during casting and
welding (stress relief annealing)
To improve machineability (full annealing and normalising)
To improve cutting properties of tool steels (hardening and tempering)
To improve surface properties (surface hardening, corrosion resistance-
stabilising treatment and high temperature resistance-precipitation
hardening, surface treatment) to improve electrical properties
(recrystallization, tempering, age hardening)
To improve magnetic properties (hardening, phase transformation)

10. What is heat treatment

alloy?Alloys that have high creep resistance and strength at high temperature. They ar
e used as the construction material forparts of internal-
combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, jet engines, and atomic-
power installations. The great heatresistance of alloys is determined by two basic phys
ical factors: the strength of interatomic bonds in the alloy and thealloys structure.

UNIT 4: CERAMICS AND COMPOSITES

1.Define Power metallurgy.

It is defined as the act of making objects by the heat treatment of compressed metallic
powders. The process is applicable to a single metal powder, to mixtures and non metals.

It is an act and science of producing pine metal powder and then making objects from
individual, mixed or alloyed metal powders with or without the inclusion of non-mettalic
constituents.

2. List Applications of powder mettalurgy

(i) Porous products, eg; bearings and filters

(ii) Use as parts in military and defence systems, eg; military arms

(iii) Atomic energy applications

(iv) Clocks and timing devices, type writers, adding machines, calculators, permanent
magnets, laminated bimetallic strips, etc

(v) Grinding wheels that incorporate steel and diamond powder may be manufactured
by powder metallurgy.

3. List Advantages of powder metallurgy

Cleaner, quieter operation and longer life of the components.

High production rates.
Quite complex shapes can be produced.
Highly qualified or skilled labour is not required.
Impossible parts (eg. Super-hard cutting tool kits) can be produced.

4. What are the limitations of powder mettalurgy?

Relatively high tool and die cost is associated with the process.
Powdered metals are considerably more expensive than those in wrought
forms.
It is not economical for small scale production.
Parts pressed from the top tend to be less dense at the bottom.
It may be difficult sometimes, toobtain particular alloy powders.

5.Define ceramics.
 Ceramic materials are defined as those containing phases that are compounds of
metallic and non metallic elements.

Properties of ceramics

i)They are hard, wear resistant and brittle with low toughness and ductility.

ii)They are good electrical and thermal insulators due to the absence of conducting
electrons.

iii)They have relatively high melting temperature and good chemical stability.

6. What are the Advantages of ceramic meterials?

o It possess high compression strength compared with tension.

o High fusion points.
o Excellent dielectric properties.
o Good thermal insulators, good availability and sanitation.
o Better economy.
o They are resistant to high temperature creep.

7.Give the types of ceramic materials.

a)Traditional ceramics- i) Clay products

ii)Glasses

iii)Cements

iv)Refractories

b)Advanced or modern ceramics-i)Silicon carbide

ii)Alumina and

iii)Silicon nitrade

8. List the applications of ceramics.

i)White wares- Tiles, sanitary wares, low and high voltage insulators.

ii)Newer ceramics- Refractories for industrial furnace, optical and nuclear

applications, ceramic metal cutting tool.

iii)Advanced ceramics- Internal combustion engines, turbines, electronic packaging,

cutting tools, energy conversion, storage and generation.

9. Define modern ceramics.

 In contrast to the traditional ceramics, the modern ceramics are pure compounds such
as Magnesium oxide, Aluminium oxide, Barium titanate, Silicon carbide and Silicon nitride.
Thus the starting materials for the Modern ceramics are synthesized by chemical reactions.

Eg. Al2O3, Mgo, ZrO2, BeO, SiO2, MgAl2O4, UO2, etc.

10. DIFFERENTIALTE BETWEEN RUBBER AND PLASTICS

RUBBER
It is a polymerized product of
isoprene
It is substance which is highly
elastic and can be made harder
and more resistant via
vulcanization
Even through synthetic rubber
exists, most of the rubber used
today has a natural origin
PLASTICS
It is made of many synthetic and
semi-synthetic organic polymer
compounds
It is a material which can be
molded into different shapes due
to their malleable nature and are
hard and water resistant
It is mainly derived from
petrochemical and has synthetic
nature

11. WHAT ARE CARBON-CARBON COMPOSITES?

These composites are a family of materials which consist of a carbon matrix

reinforced with carbon fibers. Thus the attractive properties of carbon are
combined with high strength, versatility and toughness of composites

12. Define cermets.

It is the combination of metal and ceramics which contain Alumina and Chromium in
varying proportions. These are used in brake shoe linings, oxidation-resistant parts and inject
engines. Eg. Cemented carbide such like composites are extensively used as cutting tools for
hardened steels.

13. Define shape memory alloy (SMA).

 The group of metallic alloys which demonstrate the ability to return to their original
shape or size (ie. the alloy appears to have memory), when subjected to the appropriate
thermal procedure (heating/ cooling), is known as Shape Memory Alloy.

14.What is Superelasticity?

The ability of the SMA to its original shape upon unloading after a substantial
deformation is known as Superelasticity or Pesudoelasticity. This is based on the Stress-
Induced Martensite (SIM) formations.

15.Define Characterization method

The phase transformations of the SMA are generally measured employing different
methods.

Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC)

Resistivity measurements
Transformation of SMA with temperature
Tensile test.

16. Define Rubber (elastomers)

An Elastomer is a polymeric material that may experience large and reversible elastic
deformations. It commonly referred to as rubbers are hydrocarbon, polymeric materials
similar in structure to plastic resins.

17.Classify structure of elastomers

i)Unvulcanized elastomer

ii)Vulcanized elastomer

iii)Stretched vulcanized rubber.

18. Give the properties of elastomers

a)Resilience and hysteresis

b)Hardness

c)Tensile strength

d)Compression set or creep

e)Tear resistance, abrasion resistance and deterioration, oil resistance.

19. Define plastics.

 Plastics are moldable organic resins which consist of large molecukes,ie. they are
macromolecular materials. Plastics are synthetic resins characterized as a group by plastic
deformation under stress. It uses in industries such as automotive, electrical appliance,
communication (telephone, radio, tv) and those making household goods.

20. List ceramics application in aerospace

Engine shielding
Airframes
Missile cones
Space shuttle
Rocket nozzle
For Unmanned Area Vehicle used as a ceramic shield.

UNIT 5: HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS CHARACTERIATION

1. What are high temperature materials

The materials which have the ability to maintain their properties at elevated
temperatures are called as high temperature materials.They are specifically used for
their heat resisting capabilities,such as strength or corrosion to resistance at
temperature above their elevated temperature.
2. What is meant by homologous temperature

If the operating temperature is denoted as Toper and the melting point Tm , a criterion
based upon the homologous temperature defined as Toper/Tm is sensible. This
should be greater than 0.6.

3. What are the characteristics of high temperature materials

The ability to withstand loading at an operating temperature close to its
melting point.
The homologous temperature should be greater than 0.6
The static properties of yield stress,ultimate tensile strength and fracture
toughness are also maintained and these must be maintained over time.
A final characteristic is tolerance of severe operating environments.
4. what are the properties of concern to users of high temperature materials
Friction and wear
Tensile strength
Compressive strength
Bearing strength
Shock
Electrical properties
Thermal CTE

5. List the commonly used high temperature materials

 Carbon carbon composites
Carbon silicon carbide ceramic matrix composites
Ceramics
Ceramic composites
Cermets
Metal matrix composites
Refractory metals
6. What are ceramics

Ceramics are inorganic non metallic solids that have mostly crystalline structures
but as in the case of glass,they may be of amorphous structure.Certain ceramic
materials incuding silicon borides,carbides,and nitrites can sustain extreme high
temperaturesof more than 20000C.

7. What is meant by PICA

Phenolic impregnated carbon ablator (PICA) is a light weight ceramic ablator that is
designed to burn away slowly and in a controlled manner.This is done inorder to carry
away the heat from the spacecraft by the gases generated in the ablative process while
the remaining solid materials insulate the craft from superheated gases.

8. What are hybrid composites

The metal matrix composites are also called as hybrid composites. These materials
consists of atleast two constituents and with atleast one made of metal,while the other
one can be of different metal,ceramic,or other materials.At the elevated temperature
the creep and the yield strength are relatively higher compared to the most metal
alloys.

9. What are refractory metals

These are metals that have extremely high melting points,have significant resistant to
heat and wear,and they are very stable against creep deformation.These elements have
melting point above 20000C and they are very hard at room temperature.

10. What are the NDE methods for HT materials

A critical part of assuring the ability of high temperature materials to sustain the
operating conditions for which they are designed is their integrity,materials quality,and
the properties consistency with the design requirements.Some of the commonly used
NDE tests are

Ultrasonics
Magnetic particles
Liquid penetrants
Radiography
Thermography
 Visual inspection
Eddy current testing
Laser interferometry.
11. What are the processing methods of HT materials
Some of the processing methods includes
Smelting
Powder sintering
Roasting
12. What are super alloysits properties

Super alloys or high performance alloys,are alloys that exhibit excellent

mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures,good surface stability,and
corrosion and oxidation resistance.They typically have an austentic face centered cubic
crystal structure with a base alloying element of nickel,cobalt,or nickel iron.

13. Why are super alloys preferred for high temperature applications

Super alloys or high performance alloys,are alloys that exhibit excellent mechanical
strength and creep resistance at high temperatures,good surface stability,and corrosion
and oxidation resistance.The development of super alloys has primarily been driven by
aerospace and power industries.

14. What are intermetallics

Intermetallics are made up of two or more elements,producing a new phase with its
own composition,crystal structure and properties. Intermetallics compounds are almost
always very hard and brittle.

15. Name a few examples of super alloys used for high temperature applications
Hastelloy
Inconel
Waspaloy
Rene alloys
Haynes alloys
Incoloy
16. Define precipitation strengthening

Precipitation hardening is also called as age hardening,is a heat treatment technique

used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials,including most structural alloys
of aluminium,magnesium,nickel,titanium and some stainless steels.In super alloys,it is
known to cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high temperature strength.

17. What properties of ceramic compounds offer high temperature applications

 General characteristics of ceramics include

High melting point

Low electrical and thermal conductivity
Good thermal and chemical stability
High compressive strength
18. Applications of super alloys
Aerospace industries
Turbine blades and jet/rocket engines
Marine industry,submarine,chemical processing industry
Nuclear reactor
Industrial gas turbines
19. Define creep.

Creep is large plastic deformation of material on application of stress or elevated

temperature or a combination of both applied for a prolonged time.A material subjected
to a constant stress may fail well below its yield stress if load is applied for prolonged
time.

20. What are the factors influencing functional life of components at elevated
temperature
Creep
Corrosion
High temperature fracture
Thermo mechanical fatigue
Interaction of all above with each other
Metallurgical ageing and metallurgical stability
Micro structural changes

21. Define super plasticity.

Super plasticity is the ability to withstand very large deformation in without necking.

22. Write few high creep resistance materials

Tungsten
Nickel based super alloys
Ironbased super alloys
Cobalt based super alloys
Molybdenum
23. Define transient creep time.

Creep deformation occurring in a component during the stress redistribution under

steady load and temperature.
24. Define fracture.

Fracture is a process of breaking a solid into a number of pieces as a result of

stress.Fracture denotes the complete destruction of the material,resulting separation of a
portion of the material body.

25. Define rupture.

Rupture is defined as the total destruction of the material at loading conditions.When

the applying load is relatively high enough to destructive the material at very short time.