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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION - PRESSURE BELTS

Introduction
The movement of air in the atmosphere due to the uneven distribution of temperature over the surface
of the earth is known as Atmospheric Circulation.
Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric
pressure. The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure, setting the
air in motion.
Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink.
Wind

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Air in motion is wind.
The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a constant temperature

for the planet as a whole.
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The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the clouds and bring precipitation.
Atmospheric Pressure
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The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of millibars.
At sea level the average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 millibars.
Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure.
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Pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation it varies from place to place and its variation is the
primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas
Vertical Variation of Pressure
In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease amounts to about 1 mb
for each 10 m increase in elevation.
It does not always decrease at the same rate the vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that
of the horizontal pressure gradient.
But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience
strong upward winds.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and velocity. Horizontal
distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. Isobars are lines connecting places
having equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any station
after being reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.
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Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. High-
pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the centre.
Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

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The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure. The wind at the surface experiences friction. In addition,
rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement. The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known
as the Coriolis force. Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three
forces
1. Pressure gradient force
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2. Frictional force and

3. Coriolis force
4. In addition, the gravitational force acts downward.
Convergence and Divergence of winds
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Pressure Gradient Force

The differences in atmospheric pressure produce a force. The rate of change of pressure with respect to
distance is the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and
is weak where the isobars are apart.
Frictional Force
It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally extends up to an
elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.
Coriolis force

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OR
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The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind.
This force is called the Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844. It deflects the
wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
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The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.

The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.
It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is
perpendicular to an isobar.
The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection
in the direction of wind.
As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind
blows around it.
At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The low
pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical cyclones are not formed
near the equator.
The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
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Geotropic wind
When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the Geotropic
wind
Cyclonic Circulation
The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high it is called anti cyclonic
circulation. The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location in different
hemispheres

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Other important patterns of atmospheric circulation over the globe are
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The wind is strong where the isobars are crowed and weak where they are wide apart. The normal sea level
pressure is expressed as 1013.2 millibars or 29.92 inches.
The relation between isobar spacing and wind speed is rather firm in high and mid-latitudes but weakens
as we approach the equator. Between 10N and 10S, it is difficult to relate the winds to pressure
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distribution.
In the large wind systems, the air is slow starter, but when it has worked up some speed, it will carry on
for a longer time.
Along and near the earths surface, wind does not move freely in a horizontal plain. The irregularities of
the earth surface (e.g. mountains, hills etc,) influence the direction of winds
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Other factors being equal, the difference in wind speed and direction between the surface and upper levels
is greatest over rough land surface. Over water the surface wind nearly equals the gradient wind.
The maximum speed of wind usually occurs in the early
afternoon and the minimum in the early morning hours just
before the sunrise.
Winds are named for the direction from which they come. A
wind blowing from north to south is a north wind, a wind
blowing from west to east is a west wind and a wind blowing
from east to west is an east wind.
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called
the general circulation of the atmosphere.
The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion
the ocean water circulation which influences the earths climate.
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises
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because of convection caused by high Insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics
converge at this low pressure zone.
The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:
(i) Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
(ii) Emergence of pressure belts
(iii) The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun
(iv) The distribution of continents and oceans
(v) The rotation of earth
The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an
altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at about 30o N and S.
Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking

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is the cooling of air when it reaches 30 N and S latitudes.

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Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies. The easterlies from
either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from
the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising
warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds are called westerlies and the
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cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the
polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell. These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation
of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the
general circulation.
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The Tricellular Circulation

The Tricellular Circulation is the atmospheric circulation in the upper atmosphere.
Mechanism of Circulation:
The heat in the atmosphere is transferred:
1. Horizontally The horizontal distribution of heat is mainly because of the unequal heating at different
latitudes, while the vertical circulation is because of the ascent and descent of heated and cold air,
respectively.
2. Vertically - The meridional circulation of heat transfer and vertical circulation of atmosphere result into
the formation of certain cells which are as under:
Tropical Cell (Hadley Cell)
Polar Front Cell (Ferrell Cell)
Polar or Sub-Polar Cell
a) Tropical-Cell (Hadley Cell): The Idea of tropical cell was given by Hadley in 1735. In his opinion there
is a vertical cell in each hemisphere.
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In the equatorial zone, the Suns rays fall vertical. Consequently, the air becomes light resulting into the
formation of a low pressure area along the equator, known as Doldrums.
The warm ascending air current releases latent heat. This process results into the formation of cumulous
clouds. The formation of cumulous clouds provides the required energy to drive the tropical cell. The
cumulous clouds give torrential rains in the equatorial regions.
The rising air from thermally driven tropical cell moves pole-ward in the upper troposphere. The air of
the Hadley Cell descends at 30 North and 30 South. The Hadley Cells are more pronounced in the
Southern Hemisphere than that of the Northern Hemisphere. It is mainly because of the less proportion
of land in the Southern Hemisphere.
b) The Polar Front Cells (Ferrell Cell):
The polar front cell, also known as Ferrell Cell develops between the 30 and 60 in both the Hemispheres.
In these latitudes the wind blows from southwest to northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from
northwest to southeast in the Southern Hemisphere and because of the Coriolis force the winds blow
almost from west to east.

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In the upper part of the atmosphere in these latitudes (30C and 60 N and S) the movement of winds
is parallel to the trade winds in both the Hemisphere.
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The prevailing westerly in this zone is frequently influenced by the migratory temperate cyclones. The
direction of winds in the temperate cyclones is variable, coming from different directions and thus helps
in the mixing of temperature.
The middle latitude circulation cell plays a very vital role in maintaining the terrestrial heat balance. There
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is plenty of rainfall in these latitudes from the temperate cyclones throughout the year.
c) Polar or Sub-Polar Cells:
This cell is located between 60 to 90 in both the hemispheres. These are the areas of high pressures or
anticyclones. In these latitudes, the air descends downward from the upper atmosphere.
From these high pressures the air moves towards the sub-polar low pressure. Though the direction of winds
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is from northeast to southwest in the Northern hemisphere and from southeast to northwest in the
Southern Hemisphere, but under the impact of coriolis force the direction of winds is generally from east
to west.
The cold polar easterlies in their equator ward movement clash with the warmer westerlies (anti-trades)
of the temperate regions. The zone of convergence of these two airflows of contrasting nature is knowns
Polar Front. In this cell the mixing of heat transfer is accomplished by waves in the westerlies.
In the upper atmosphere of this cell the wind blows from the 60 towards the poles.
In brief, in the tropical cell (Hadley Cell), the exchange of heat and movement of air are accomplished
by direct circulation, while in the Ferrell Cells and Polar Cells have a tendency to move north and
southward with the shifts in pressure belts and change in seasons. In these areas the transfer or energy is
influenced by the temperate cyclones.
Climatic Significance of Tricellular Circulation
Climatic Significance of Meridional Circulation
Some of the significant climatic influences are as under:
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The Tricellular circulation is very significant in the transfer of heat from the lower to the upper atmosphere.
The convergence of trade winds in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone and in the Subtropical High
Pressure (Divergent) Zone makes a substantial contribution in the transfer of energy.
The Tricellular Cells help in the development of the temperate and tropical cyclones.
The mechanism of origin of Indian Monsoon is closely influenced by these cells.
The Origin of tornados and vertical disturbances are the results or heat transfer in the Hadley Cells.
The formation of hot deserts, horse latitudes, roaring forties are because of the meridional circulation of
the atmosphere.
In brief, the seasons, climates, climatic belts, vegetation belts, and the life style of people in the different
regions of the world are directly or indirectly influenced by the Tricellular atmospheric circulation.

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OR
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WINDS
Introduction
When the movement of the air in the atmosphere is in a horizontal direction over the surface of the earth,
it is known as the wind. Movement of the wind is directly controlled by pressure.
Horizontally, at the Earths surface wind always blows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
usually at speeds determined by the rate of air pressure change between pressure centers. Wind speed is
a function of the steepness or gradient of atmospheric air pressure found between high and low pressure
systems. When expressed scientifically, pressure change over a unit distance is called pressure gradient
force and the greater this force the faster the winds will blow.

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OR
PLANETARY WINDS
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Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (inter-Tropical Convergence Zone):

This is known as Doldrums (Gloomy and sultry air).
NE and SE Trade wind converge on Doldrums.
In this zone strong heating causes surface air to expand and rise.
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The humid, rising and expanding air loses moisture as Convectional rainfall (tropical rain forests).
Doldrums migrates about 5N and 5S.
Subtropical High Pressure Belts
The subtropical high pressure belts lie adjacent to Tropical zone but just outside the Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn (40N and 40S)
These are the regions of anticyclones.
The Subtropical High Pressure Belts are, however, not contiguous. They are best developed on oceans.
In these belts the air descends. The descending are is generally arid.
The great hot deserts are found in both the hemispheres in the sub-tropical High pressure Belts.
Also known as Horse Latitudes.
Low Pressure Belts
The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts lie between 60 and 65 latitude is both of the Hemispheres.
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These are dynamically produced by the rotation of earth on its axis.

The Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt is more developed in the Southern Hemisphere.
In the Northern Hemisphere it is more developed on the Aleutian Islands and Iceland.
Polar High Pressure Belts
Polar regions are cold throughout the year.
These are the areas of high pressure.
The polar winds move outward.
More developed in Canada and Siberia.
Trade Winds (Easterlies)
Origin from the Latin word trado meaning constant direction.

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The trade winds are the surface winds of the Hadley cells as they move from the horse latitudes to the
doldrums.

OR
In the Northern Hemisphere they blow from NE to SW and in the Southern Hemisphere from SE to
NW. (Winds are named by the direction from which they blow).
Trade winds blow with great regularity on oceans.
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Trade winds help in maintaining the global heat balance.
With the change in seasons, the Trade winds move 5 degree latitudes.
Between the two trade winds is the Doldrum.
Anti-Trade Winds (Westerlies)
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Blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure towards the Poles.

In the N. Hemisphere they blow from SW to NE and in the S. Hemisphere from NW to SE.
In winter they move southward and in summer northward affecting the Mediterranean region.
They blow throughout the year.
Cyclonic weather.
In the S. Hemisphere they blow with greater strength.
Roaring Forties (40S to 50S)
Polar Easterlies
They blow from polar areas towards the mid latitudes.
They are more pronounced is the Southern Hemisphere.
In Northern Hemisphere they blow from NE to SW and the Southern Hemisphere form NW to SE.
Extremely cold.
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Shifting of Pressure Belts
Summer Solstice (21st June) : The pressure belts move northward (Equator upto 10N)
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Winter Solstice (23rd Dec.): The Pressure belts move southward.
Spring Equinox (21st March) and Autumn Equinox (23rd Sept): The pressure belts occupy normal positions.
The occurrence of the Mediterranean and Monsoon climates, are closely influenced by the shift in
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pressure belts.
PERIODIC WINDS
The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum
heating, pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons,
especially over Southeast Asia.
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(a) Monsoon Winds

Monsoons are regional scale wind systems that predictably change direction with the passing of the
seasons.
Summer Monsoon
During the summer, monsoon winds blow from the cooler ocean surfaces onto the warmer continents. In the
summer, the continents become much warmer than the oceans because of a number of factors. These factors
include:
(i) Specific heat differences between land and water.
(ii) Greater evaporation over water surfaces.
(iii) Subsurface mixing in ocean basins, which redistributes heat energy through a deeper layer.
Precipitation is normally associated with the summer monsoons. Onshore winds blowing inland from the warm
ocean are very high in humidity, and slight cooling of these air masses causes condensation and rain. In some
cases, this precipitation can be greatly intensified by Orographic uplift. Some highland areas in Asia receive
more than 10 meters of rain during the summer months.
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Winter Monsoon
In the winter, the wind patterns reverses, as the ocean surfaces are now warmer. With little solar energy
available, the continents begin cooling rapidly as longwave radiation is emitted to space. The ocean surface
retains its heat energy longer because of waters high specific heat and subsurface mixing. The winter monsoons
bring clear dry weather and winds that flow from land to sea.
Besides, Asian continent, monsoon wind systems also exist in Australia, Africa, South America, and North
America.

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LOCAL WINDS

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Local Winds is a general term for winds generated as a direct effect of local terrain. Local winds generally
develop as a result of variations in local temperature, pressure and humidity. The origin of local winds
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is also attributed to the formation of air-currents Crossing Mountain ranges, valley and other physical
barriers.
Main Causes of Local Winds
Unequal heating of land and sea resulting into the land and sea breeze.
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Unequal heating and cooling of the mountain slopes.

Local winds originate because of the formation of air-currents, crossing the mountain ranges, and physical
barriers.
Convectional local winds are caused by steep pressure gradients and steep variations in local temperatures.
Some of the local winds are discussed as follows
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
Land and sea breezes are local periodic winds
on a diurnal basis which change their direction
after every twelve hours.
They result when a differential heating takes
place within a short distance near the sea coast.
Their air movement is caused either by heating
or cooling of a particular area.
Mountain and Valley Wind
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Sea Breeze
A local air movement from sea to land.
The greatest intensity of the sea breeze is in the
afternoon.
It is a regular phenomenon in the equatorial region,
where it ameliorates the hot and humid weather
of the coastal areas.
It varies considerably in speed and strength along
the sea coast, being influenced by topography.
Sea breeze normally has a depth of more than
one km and does not extend inland more than
50km.
It beings offshore around 10 A.M. and gradually
extends inland.
Towards evening it subsides.
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The mountain and valley winds may be termed as diurnal periodic winds.
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These winds can be observed in Greenland, Arctic Island, Siberia, and Scandinavian countries, Alaska, Himalayas,
1. Valley Breeze (Anabatic)
On warm sunny days, the heating of mountain
slopes result in the development of low pressure
on the peaks, ridges and higher slopes. The valley
bottom develops a relatively high pressure.
The wind in the day blows from valley to
mountains.
As the cool valley wind moves upward, it
moderates the surface temperatures.
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Land Breeze
A movement of wind from land to sea.
Land breeze occurs when the skies are clear (by
radiation).
It is confined to coastal regions and lake sides,
especially in the equatorial regions.
It generally starts blowing after midnight or a
few hours later.
Its maximum intensity is in the morning hours.
Both the sea breeze and the land breeze are of
immense help to fishermen. These winds are so
regular that fishing boats go out at night with
the land breeze and return the next afternoon
with the sea breeze.
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2. Mountain Breeze (Katabatic)
In the evening, the mountain slopes cool the
surrounding air more quickly than the air found
lower in the atmosphere.
This creates a high pressure which causes winds
to blow down the mountain towards the valley
floor thus known as mountain breeze.
In general, the mountains winds (night winds)
are stronger than the valley winds (day winds).
The valley winds result into the formation of
cumulus clouds in the day time in mountainous
areas.
These clouds disappear in the evening.
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Andes and Rockies. In the Andes these winds are known as Nevados. Also, Inversion of temperature due to
valley breeze affects crops and orchards in the valley adversely.
OTHER LOCAL WINDS
Drainage (Gravitational) Winds
These local winds blow in the temperate latitudes during the winter season. In winter a high pressure area
develops over plateaus.
Some of the important drainage winds are as under:
Brick fielder : Blows from the desert of Australia in Summers (Dec., Jan.)
Chili: A hot dry wind which blows southerly from the Sahara desert to the Mediterranean sea through
Tunisia.
Karaburn : (Tarim Basin of China) - Blows from March to July. Hazy weather, helps in loess deposits
of China.

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Khamsin (Egypt) : Hot wind Blows for 50 days (April to June)

OR
Loo (N. W. India) : Blow in the months of May and June.
Sirocco: (Algeria) Blows from the Sahara desert towards Malta and Sicily - April to July. It becomes hot
and humid.
Zonda: (Argentina and Uruguay) - A warm and dry wind.
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Blizzard: (Greenland, Canada, Antarctica) - Intensely cold, high wind, accompanied by falling snow,
visibility reduced.
Bora (Adriatic Sea): cold, Dec. to March, speed 120 to 140 km. per hour and occasionally upto 225 km
per hour, may blow for several days.
Buran (Siberia and Central Asia): Strong, cold north-easterly wind, temperature around -30C.
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Mistral (Rhone Valley of France): Winter season, 130 km. per hour. Orchards are protected from it.
Pampero (Pampas of Argentina): It is cold wind.
Descending Winds
Berg (Germany, descends from the Alps) : Hot and dry, leads to irritation and headache.
Fohn (Foehn, Fon): Blows northwards from the Alps in the upper Rhine Valley.
Chinook (Snow and Ice-eater): Lows in U.S.A. (Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, N. Dakota, Oregon and
Washington) and in Canada (Alberta, Manitoba, Mackenzie). Period Dec. to April. Warm and dry. It
melts the winter snow and ice.
Samoon (Iran and Kurdistan): Hot and Dry.
Andhi (Dust Storm): May and June in N.W. India.
Haboob (Sudan): Hot wind.
Simoon (S. Arabia): Hot wind.
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 Indian Polity www.iasscore.in

RIGHTS AND SAFEGUARDS PROVIDED

TO THE MINORITIES
Introduction
The Constitution of India does not define the word Minority and only refers to Minorities which are
based on religion or language
The Constitution spells out the rights of the minorities in detail.
Common Domain and Separate Domain of rights of minorities provided in the Constitution
Common domain rights are those which are applicable to all the citizens of our country.
Separate domain rights are those which are applicable to the minorities only and these are reserved to

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protect their identity.
(Bullet)The Preamble to the Constitution declares the State to be Secular and this is a special relevance

for the Religious Minorities.
OR
Equally relevant for them, especially, is the declaration of the Constitution in its Preamble that all citizens
of India are to be secured liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship and equality of status
and of opportunity.
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Common Domain of Minority Rights
1. The Directive Principles of State Policy Part IV of the Constitution:
Obligation of the State to endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities
amongst individuals and groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations.
Article 38 (2).
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Obligation of State to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker
sections of the people (besides Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes). Article 46.
2. Fundamental Duties Part IVA of the Constitution:
Citizens duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; and
Citizens duty to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
3. Fundamental Rights Part III of the Constitution
Both the rights common domain and separate domain are being provided to minorities under Fundamental
Rights.
In the common domain, the following fundamental rights and freedoms are covered:
Article 14 - Peoples right to equality before the law and equal protection of the laws
Article 15 (1) & (2) - Prohibition of discrimination against citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex
or place of birth.
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Article 15 (4) - Authority of State to make any special provision for the advancement of any socially
and educationally backward classes of citizens (besides the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes).
Article 16(1)&(2) - Citizens right to equality of opportunity in matters relating to employment or
appointment to any office under the State and prohibition in this regard of discrimination on grounds
of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
Article 16(4) - Authority of State to make any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts
in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented
in the services under the State
Article 25(1) - Peoples freedom of conscience and right to freely profess, practice and propagate religion
subject to public order, morality and other Fundamental Rights.
Article 26 - Right of every religious denomination or any section thereof subject to public order,
morality and health to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes, manage
its own affairs in matters of religion, and own and acquire movable immovable property and administer
it in accordance with law.

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Article 27 - Prohibition against compelling any person to pay taxes for promotion of any particular
religion.
OR
Article 28 - Peoples freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained, recognized, or aided by the State.
Separate Domain of Minority Rights:
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Article 25 - Sikh communitys right of wearing and carrying of Kirpans.

Article 29(1) - Right of any section of the citizens to conserve its distinct language, script or culture.
Article 29(2) - Restriction on denial of admission to any citizen, to any educational institution maintained
or aided by the State, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
Article 30(1) - Right of all Religious and Linguistic Minorities to establish and administer educational
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institutions of their choice.

Article30(2) - Freedom of Minority-managed educational institutions from discrimination in the matter
of receiving aid from the State.
Article 347 - Special provision relating to the language spoken by a section of the population of any State.
Article 350 A - Provision for facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage.
Article 350 B - Provision for a Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities and his duties; and
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RIGHTS AND SAFEGUARDS

PROVIDED TO SCS, STS
Introduction
The goal of establishing an egalitarian society is at the foundation of the Indian Constitution.
In India, the additional burden of history in the form of inherited social distortions taking ethnic and caste
dimensions needs to be addressed with preferential and special constitutional steps in support of the SC/
ST communities.
The Constitution provides the following support to them
Article 15 - eliminates disability with regard to access to public places.

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Article 16 - provides equality of opportunity which is enriched by protective measure for the SC/STs in
matters of State employment and appointment.

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Article 18 - abolishes untouchability and the accused has to prove his innocence.
Article 341 342 - The President is empowered to draw a list of SC/STs in consultation with the
Governor of each state subject to Parliamentary amendments
Article 19(5) - The property of these communities cannot be taken away unless specified authorities
permit the same
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Article 338 - National Commission of SCs/STs has been set up by the 65th Amendment Act in 1990 The
President may appoint a commission to review the functioning of the Scheduled areas and the welfare of
the STs in the areas.
5th and 6th Schedules - Special provisions are laid down in the 5th and 6th Schedules of the Constitution,
which are read along with Article 244 for the administration of areas inhabited by the STs.
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Article 46 (Directive Principles) says that the interest of SC/ST must be protected.
The President may direct a state to draw and execute schemes for the welfare of the STs.
One of the criteria for extending the Central grants-in-aid of the states is the obligation of the latter to
meet the cost of the welfare schemes for the SC/STs.
There are seats and constituencies reserved for the SC/STs. It is temporary provision that is being
extended, so far, for every ten years.
In states like Madhya Pradesh, Bihar etc, there shall be ministers in charge of welfare of SC, ST and OBC.
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 Trending Topics www.iasscore.in

THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH

DISABILITIES ACT 2016
Introduction
The definition of disability as provided by the UN Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD)
states that Persons with Disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments
which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis
with others.
Salient features of the Bill
Disability has been defined based on an evolving and dynamic concept.
The types of disabilities have been increased from existing 7 to 21. It includes Speech and Language

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Disability, Specific Learning Disability, Acid Attack Victims, Dwarfism, muscular dystrophy. It also included
three blood disorders: Thalassemia, Hemophilia and Sickle Cell disease have been added for the first time.

OR
It seeks reservation in vacancies in government establishments has been increased from 3% to 4% for
certain persons or class of persons with benchmark disability. In addition benefits such as reservation in
higher education, government jobs, reservation in allocation of land, poverty alleviation schemes etc. have
been provided for disabilities.
SC
The bill claimed that every child with benchmark disability between the age group of 6 and 18 years shall
have the right to free education. The government will fund educational institutions as well as the government
recognized institutions to provide inclusive education to the children with reasonable accommodation to
disables.
Special Courts will be designated in each district to handle cases concerning violation of rights of PwDs.
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The Bill provides for penalties for offences(imprisonment of 6 months to 2 years along with fine of 10000
to 5 lakh) committed against persons with disabilities and also violation of the provisions of the new law.
The bill provides power to government to notify additional disabilities, a clear recognition of the need to
factor in conditions that may arise as a result of an ageing population, an inevitable part of the demographic
transition.
The new law will not only enhance the Rights and Entitlements of Divyang-Jan but also provide effective
mechanism for ensuring their empowerment and true inclusion into the Society in a satisfactory manner.
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AADHAR AND ITS BENEFITS

It is a 12 digit individual identification number issued by UIDAI (Unique identification authority of India)
on behalf of Government of India
It will serve as identity and address proof anywhere in India.
It is available in 2 forms, physical and electronic form i.e. (e-Aadhaar).
Any resident (a person who has resided in India for 182 days, in the one year preceding the date of
application for enrollment for Aadhaar) of India irrespective of age, sex, class can avail it.
The UID authority will authenticate the Aadhaar number of an individual, if an entity makes such a
request. A requesting entity (an agency or person that wants to authenticate information of a person) has
to obtain the consent of an individual before collecting his information.

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Benefits of Aadhar
A. Individual:
OR
Easy hassle free access to services (banking, LPG, phone number, etc).
Migrants: Provides identification to large number of migrant labors to avail services.
Financial inclusion: The identification enables easy opening of bank account leading to financial inclusion
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of rural folks and ease of operations for banks through Banking Correspondent.
B. Administrative:
Online cost effective verification of beneficiaries leads to Good Governance (minimum government
maximum Governance).
Unique and robust platform to check duplication and ghost cards.
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Subsidy costs can be hugely reduced by cutting down intermediaries and eliminating ghost cards.
C. Reduction in fake identity:
As only one identity card is provided to a person (linked to individual biometrics), there is incentive to
be genuine.
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NATIONAL STUDENT STARTUP POLICY,

2016 (NSSP)
Introduction
The policy aims to create 100,000 technology based student start-ups and a millionemployment
opportunities within the next 10 years (2025).
The policy plans onachieving this by developing an ideal entrepreneurial ecosystem and promotingstrong
inter-institutional partnerships among technical institutions.
The policy highlights the areas and domains tobe used, as necessary, for re-orientation in academic
curriculum as well aspedagogy to fulfil the needs of start-ups.

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It emphasizes the much-desired need for an appropriate startup policy to propel the youth of India
through and beyond the 21st century.
Aims and Objectives


OR
It will prepare students to gain benefits from GoIs Start-up India programme.
Guiding and grooming students to take up entrepreneurial careers andsuccessfully launch their start-ups.
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Motivate students to convert their Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) and projects into viable B-plans.
To create a common virtual platform and ask institutions to submit students projects on this platform
to make the project nationwide.
To inculcate social responsive behaviours among students aspiring to launch start-ups.
To offer students, from rural regions of India, training in business opportunity identification in their local
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areas.
To orient students as to how they can conceptualize social business start-ups that will address social
issues.
The mentoring and handholdingprocesses of student start-ups are also covered in the policy. A Startup
Implementation Committee is already constituted by the Council under the Chairmanship of Shri.Sanjay
Inamdar.
To equip students with the necessary skills for managing their business enterprise.
Salient features of the policy
The formulated policy has outlined the role of the AICTE, TBI and academic institutions in creating
student entrepreneurs all along implementing the governments initiative the Start-up India.
According to the policy, the curriculum pattern followed by these institutions would include 40 per cent
skills based courses, 30 per cent knowledge related courses and 30 per cent attitude related courses
a) Courses on Basic Business Management will orient students with the fundamentals of business and other
related areas.
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The new policy has made a provision to set up a fund to support start-upeventsand fest that would be
organized at national and international levels.An amount of Rs. 10,000 crore will be invested through the
venture funds registered with SEBI and interested to support student startups.
a) Seed Fund for Student Start-up: Private, institute specific funds shall be encouraged to set up operations
in the academic institutions and for funding start-ups.
b) Student Start-up Infrastructure Fund (SSIF): A Student Start-up Infrastructure Fund with an initial
annual outflow of INR 20 crores shall be set up to support start-ups in academic institutions
This policy will also support Technology Business Incubators (TBI) in creating new number of student
startups and entrepreneurs pan India.
A national level acceleration programme could be designed to benefit students of AICTE approved/
affiliated Institutions. Through this programme, 50 selected start-ups may get Angel Funds of up-to 25
Lakhs annually. Private investors may also be used.
The policy shall be governed by the National Resource Institution selected by AICTE, MHRD, New
Delhi and will be implemented by the Regional Hubs among the AICTE Approved Institutions. 10.5.1

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There will be 4 Regional Hubs to monitor the activities across the country.
To develop hard and soft infrastructure like testing labs, IT labs,toolsroom, design studios, data set,
OR
laboratories, video-conferencing facilities and research and analysis labs in the academic institutes, an
initial annual outflow of Rs. 20 crore will be provided to help student start-ups in institute
Idea Lab to Nations Idea Lab: A Business Idea Lab should be set up at every campus to pool the
business ideas of students, test their feasibility and compile and file the IPR.
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Notes