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Joan Katulege

How Attitudes towards Sexual Assault Are Informed

Pine Manor College

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Attitudes toward sexual assault are informed by our cultures, experiences, and

environment. Sexual assault is a problem on many college campuses, and many researchers

have conducted studies assessing the prevalence of sexual assault perpetration and intentions to

be coercive (Edwards, Bradshaw, and Hinsz ,2014). Being able to understand attitudes towards

sexual assault will help us understand the reasoning behind certain behaviors that can be rectified

through cognitive learning. Attitudes towards sexual assault inform behaviors toward sexual

assault; Sexual assault has been one of the most underreported crimes. Most fatalistic attitudes

toward sexual assault are informed by hypermasculinity, ambivalent sexism, rape myths, and

hostility toward women. It is important to note that all four factors place an emphasis on gender

stereotypes. Q

Hypermasculinity is a term reserved for men, and it is used to their traditional

characteristics, such as, strength and boldness. Hypermasculinity reflects an exaggeration of

traditional masculine messages, such as dictating that real men should enjoy danger, aggressively

pursue sexual opportunities, and stand ground in a fight (Edwards, Bradshaw, and Hinsz 2014).

The men who have mentalities that can be described as being hyper masculine are especially

hazardous to women in society. Studies have linked hypermasculinity to sexual assault; findings

have shown that some men use their power to sexually abuse women. The study conducted by

Lisak and Miller (2002) found that some men use overt or threats to coerce sexual behavior. It

does not apply to every individual, but in most instances it is true that most men are physically

bigger and stronger than their female counterparts Burt (1978, 1980) and White (1995) have

stated that certain cultural attitudes seem to condone rape. This means that most women would

be unable to fight back in case of an attack; fighting back is acceptable in cultures that do not

support hypermasculinity, but in the cultures that do, it might warrant a punishment for the
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women. In these cultures or environments, force to obtain intercourse does not become an act of

rape, but rather an expression of hypermasculinity, which may be thought of as a desirable

disposition in certain subcultures (Edwards, Bradshaw, and Hinsz 2014). Sapp, Farell, Johnson,

and Hitchcock(2014) found that African American male students held more traditional gender

role stereotypes toward rape compared with African American female college students. For men

who commit rape because of this disposition that they hold are more than likely to be repeat

offenders. They might have been able to escape the criminal justice system however, and

continue to prey on women. Some, but not all men with this mentality will choose victims in

their social networks and refrain from the kind of violence likely to produce physical injuries

in their victims (Lisak and Miller 2002). A man with a hypermasculinity viewpoint will have

callous attitudes toward women in general, and some of his beliefs will endorse rape myths.

Rape myths are very common in our culture. Lonsway and Fitzgerald (1995) states that

it has become commonplace to suggest American society is a rape culture, in which sexual

violence is supported by specific cultural characteristics. Burt (1980) defined rape myths as

prejudicial, stereotyped, or false beliefs about rape, rape victims, and rapists. Lonsway and

Fitzgerald (1994) define rape myths as attitudes and beliefs that are generally false but widely

and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women

(p. 134). This perspective demonstrates stereotypical assumptions many people still hold about

rape, considering it to be an act of extreme violence perpetrated by an unknown assailant upon

an unsuspecting woman who is willing to defend her sexual purity with her life; Such sentiments

contribute to a culture that continues to put at least partial responsibility for sexual assault on the

victim, and normalizes sexual aggression as part of the male gender role (Edwards, Bradshaw,

and Hinsz, 2014). Women are prone to being victims of sexual assault based on their clothing,
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manner of speaking or even interaction with their male counterparts. Edwards, Bradshaw, and

Hinsz (2014), state that these cultural attitudes that justify rape or rape myth acceptance endorse

the belief that wearing a short skirt invites rape. Other examples provided by Burt (1980) are:

only bad girls or women get raped, any person can resist rape if he or she wants to,

individuals who are raped ask for it, women like to cry rape only as a manipulation device,

and rapists are sexually deprived and insane (pp. 217-225). Nothing warrants getting raped; no

one asks to be sexually assaulted so to put the blame on the victim under any circumstances is

morally wrong, even partial blame is unacceptable. Blumberg and Lester (1991) found that

students who agree with myths about rape tend to blame the victim.

Ryan (2004) proposed that the relationship between rape myth acceptance and sexual

aggregation might be due to the extent to which callous sexual attitudes support rape beliefs. If

people continue to be uneducated about sexual aggression, and how attitudes have an effect on

everything then we shall continue to have rape myth acceptance amongst us. Burt (1978)

concluded that these rape myths seem to be part of the belief systems of lay persons and

professionals who interact with rape victims and rapists. Burt (1978) further argued that rape

myths have been institutionalized within the American legal system and that the tenets of

feminist theory, which draw from social- psychological research, can explain how rape myths

contribute to the victimization of women. Rape myths also impact our legal system, and stops

justice from being served. Among the many repercussions among rape, Varelas and Foley (1998)

argue that the biggest repercussion is the reluctance seen in victims to report rapes to the

police. There is so much victim blaming, that some victims will purposefully refuse to report

their rape either because society has made them believe it is their fault, or for fear of victim

blaming at the hands of the police officer who might question facets of their story. Varelas and
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Foley (1998) say a sexual crime against a black woman may not be given much credence in a

court of law, especially if a white man is accused of committing the crime. These myths that are

based in color are nothing, but malign to the environment of our society. There is no saying what

is desirable based on race, and to do so constitutes racism.

Hostility among women is another major factor of attitudes towards sexual assault.

Hostility toward women is a tendency to be focused on negative interactions with women (i.e.,

attacks, rejections) resulting in an angry and unfriendly attitude toward them (Check, 1985).

Edwards, Bradshaw, and Hinsz (2014) deduce that hostility toward women reflects a disposition

in which men, view womens motives as manipulative and deceitful. Lonsway and Fitzgerald

mention that the Adversarial Sexual Beliefs Scale is almost exclusively concerned with the

notion that women are deceitful and manipulative. For men who see women with this negative

mentality, their violence towards women seems justified. In a study conducted by Kalichman,

Simbayi, etc. (2007), they found that men with histories of sexual assault were significantly

more likely to endorse hostile attitudes toward women and beliefs that violence against women

can be justified. Our society tells us that violence is not permitted or warranted under any

circumstances, but for some men who have hostile attitudes toward women, they believe that all

sorts of violence are warranted otherwise women will attempt to gain more power over men.

This will make women who even seem the tiniest bit independent targets for men who hostile

towards women. In Kalichmans, etc., study, men with hostile attitudes were significantly more

likely to agree that many women seek special favors that place them over men, women who

have jobs and make money should give the money to their men to pay the bills, women only

work so they can gain power and control over men, and it is difficult for a man to work at a job
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where a women is the boss (2007). These statements endorse a degree of gender stereotypes and

sanction sexism.

Sexism is another factor that has been linked to sexual assault. Sexism has typically been

conceptualized as a reflection of hostility toward women. This view neglects a significant

aspect of sexism: the subjectively positive feelings toward women that often go hand in hand

with sexist antipathy (Glick & Fiske, 1996). In a study conducted by Glick and Fiske (1996),

the authors present a theory of sexism was formulated as ambivalence toward women. They

also tell us that sexism is indeed a prejudice, but a special case of prejudice marked by a deep

ambivalence, rather than a uniform antipathy toward women (Glick & Fiske 1996). There are

two types of sexism; benevolent sexism and hostile sexism. Hostile sexism is defined as the

negative stereotypes that are bestowed upon women by men. Benevolent sexism on the other

hand refers to the attitudes that view men and women in stereotypical roles, but feel positive.

Benevolent sexism is not seen as a good thing because it has underpinnings in traditional

stereotypes and masculine dominance (Glick & Fiske, 1996). In a study conducted by

Giovannelli and Jackson (2013), they found that those who scored high in benevolent sexism

often respond harshly to women who are seen as violating gender norms, but are more likely to

support women who are seen as complying with a traditional feminine role. This means women

who do not rely on men for protection or to be provided for are likely to be seen as non-

complying. This is more than likely to make them victims.

Being able to understand the specific dimensions that contribute to sexual aggression

may help refine sexual assault prevention programming, or rehabilitation programming for

sexual offenders (Edwards Bradshaw, and Hinsz, 2014). Focusing on factors that influence

sexual attitudes is a great way to start making better because each factor can be dealt with
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through learning or education targeting to rectify that. Sexual attitudes play a big role in the way

we perceive behaviors, the way we act, and the way we deal with things, so if they skewed, the

results will be negative, and we need to aim to making them positive.

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Bibliography

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