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Bracing systems
From Steelconstruction.info
A bracing system is a secondary but essential part of a bridge structure, A bracing system serves to stabilize the main
girders during construction, to contribute to the distribution of load effects and to provide restraint to compression flanges
or chords where they would otherwise be free to buckle laterally. This article provides guidance on the design of bracing
systems; additional guidance is available in Guidance Note 1.03 and Section 8.2 of SCI P356.
Contents
1 Typical bracing
systems
2 What does bracing do?
# 2.1 Control of
buckling of the
‘main beams
= 2.2 Load
distribution
= 23 Dimensional
control
3 Bracing types
= 3.1 Plan bracing
= 3.2 Torsional
bracing
+ 3.3 U fame
bracing
4 Design of bracing
systems
= 4.1 Making the
‘main beams work
= 4.1.1 Design
of plan
bracing
= 4.1.2 Design
of torsional
‘Typical bracing of a multi-pirder bridge
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bracing
= 4.13 Design
of U frame
bracing
= 4.2 Design of
intermediate
bracing
= 43 Design of
support bracing
= 5 Bracing detailing
= 5.1 Choice of
bracing
= 5.2 Dealing with
skew
= 5.3 Temporary or
permanent
bracing?
+ 5.4 Bracing
connections
6 References
7 Resources
8 See also
9 External links
[top]Typical bracing systems
The figure below illustrates the general arrangement of a typical torsional bracing system for a multi-girder deck. The
intermediate bracing can be triangulated as shown or a stiff beam with moment-resisting connections to the main girders.
There are altemative bracing types for multi-girder decks, and these are discussed later,
support
bracing
intermediate
bracing
NANAN A
Typical bracing over one span of a multi-girder bridge (slab not shown)
[top]What does bracing do?
Bracing provides one or more of the following functions:
= Control buckling of the main beams
= Load distribution
= Dimensional control
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[top|Control of buckling of the main beams
The most common reason for providing bracing on a steel-conerete composite bridge is for the control of buckling in the
main beams during construction. In composite bridges, the weight of wet concrete imposes significant bending of the bare
steel beams and the compression flange needs to be restrained against buckling (in the direction of the minor axis). When
completed, the concrete deck provides lateral restraint to the top flanges along the full length of the bridge and then the only
portions of the beams that tend to buckle are the bottom flanges in the hogging regions adjacent to intermediate supports
In an unrestrained beam, the compression flanges of the main beams tend to buckle horizontally, causing the beam to twist
~ so called lateral torsional buckling. This can be resisted by bracing that provides cither direct lateral restraint to the
compression flanges or torsional restraint to the whole beam.
‘A small tonnage of steel bracing can be used to provide huge increases in the bending resistance of the main beams.
[top|Load distribution
Since bracing connects beams, it can be used to distribute the vertical bending effects between the main beams, and to
ensure that lateral effects such as wind loading and collision loading are shared between all the beams. This sharing is
particularly important at lines of support, where the effects of the lateral loads are often resisted at one fixed or guided
bearing (depending on the chosen articulation system).
In steel composite bridges during the "steel only” condition during construction, the main beams are particularly susceptible
to wind loading. Bracing can be used to share loading between the beams so that the windward beam is not carrying the
entire wind load,
In bridges curved in plan, bracing can provide the ‘radial’ component of force that is consequence of the changing direction
of the curved flange. The effective couple of the forces at tension and compression flanges is resisted by additional vertical
bending effects in the connected beams.
Bridges over highways or waterways may need to be designed for collision loads on the soffit. Over highways a soffit
collision loading applies when the clearance is less than 5.7m (see the accidental actions in EN 1991-1-7!"), and its UK
National Annex), It is unlikely that a single main girder can resist the substantial loads without a bracing system to
transfer forces to the remainder of the structure.
‘Load transfer may not always be desirable, The existence of bracing can affect the load distribution in a structure and the
bracing itself can attract significant forces, particularly when a bridge deck is not equally loaded across its width. Bracing is
‘usually much less substantial than the main girders and care is needed to ensure the bracing is not overloaded, and is not
vulnerable to fatigue effects,
[top|Dimensional control
Partly as a result of deviation from exact geometry (within the usual tolerances) and partly as a result of unequal loading,
the horizontal distances between the flanges of adjacent girders will vary, if not constrained. Such variation can cause
problems during construction, particularly if permanent formwork is used, because this may result in an unacceptable
reduction in the length of the formwork sitting on the beam flanges. Control bracing, often just one or two single angles,
can be introduced to tie the beams together and thus limit the deviation.
It is also good practice to locate bracing systems close to one side of main beam site splice positions, for dimensional
control (but the bracing should not be so close as to conflict with splice plates).
[top]Bracing types
Bracing can be classified into three types:
= Plan bracing
= Torsional bracing
-frame bracing
[top|Plan bracing
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Plan bracing is perhaps the most obvious way to
prevent lateral buckling of a compression flange.
This is because plan bracing provides lateral
restraint, ic. it stops the compression flanges of
beams from moving sideways.
Without bracing, beams
vulnerable to buckling
Plan bracing takes the form of diagonal
members, usually angle sections, connecting the half wave length for buckling
compression flanges of the main beams, to form
a truss when viewed in plan. This makes a
structure that is very stiff in response to lateral
movement. With lateral movement of the
compression flanges thus resisted, the half wave
length for buckling is reduced to the length
between bracings
\With pian bracing,
buckling is controied
Most plan bracing will be at top flange level. For
steel composite bridges, this allows plan bracing
to be cast within the deck slab, so it does not
need to be painted and the underside of the
bridge will have a clean, bracing-free
appearance. However, where there are hogging
‘moments in the main girders, there may need to
be bracing on the bottom flange halt wave length
‘Alternative plan bracing
arrangement
Plan bracing is not common in modem steel
composite bridges. The main reason it is not Plan bracing systems
used is because the plan bracing above the top
flange conflicts with deck permanent formwork. It is, however, possible to position the plan bracing below the deck slab.
If plan bracing is not cast within the deck and is going to remain in the structure on completion, the performance of the
bracing in service needs to be verified. Because the bracing is spanning partly in the longitudinal direction, longitudinal
stresses will be induced in the bracing, Stresses can be determined by calculating the global displacements of the structure
and imposing them on the bracing, or by adding the bracing to a comprehensive 3D structural model. No checks are needed
for bracing within the deck slab, because the extra stiffness of the steel will be insignificant and concrete restrains the
bracing against buckling
Plan bracing can be used to form a "virtual box" girder. This is an alternative to the box girder which avoids the health and
safety risks associated with the confined space interiors of box girders . The virtual box uses the deck slab or deck plate and
plan bracing between the bottom flanges of two adjacent I girders to form a shape with torsional stiffness which can be used
instead of a box girder.
[top] Torsional bracing
Torsional bracing takes the form of a plane of bracing between a pair of beams. The principal advantage of this type of
bracing is that a pair of beams is a stable unit. Beams can be braced in pairs in the fabrication shop prior to transportation to
site, which means that pairs can be craned into place very quickly with the minimum of site connections.
The bracing can take the form of a truss spanning laterally between the top and bottom flanges of the beams or can be a
channel or I girder connecting the webs. In the case of ladder deck bridges, the bracing is provided by the transverse beams.
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a : ; Besedine
S< :
——_—| i
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Torsional bracing systems Structural action of torsional bracing
‘The bracing does not provide any lateral restraint to the compression flange, as one beam will simply use the bracing to
push the other beam sideways. However the stiffiness of the bracing will mean that both beams have to twist as a single unit,
meaning that one beam is pushed up and one beam is pushed down, and their resistance to being pushed up and down is
what provides resistance to buckling, For long transverse beams there is the possibility that the beams can twist in opposite
directions, in which ease the buckling mode is the same as that for U-frame action,
‘The effect of torsional bracing is to increase the elastic critical moment for each beam, although it will not increase it to the
value for buckling over a half wave length equal to the spacing of the bracing. It is not ‘fully effective’ in the way that plan
bracing is.
Torsional bracing is usually left in place permanently even if it is only needed for the temporary condition. If beams are
only braced in paits, the bracing does not have much effect on global load distribution, although checks need to be made
that it is not overloaded by traffic loads. This can be by done by determining the global displacements of the structure and
imposing them on the bracing, or by adding the bracing to a comprehensive 3D structural model.
Other advantages of this type of bracing over plan bracing are that itis located below the deck slab and therefore does not
interfere with the construction of the concrete deck, and it can serve to distribute collision and wind loads more effectively.
[top]U frame bracing
Where compression flanges are remote
from a direct lateral restraint, such as a
deck, and are restrained laterally by
flexible frames comprising a transverse
‘beam in a deck and stiffened webs of the
main beam, this is said to be a U frame,
and the restraint is given by U frame
action. The stiffness of the frame is what
provides resistance to buckling,
buckling promotes
‘4 rotation of main
beams
Flewure in
transverse beam
‘and stiffened webs
U frame action is generally used to resist fees Deena
buckling in half-through girders, as is
often the case in railway bridges. (Half- Structural action of U frame bracing
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through gitders are not often used for highway bridges because of the risk of collapse duc to trafic collision with the main
girders)
In hogging zones of composite slab-on-beam bridges, U frame action may be used to restrain beams in the completed
condition. This is particularly the case with ladder decks,
U frame action can only occur if there is a deck at or near tension flange level. The deck plate or slab will be very stiff in
plan and will effectively prevent any lateral movement of the tension flanges. If this deck is not present, the frame will be a
torsional restraint
Guidance on determining the buckling resistance ofa U frame bridge is given in a separate article on Design for half-
through construction
[top]Design of bracing systems
There are three stages in the design of bracing:
= Identify suitable intermediate bracing positions (and their stiffness) for the adequacy of the main beams
= Design the intermediate bracing
= Design the support bracing
[top|Making the main beams work
To calculate the buckling resistance of
the beams, one method is to carry out an
elastic critical buckling analysis. This Compressing
will model the beams, usually ar
representing each beam with fine meshes ee = Fi supports
of finite elements representing the “—
flanges and the web with 3D grillages Postion & termediate bracing
representing the bracing. This model is
then analysed to determine the critical compression range nua wor Enger
bending moment Mc, at which the main Henan bu bucking is esses by bracinos
Compression lange
beam buckles. The result ofthis analysis Fo Se
can be used to determine the design SN
Posters of intermediate bracing
‘Sprung supports
bending resistance using EN 1993-2!°)
clauses 6.3.2.2(1) and 6.3.2.1(3). The
advantage of this method is that it can be
applied to any situation and will give the Beam on springs analogy
‘optimum result for the strength of the
beam. However, to suit most common situations a number of approximate methods are available which avoid the need for
sophisticated analysis.
There are several simplified methods of determining the design bending resistance of main beams with bracing which use
the analogy of a beam on springs. If the bracing is stiff enough the springs can be taken as rigid, and deflections from lateral
or lateral torsional buckling can only occur between bracing positions. If the bracing is not stiff enough there could be
deflections at the positions of bracing and the main beams will have lower bending resistance as a result
To use these simplified methods it is necessary to calculate the spring stiffness of equivalent sprung supports. Sometimes it
will be possible to show that the spring stiffness is so high that the supports can be taken as rigid.
[top]Design of plan bracing
Since plan bracing is provided to restrain the beams in the wet coneret
steel structure
condition, the calculations will be done for the bare
The method of PD 6695-241 clause 5 applies to the case of rigid lateral restraints. The method is to calculate the non-
dimensional slenderness Ay; from which the design bending resistance can be determined using EN 1993-2!°] clauses
6.3.2.2(1) and 6.3.2.1(3). To see if the restraints can be assumed to be rigid, the requirement given in PD 6695-241 clause
iplvwwsteelconstuctioninflBracing systems antsiiazo17 Bracing systems - Stedconstruction info
5.3 may be used. This requires determination of the stiffness of the plan bracing system.
The stiffness of the plan bracing system is the stiffness of the whole structure. The suggested method is to use a 2-D
structural model, representing the bridge steelwork in plan, and applying unit loads to all bracing positions, acting in the
same direction, so as to give the worst case lateral deflection. Ifthe plan bracing is only on the top flange, then in the model
take the second moment of area as that of the compression flange only, bending laterally.
Ifthe bracing system is not found to be rigid, then
no other simplified method available, and unless the design is
changed to make the bracing stiffer, an elastic critical buckling analysis will be the only way to determine the design
bending resistance.
@ = Unit lateral loads
Loading a plane frame to determine plan bracing stiffness
{top| Design of torsional bracing
Torsional bracing is usually provided to restrain the beams in the wet conerete condition, so the calculations will be done
for the bare stee! structure
The method of PD 6695-2[4] clause 8 applies to the case of torsional restraints. The method is to calculate the non-
dimensional slenderness by from which the design bending resistance can be determined using EN 1993-20] clauses
6.3.2.2(1) and 6.3.2.1(3). The method introduces the concept of the half wavelength of buckling. As explained in PD 6695-
2/4] clause 8.3 this could be the full span or some fraction of the span, but in most cases the half wavelength will equal the
span
A number of parameters need to be calculated using this method, starting with Og. A formula for determining one element
of Op is given in PD 6695-24) clause 8, note 4. However 0g can be determined relatively easly using a grillage model,
representing the bridge steelwork, and applying several load cases as shown in the figure below.
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= Individual unit moments
Load case 1
Load case 2
Load case 3
Load case 4
Loading a grllage to determine torsional bracing stiffness
In each of the cases above, a moment is applied to each end of each torsional bracing, representing a unit force at the level
of the top and bottom flanges. The moments are applied in different ways to reflect the different modes of buckling and the
different half wavelengths of buckling that could occur. The above set is normally sufficient to cover all cases, but if either
of the last two cases leads to a lower buckling resistance than the first two, it may be necessary to go on to consider the half
wavelength of buckling equal to a third of the span, or a quarter etc. The outcome of these analyses will be to directly give
Og. This result is combined with a number of section properties to eventually give the non-dimensional slenderness,
{top|Design of U frame bracing
U frame bracing is usually provided to restrain the
beams in the completed condition, so the calculations
will be done for the completed structure, not the bare displecement displacement
steel structure,
aes +— applied applied -
The method of PD PD 6695-24) clause 9 applies to the unit unit *
case of U frame restraints and is based on the method force force
given in EN 1993-205] clause 6.3.4.2. The stiffness of a
U frame to lateral loading is referenced by the notes in
EN 1993-2191 clause 6.3.4.2 (2) and a formula is given in
the second row of EN 1993-2!*! Table D.3, This formula
can be derived quite easily from first principles as the
deflection caused by a unit force applied at the top of
each flange. However the formula given does not
account for the flexibility of the joint itself, which will
reduce the siffiness value and hence reduces the
effectiveness of the restraint. Values for the flexibility are given in PD 6695-214] clause 9. Altematively, a plane frame
model of the eross section could be used to determine the stiffness of a U frame directly.
U-fiame stiffness
Using the stiffness calculate the limiting stiffness based on Ng. for the compression flange of each main beam. For this,
exercise take I to be second moment of area of the compression flange only bending laterally. Note that Ny: is the classic
Euler buckling value (not to be confused with Npg which would be the design value of applied axial force) and is
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determined as if no restraint was provided. This value is then increased by the factor m which reflects the restraint offered
by the U frames to give Not which can then be used to determine the non-dimensional slendemess yy from which the
design bending resistance can be determined using EN 1993-213] clauses 6.3.2.2(1) and 6.3.2.1)
[top] Design of intermediate bracing
For the design of the bracing for strength, including connection strengths, the design forces need to be determined. The
lateral forces can be determined using equation 6.11 in EN 1993-215] clause 6.3.4.2 (5) for plan bracing or the equations in
PD 6695-2! clause 11 for torsional bracing and for U frames.
Add to this the direct forces on the bracing caused by lateral loads, for example by wind loading. If plane frame or grillage
models have been used to determine the bracing stiffnesses they could also be loaded with wind load on the windward face
to determine the distribution of forces from wind loading.
Bracing which remains in the structure permanently will also be affected by traffic loads and other variable actions, even if
it is only required for temporary loads. To determine the effect from live loads two options are available. The easiest option
is to extract the worst case distortions from the global grillage analysis and impose these results onto a plane frame local
model of the intermediate bracing, However this is very conservative and it may be difficult to achieve a satisfactory design
using this method, Alternatively, the actual bracing can be input into a comprehensive 3-D model of the structure. The latter
method has the advantage that the loading on the bracing will be less than for the first method, the disadvantage is that a 3-
D model takes longer to set up.
When designing the bracing members, do not forget that bracing members are generally slender and members that are
subject to compression should be checked for buckling resistance.
[top|Design of support bracing
Support bracing has a different set of loads to resist. These are forces due to non-verticality of webs at the support, due to
distortion introduced at skew supports, due to eccentricity of bearing reactions, and due to imperfection in alignment of
compression flanges of the main girders
The method of PD 6695-2141 clause 10 can be used to determine all four of the above effects. The equations are used to
determine a force Fs. The most complicated part of the force Fg, is only applicable to skew supports. These forces are
applied at the level of beam flanges to produce a torque. The forces are applied to a maximum of two beams, so for the case
of a multi-girder bridge a variety of load cases may need to be considered.
> — T= example loading
application to give
‘worst bending in
end bay of support
bracing
=_ => — co
apply as torques
to simple line
beam model
Application of Fs forces to support bracing
The above figure indicates that the support bracing should be designed for the wet concrete condition. This is often critical,
but the design should also consider the finished condition. In the finished structure the loads will be greater but the loads
will be shared between the concrete deck and the steel bracing, so this condition may be less critical.
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[top]Bracing detailing
[top|Choice of bracing
‘There are many types of bracing arrangement possible. As noted previously the general preference is for torsional bracing
rather than lateral bracing,
For torsional bracing in multi-girder bridges, the K type bracing is usually preferred, rather than X bracing for tall main
beams, but if main girders are shallow, relative to spacing, channel bracing would be better.
For ladder deck bridges, the bracing will be formed by transverse beams. A constant depth transverse beam is preferred,
and if possible knee braces should be avoided,
[top|Dealing with skew
In skew bridges itis best to keep intermediate bracing normal to the main beams.
Support bracing in bridges with up to 20° skew can follow the lines of supports, i.e. being skew to the main beams.
However if skew exceeds this value itis best to keep support bracing normal to the main beams and double up the support
bracing as shown below.
skew up to 20
skew over 20
ja
Bracing arrangements in skew bridges
More detailed guidance on arrangement of bracing is given in a separate article on skew bridges
[top|Temporary or permanent bracing?
Most bracing is required only for the "wet concrete" construction condition, Once the conerete has hardened, the bracing is
redundant. Bracing may even be a nuisance in the finished condition because it can attract large effects due to traffic loads
and it can be difficult to make the bracing work. The question is therefore why not remove the bracing?
In general itis considered best to leave bracing in place. Although the weight of bracing is not much as a proportion of the
overall tonnage, itis likely to be too heavy for manual handling and it can be quite difficult to manoeuvre the bracing out
from under a completed bridge deck. The bracing may have taken up load and it may not be easy to remove bolts. Also
leaving the bracing in place means that should the bridge need to be demolished in the future, the bracing could be used to
stabilise the steelwork while the deck is broken out.
[top]Bracing connections
Bracing is almost always connected with bolts rather than welds. This allows the bracing to be easily assembled on site
although in many cases beams are delivered to site already braced in pairs ready for lifting, Slip resistant connections are
normally used. Guidance on slip resistant connections generally is given in a separate article on connections for bridge
steelwork, and Guidance Note 2.03 specifically covers bracing and cross girder connections.
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[top]References
1. BS EN 1991-1-7:2006+A1:2014, Eurocode I. Actions on structures. General actions. Accidental actions, BSI
2. NAVAI:2014 to BS EN 1991-1-7:20061-A1:2014, UK National Annex to Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General
actions. Accidental actions, BSI
3. BS EN 1993-2:2006, Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Steel bridges, BSI
4, PD 6695-2:2008+-A 1:2012 Recommendations for the design of bridges to BS EN 1993, BSI
[top]Resources
= Iles, D.C. (2010) Composite highway bridge design. (P356 including corrigendum, 2014). SCL
= Hendy, CR; Mes, D.C. (2015) Steel Bridge Group: Guidance Notes on best practice in steel bridge construction (6th
Issue). (P185). SCI
* Guidance Note 1.03 Bracing systems
+ Guidance Note 2.03 Bracing and cross girder connections
[top]See also
Multi-girder composite bridges
Ladder deck composite bridges
Integral bridges
Half-through bridges
Box girder bridges
Bridges - initial design
Modelling and analysis of beam bridges
Design of beams in composite bridges
Fatigue design of bridges
Stiffeners
‘Connections in bridges
Bridge articulation and bearing specification
lan curvature in bridges
Skew bridges
Design for steel bridge construction
[top]External links
= Highways England DMRB (Design Manual for Roads and Bridges)
= Highways England MCDHW (Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works)
= The Steel Bridge Group (SBG)
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