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ENDO-GENETIC FORCES
The forces acting on the earths surface leads to the creation, destruction, recreation and maintenance of geo-
materials on the earths crust. The forces are divided as Endo-genetic and Exo-genetic forces.
Various agents of denudation like running water, rain, frost, sun, wind, glaciers and waves have constantly
reshaped the face of the earth making it very varied and diverse. However, the plateau and plains have
only modified these structures which have been modeled by the movements of the earths crust.
Since the down of the geological time there have been about nine orogenic or mountain building movements,
folding and fracturing the earths crust. Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambrian times between 600 - 3500
Million years ago.

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The three most recent orogenies are the:
Caledonian (about 320 million years ago) raised the mountains of Scandinavia and Scotland in North

exhibit the striking forms as existed earlier.

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America. These mountain ranges have been worn down by the agents of denudation and are no longer

Hercynian (about 240 million years ago) raised the Ural Mountains, the Pennines and Welsh Highlands
in Britain, the Harz Mountains in Germany, the Appalachians in America and the high plateaux of
Siberia and China. These mountains have also been reduced in size by the various sculpturing forces.
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Alpine (about 30 million years ago) the recent and major orogenic movements of the earth, raised
mountain ranges such as Alps, Himalayas, Andes and Rockies which are the young loftiest mountains
and are most imposing.
The above developments of the landforms are the results of Endo-genetic and Exo-genetic forces.
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The forces which originate inside the earth due to volcanism, diastrophism and massive crustal
rearrangement are known as Endo-genetic Forces.

The external forces which bring changes in the landforms through the process of erosion, mass wasting
and weathering are known as Exo-genetic Forces.
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ENDO-GENETIC FORCES
The forces coming from within the earth are called as endo-genetic forces which cause two types of movements
in the earth, viz:
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a) Horizontal Movements: side to side movements of the earths crust (Horizontal and Tangential), causes
lot of disruptions in the horizontal layer of strata as they involve compression and tension of the pre-
existing rocks.
b) Vertical Movements: Slow and widespread bringing changes in the horizontal rock strata. Originate from
the centre of the earth causing large scale upliftment or subsidence of a part of the earths crust forming
continents and plateaus. These movements motored by the endo-genetic forces introduce various types
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of vertical irregularities which give birth to numerous varieties of relief features on the earths surface, eg.,
mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, faults, folds, etc.
The energies in the endo-genetic forces are mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
primordial heat from the origin of the earth. This energy is due to geothermal gradients and heat flow from
within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere.
The endo-genetic forces and movements are divided, on the basis of intensity, into two major categories:
a) Diastrophic Forces: It is a general term applied to slow bending, folding, warping and fracturing of the
earths crust which becomes discernible after thousands of years. From the point of view of areal distribution,
Diastrophic forces can further be divided into two sub-groups:
I. Epeirogenetic Movements: A slow process causing movements of the earths crust resulting into the
displacements of continents and ocean basins. It acts along the radius of the earth and hence also
known as radial movements.
Their direction may betowards (subsidence)oraway (uplift)from the center. The formation of
mid-oceanic ridges, ocean trenches, the Great Rift Valley of Africa can be attributed to these
movements.
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Some of the beaches which have been elevated (uplifted) as much as 15 m to 30 m above the
present sea level such as Kathiawar, Nellore and Thirunelveli coasts. Several places which were the
flourishing sea ports about 1000 to 2000 years ago are now a few miles inland such as Coringa near
the mouth of the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta and Korkai on the coast of
Thirunelveli.
An earthquake in 1819 submerged a part of Rann of Kachchh. Presence of peat and lignite beds
below the sea level in Thirunelveli and the Sundarbans is an example of subsidence. The Andamans
and Nicobars have been isolated from the Arakan coast by submergence of the intervening land.
Trees have been found embedded in mud about 4 m below the low water mark on the east side of
Bombay Island and on the Thirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu. A part of the former town of
Mahabalipuram near Chennai (Madras) and a large part of Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait (shallow
zone) have been submerged in geologically recent times.
II.Orogenetic Movements: It involves mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and
narrow belts of the earths crust acting tangentially to the earth surface, as in plate tectonics. It can

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further be divided into Compressional and Tensional.

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Compressional forces result into folding (folds), crustal bending, local rise and subsidence because
this type of force acts towards a point from two or more directions.
Tensional forces create cracks, ruptures, features and faults, since this type of forces acts away from
a point in two directions.
b) Sudden forces: These are the result of long period preparation deep within the earth. Only their cumulative
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effects on the earths surface are quick and sudden. Geologically, these sudden forces are termed as
constructive forces because these create certain relief features on the earths surface.
STRUCTURES PRODUCED BY ENDO-GENETIC FORCES
Endo-genetic forces create deformation in the earths crust. This distortion takes place more in sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks than in igneous rocks as the former rocks are usually horizontal, a little deformation
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becomes easily discernible. The structures are discussed as follows:

(A) Folds: Fold is a bending of the Earths crust owing to compressional forces.
According to shape, the folds are of many types:
o Symmetrical FoldsThese are ordinary folds. The limbs of the folds are equally inclined on either side.
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o Asymmetrical FoldOne of the limbs is more inclined than the other.

o Monoclinal FoldIn this fold, one limb makes a right angle with the surface but the other limb is
ordinarily inclined.

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o Isoclinal FoldThe two limbs are so much inclined in such a way that they appear equally inclined
and parallel to each other.
o Recumbent FoldIn this fold the two limbs are so much inclined that they become horizontal.
o Overturned FoldIn this fold one limb is overturned over the other limb. The difference between the
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overturned and recumbent folds is that the overturned limbs are not horizontal like those of recumbent
fold.
o Plunging FoldIf the axis of the fold is not parallel to the horizontal but makes an angle with it, it
is known as Plunging Fold.
o Fan FoldIt is a great anticline which has many small anticlines and synclines. It is also known as
Anticlinorium. A great syncline having many small anticlines and synclines is called Synclinorium.
o Open FoldIf the angle between the limbs of a fold is obtuse, the fold is called Open Fold.
o Closed FoldIf the angle between the limbs of a fold is acute, it is called Closed Fold.
(B) Fault: Fault is a rupture and fracture of rocks strata due to strain. Faults have also been defined as a
surface along which a rock-body has broken and been displaced.
Some of the important faults are as under.
Normal Fault (Tension): The faults having mainly vertical movement are called normal faults. A
normal faults results in a seep, straight cliff like feature.
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Reverse Fault (Compression): One side of the fault moves upward vertically in comparison to the
other side.
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Strike-slip fault: A strike-slip fault is a fault on which the two blocks slide past one another. These
faults are identified as either right-lateral or left lateral depending on whether the displacement of the
far block is to the right or the left when viewed from either side. The San Andreas Fault in California
is an example of a right lateral fault.
Strike-slip faults are eitherright-lateralorleft-lateral. That means someone standing near the fault trace and
looking across it would see the far side move to the right or to the left, respectively. The one in the picture
is left-lateral.
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Various types of landforms are being produced by faults:

Rift Valley or Graben: When a block between two normal faults is depressed, the valley formed in the
faults is known as Rift Valley or Graben.
Horst or Block Mountain: When a block between two normal faults is raised up, the raised block with
its plateau like surface and steep sloppy edge, is known as Block Mountain or an Horst
Drag: When there is a movement in a fault, the rocks get bent. This bending gives direction to the
movement. This bending of the rocks is called Drag.

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EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES

Sudden Forces and Movement is caused by sudden Endo-genetic forces coming deep within the earth resulting
sudden and rapid events with massive destructions at and below the earths surface. Such events like volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes are called Extreme Events which becomes disastrous when they occur in densely
populated localities. These forces work very quickly and their results are seen within minutes.
Geologically these forces are termed as constructive forces as these create certain relief features on the earths
surface.
For example, volcanic eruptions result in the formation of volcanic cones and mountains while fissure flows
of lavas form extensive lava plateau and lava plains. Earthquakes create faults, fractures, lakes etc.

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Volcanism
Formed when molten magma in the earths interior escapes through the crust by vents and fissures in the crust,

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accompanied by gases (like Hydrogen Sulphide, Sulphur Dioxide, Hydrogen Chloride, Carbon Dioxide), steam
and pyroclastic materials. Over 1300 volcanoes exist on the earth out of which about 600 are active.
Causes of Volcanism:
It is closely connected with crustal disturbances, particularly where there are zones of weakness due to
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deep faulting or mountain folding.
Increasing temperature with increasing depth below the earths crust (1 per 32 km) where the interior of
the earth can be expected to be in a semi-molten state, comprising solid, liquid and gaseous materials,
collectively termed as Magma.
Origins of gases and water vapour due to heating of water underground.
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Ascent of Magma forced by enormous volume of gases and water vapour.

Movement and splitting of the major and minor plates of the earth most of the active volcanoes are
found along the plate margins (mid-oceanic ridges and the ocean trenches (Benioff Zone or Ring of Fire).
The magma is heavily charged with gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphurated hydrogen and small proportions
of nitrogen, chlorine and other volatile substances. The gases and vapour increases the mobility and
explosiveness of the lavas which are emitted through the orifice or vent of a volcano during a volcanic
eruption.
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There are two types of lavas:

Basic Lava Volcano
Fluid lava flow covers larger areas
gently-sloping volcano shield volcano
E.g. Island of Hawaii, regarded as a
single shield volcano with 3 active
peaks Maua kea, Mauna Loa, Kilauea
Types of Volcanic Eruptions:
Acidic Lava Volcano
Less fluid lava, moves very slowly solidifies
quickly a steep-coned volcano
Most common composite volcano (alternate layers
of hardened lava, ash & cinder). E.g. Mt Mayon,
Mt Merapi, Mt Fuji, Mt Etna, Vesuvius

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Classification of Volcanoes on the basis of Periodicity:

Active Volcanoes: When volcanic materials like lava, gases, ash, cinder, pumice etc. are ejected constantly
from the vent. Most of the active volcanoes are found in the Circum-Pacific Belt which is known as the
Ring of Fire.
A few examples of active volcanoes are: Etna and Visuvius, Mount Pelee (Martinique), Mount Karmai
(Alaska), Mount Saint Helens, Nevado Del Ruz (Columbia), Mount Unzen (Japan), Mount Pinatubo
(Philippines), Mount Redoubt (Alaska) and Mount Mayon (Philippines).
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The Stromboli volcano emits so much fire and incandescent gases that it is known as the Light House
of the Mediterranean Sea.
Dormant Volcanoes: Those that have been known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption in the
future. These are not extinct. For example: The Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, 1631, 1803, 1872, 1906,
1927, 1928, 1929.
Violent eruptions of dormant volcanoes are generally preceded and accompanied by earthquakes, some
of which have been very destructive. Example Mt. Kilimanjaro.
Extinct Volcanoes: A volcano that was active in the geological past and no longer has any active
vulcanicity. The Crater is filled with water.
For example: St. Arthurs Sea (Edinburgh) and the numerous Crater Lakes in the Andes and Rockies
Mountains.
Some of the volcanoes that are today dormant may become active. For example: Monte Somma which
erupted 700 years back are now considered extinct by the inhabitants.

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Volcanic Belts of the World:

a) The Circum Pacific Belt:
Due to subduction of the Pacific plate below the Asiatic plate, the large number of volcanic eruptions
are found circling Pacific Ocean known as Ring of Fire, which extends through the Andes of South
America, Central America, Mexico, the Cascade Mountains of Western United States, the Aleutian
Islands, Kamchatka, the Kuril Isles, Japan, the Philippines, Celebes, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands,
New Caledonia and New Zealand where about 80 active volcanoes are found.
The Circum-Pacific belt meets the mid- continental belt in the East Indies. This belt is characterised
by high volcanic cones and volcanic mountains.
The volcanoes of the Aleutian Island, Hawaii Island and Japan are found in Chains.
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Cotapaxi is the highest volcanic mountain (6035m) in the world. Other important volcanoes found in
this belt are Fuziyama, Shasta, Rainer and Hood. Volcanic eruptions occur in this belt because of the
subduction of the Pacific plate below the Asiatic plate.
b) The Mid-Continental Belt:
Having various volcanoes of the Alpine Mountain Chain, Mediterranean Sea (Stromboli, Vesuvius,
Etna etc.), volcanoes of the Aegean Sea, Mt. Ararat, Elburz and Hindukush. There are several volcanic
free zones found along the Alps and the Himalayas, come under this belt. Kilimanjaro, Elgon, Birunga
and Rungwe etc. are the volcanoes found in the Rift Valleys of Africa.
In the region where the boundaries of Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan meet, there are several
volcanic cones of large size, and one or two of them emit steam and other gases. This region has also
a few extinct volcanoes.
c) The Mid Atlantic Belt:
It includes the volcanoes of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which are associated with the Atlantic Ocean and
are located either on swells or ridges rising from the sea floor or on or near the edge of the continent

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where it slopes abruptly into the deep oceanic basins.
The volcanoes formed along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge actually represent the splitting zone of the American
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plate moving towards west and the Eurasian plate moving towards east representing the zones of crystal
movement.
In the splitting zone there is constant upwelling of Magma hence known as crustal weakness.
Volcanoes in this belt are generally of fissure-eruption type such as Volcanoes of Lesser Antilles,
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Azores, and St. Helens etc.

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HOT - SPOT VOLCANOES

About five percent of volcanoes are not near the margins of tectonic plates. They are over especially hot
places in the Earths interior calledHOT SPOTS.
HOT SPOTSare created by mantle plumes - hot currents that rise all the way from the core through the
mantle. When mantle plume come up under the crust, they burn their way through to become hot-spot
volcanoes.Famous hot-spot volcanoes include the Hawaiian island volcanoes and Runion Island in the
Indian Ocean.Hot-spot volcanoes ooze runny lava that spreads out to create shield volcanoes. Lava from
hot-spot volcanoes also creates plateaux, such as the Massif Central in France. The geysers, hot springs and
bubbling mud pots of Yellowstone National Park, USA, indicate a hot spot below.
Volcanoes impact over society:
Explosive volcanic eruptions pose short-term and long-term hazards.
Lava flows and lahars can wipe out the flanks of mountainsides.

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Volcanic ash can blanket the landscape for miles, and ash clouds can disrupt aircraft travel, such as the
incident in 1989 when ash from Alaskas Redoubt volcano temporarily disabled a passenger airplane.

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On longer time scales, eruptions can inject massive quantities of ash into the atmosphere, greatly reducing
the solar heating of the Earth and potentially interrupting the global food supply for several years.
They provide valuable resource (gold, silver, iron, copper, tin, lead, zinc, molybdenum) industrial material
like building stones, sulphur, pumice, precious stones-diamonds, gems, ruby.
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Climatic change At the occurrence of Pinatubo volcano in 1991, the global temperature fell by about
0.5C.
Earthquake
It is a sudden release of energy from the rocks of the earths interior through weak zones over the earths
surface in the form of Kinetic Energy of wave motion causing vibrations (at times devastating) on the
earths surface.
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It may cause change in contours, change in river course, tsunamis (seismic waves created in sea by an
earthquake), shoreline changes, spectacular glacial surges (as in Alaska), landslides, soil creeps, mass
wasting etc.
The depth of the Focus or Hypocenter generally varies from about 10 km to 700 km below the earths
surface.
Causes of Earthquakes:
Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanic eruptions are the main cause of earthquake caused by gas explosions or the
upcoming and fissuring of volcanic structures. For example: Karakota (1883), Cotopaxi, Chimborazo,
Kilimanjaro, Fujiyama etc.
Faulting (Displacement of Rocks): Earthquakes occur when movement of earth takes place along a line
of fracture (FAULT). Examples: San Andres Fault of California (Los Angeles) and Earthquakes of 1994
at Northridge, California.
Plate Tectonics: The 6 major and 9 minor plates of the earth crust are constantly moving at different
rates. The boundaries of these plates are the primary location of earthquakes, example: the Ring of Fire.
Shallow focus earthquakes occur on the Oceanic Ridges and in the Oceanic Trenches, deep focus earthquakes
occur.
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Anthropogenic Factors (Humans over Integration with Nature): Extraction of minerals and the dams
built on time to time disturbing the earths balance Marathon Dam (Greece) 1929, Koyna (Maharashtra
1962), Hoover Dam (1935), Mangla Dam (Pakistan), Kariba Dam (Zambia), Manic Dam (Canada),
Kurobe Dam (Japan).
Facts about earthquakes:
Focus or hypocenter of the earthquakes is always within the mantle.
The depth of the earthquake generally varies from depth about 10 to 700 km below the surface of earth.
The earthquakes on the ocean ridges originate from a depth of 70 km
The vertical point above the focus, where the earthquakes waves (seismic waves) reach the surface is
termed as the epicenter, around which lines of equal seismic intensity may be drawn (isoseismic lines).
The waves generated by an earthquake are recorded on a seismograph or seismometer.
A massive 8.8 earthquake in Chile moved the city of Concepcion 10 feet to the west on February 27,
2010. This quake also shortened Earths day and slightly changed the rotation of the planet.

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Parkfield, California, is known as The Earthquake Capital of the World and has a bridge that spans two
tectonic plates.
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More earthquakes happen in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere.
Magnitude of Earthquakes:
The magnitude of earthquakes is most commonly assessed by the Richer Scale designed by Charles F.
Richter in 1935 and then modified in 1965 by Richter and Beno Gutenberg.
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The Richer Scale is related to the energy released at the earthquakes centre.
A quake is considered major when it registers more than 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale. A magnitude
of 3.0 or lower is nearly imperceptible.
The scale has neither a fixed maximum nor a fixed minimum, but earthquakes rated as high as 8.4 on
Richter Scale have been measured so far.
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The earthquakes of a magnitude of 2 are the smallest normally detected by human senses but instrument
can detect as small as-3 on the scale.
The Richter Scale is open ended and logarithmic, i.e. each whole number on the scale represents a 10-folds
increase in the measured amplitude. Translated into energy, each whole number demonstrates 31.5 more
energy than a 2, and 992 times more energy than a 1.
The moment magnitude scale (MMS) replaced the 1930s-era Richter scale in the 1970s as the method of
measuring the size of earthquakes in terms of energy released.
Earthquake Forecasting: Very little success has been achieved about the prediction of earthquakes.
The Chinese on the basis of animal behavior made certain accurate predictions. In 1975, the Chinese
successfully predicted a major earthquake at Haicheng. But in 1976 there was complete destruction in the
Tangshan earthquakes in which 2.5 lakh people died.
The FDL method makes use of Fibonacci, Dual and Lucas numbers and has shown considerable success
in predicting earthquake events locally as well as globally.
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The connection between past earthquakes and future earthquakes based on FDL numbers has also been
reported with sample earthquakes since 1900. Using clustering methods it has been shown that significant
earthquakes (>6.5R) can be predicted with very good accuracy window (+-1 day).
World Distribution of Major Earthquakes:
The world distribution or earthquakes coincides very closely with that of volcanoes. Regions of greatest
seismicity are Circum-Pacific areas, with the epicenters and the most frequent occurrences along the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
a) Circum Pacific Belt or Ring of Fire surrounding the Pacific Ocean. It is a junction of continental and
oceanic margins; it is a zone of young folded mountains; it is a zone of active volcanoes thus this belt
accounts for the 65 per cent of the total earthquakes of the world.
b) Mid-Continental Belt representing Alpine-Himalayan chains of Eurasia and northern Africa and
epicenters of east African fault zone. This belt represents the collision or subduction zones of continental
plates. About 21 per cent of the total seismic events occur in this belt.

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c) Mid-Atlantic Belt representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and its offshoots.
This belt records moderate and shallow focus earthquakes which are essentially caused due to creation

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of transform faults and fractures because of divergent movement of plates.
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d) Other Areas: These include Northern Africa and Rift Valley areas of Red Sea and Dead Sea. In
addition to these, the ocean ridges are also active earthquake zones.
Earthquakes in India:
The Indian subcontinent is divided into five seismic zones with respect to severity of the earthquakes. The
zone classification has been done by the geologist and scientists as early as 1956 when a 3-Seismic Mapping
Zone (Severe, Light and Minor Hazard) of India was produced.
The Bureau of Indian Standard is the official agency for publishing the seismic hazard maps and codes.
It has brought out versions of seismic zoning map: a six zone map in 1962, a seven zone map in 1966,
and a five zone map 1970/1984.
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The Five Zonal map was created based on the values of maximum MM (Modified Mercalli) intensities
recorded in various parts of the country, in historic times
I. Zone V - Earthquakes with magnitudes exceeding 7.0 on Richter Scale have been kept in zone V where
countrys most powerful shock having intensities higher than IX occurs. The IS code assigns zone factor
of 0.36 for Zone 5.
This region included the Andaman & Nicobar Island, all of North-Eastern India, Parts of North-Western
Bihar, Eastern Section of Uttranchal, The Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh, Vicinity of Srinagar in
Jammu & Kashmirand the Rann of Kutchh in Gujarat.
II.Zone-IV covers remaining parts of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, Union Territory of
Delhi, Sikkim, northern parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts of Gujarat and small
portions of Maharashtra near the west coast and Rajasthan.
It is known as the High Damage Risk Zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK(Medvedev-
Sponheuer-Karnik) VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4.
III. Zone-III comprises of Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep islands, and remaining parts of Uttar Pradesh,

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Gujarat and West Bengal, parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
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This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII intensities. The IS code
assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3.
IV. Zone-II covers remaining parts of the country.
Further, as part of pre-disaster preparedness measure, Government of India has also completed seismic
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micro-zonation studies of some of the major cities in the country such as, Jabalpur, Guwahati, Bangalore,
greater Bharuch in Gujarat, Jammu in J & K, Shillong in Meghalaya, Chennai in Tamilnadu and sikkim
state.
These studies involving preparation of geological, geomorphological and land use maps followed by
drilling, geological logging, standard penetration test and geophysical studies to demarcate the zones of
least to most damage prone areas within the urban areas helps the respective town and country planning
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agencies to formulate perspective planning within the overall earthquake impact minimization efforts.
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Some contemporary facts related to Earthquakes in India:

In India, 22 states are prone to earthquakes of various intensities like severe, high, moderate and low, and
urban explosion and densely populated cities with high-rise buildings makes the quake scenario worse.
India is working on an ambitious project with scientist, geophysicists and seismologists of 27 countries
to develop an early warning system for prediction of earthquake.
Before an earthquake, some chemical changes under the earths surface and some physical displacements
on the surface occur which will be studied by deep bore wells filled with sensors and other equipments
placed in all seismically active regions in the country to sense these changes.
India is also planning to launch a satellite by 2019 to track the changes that take place on earths surface
before the tremor which will send images of surface displacement up to the accuracy of few centimeters.
India has been conducting experiments in the Koyna river valley in the Western Ghats in Maharashtra.

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TYPES OF POLITICAL SYSTEM

A political system is the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a state. There are seven types of
political systems namely as follows:
1) Democracy - Democracy is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect
representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is
sometimes referred to as rule of the majority. India, the US, the UK, France, Australia, Brazil, South
Africa, Japan etc. are the democratic countries.
Features -
The democracy consists of four key elements: (a) A political system for choosing and replacing the

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government through free and fair elections; (b) The active participation of the people, as citizens, in
politics and civic life; (c) Protection of the human rights of all citizens, and (d) A rule of law, in which

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the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.
Other features of democracy are as follows:
a) Popular sovereignty
b) Political freedom & equality
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c) Protection of minority rights
d) Independence of judiciary
e) Presence of civil & socio-economic rights
f) Legal equality & rule of law etc.
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2) Dictatorship - Dictatorship is a form of government where a country is ruled by one person or political
entity, and exercised through various mechanisms to ensure that the entitys power remains strong. Nazi
Germany, Soviet Union under Stalins rule, Napoleonic France, Pol Pot regime in Cambodia, North Korea
under Kim Jong-Il & Kim Il Sung, Zimbabwe under Robert Mugabe, Uganda under Idi Amin etc. are
examples of the dictatorship.
Features -
It comes into existence by force.
Nearly every aspect of the public and private behavior of citizens is regulated.
Such systems generally employ political propaganda to decrease the influence of proponents of alternative
governing systems.
It is characterized by arbitrary, unaccountable & irresponsible role of the dictator.
The distinction between the state & the government is absent.
3) Monarchy - A monarchy is a form of government in which a group, usually a family called the dynasty,
embodies the countrys national identity and one of its members, called the monarch, exercises a role of
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sovereignty. Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Denmark, Sweden, the UK, Morocco etc. have Monarchical form of
political system.
Features
The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic (crowned republic), to partial and
restricted (constitutional monarchy), to completely autocratic (absolute monarchy). The UK is a
Constitutional Monarchy; whereas the King of Saudi Arabia is an absolute Monarch. The monarchs of
Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, but do not rule although there is considerable variation in the
degree of authority they wield.
Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, but
there are also elective monarchies where the monarch is elected.
4) Theocracy It is a form of government in which God or a deity is recognized as the king or immediate
ruler, and his laws are taken as the statute-book of the kingdom, these laws being usually administered by
a priestly order as his ministers and agents. Hence, it is a system of government by a sacerdotal order,
claiming a divine commission; also, a state so governed. The Holy See (Vatican City), Iran, Saudi Arabia,
Central Tibetan Administration etc. are the examples of theocracies.
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In a pure theocracy, the civil leader is believed to have a personal connection with the civilizations religion
or belief. For example, Moses led the Israelites, and Muhammad led the early Muslims.
An ecclesiocracy is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not
claim that they are instruments of divine revelation. The papacy in the Papal States occupied a middle
ground between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, since the pope did not claim he was a prophet who received
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revelation from God and translated it into civil law.

While secular governments have some aspects of life that are not influenced by religion, theocratic
governments seek guidance from higher powers to cover all aspects of life, including law, punishment,
education and marriage.
5) Totalitarian - Totalitarianism is a political system in which the state recognizes no limits to its authority
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and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible, without any respect for
human rights.
In an authoritarian regime a single power holder an individual dictator, a committee or a small group of political
elite monopolizes political power. The authoritarian state is only concerned with political power and as long
as that is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty. In contrast, a totalitarian regime attempts
to control virtually all aspects of the social life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life, and
morals of citizens. The totalitarian government seeks to completely control the thoughts and actions of its
citizens. It also mobilizes the whole population in pursuit of its goals. The Nazi Germany, USSR under Joseph
Stalin, China under Mao, North Korea are examples of the totalitarian states.
Features -
A distinctive feature of totalitarian governments is an elaborate ideology, a set of ideas that gives meaning
and direction to the whole society, often involving a one-party state, a dictator and a personality cult.
Totalitarian regimes stay in political power through such techniques as propaganda, state control of the
mass media, educational system, economy, political repression, capital punishment, restriction of speech,
and mass surveillance.
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6) Republic - A republic is a sovereign state or country which is organized with a form of government in
which power resides in elected individuals representing the citizen body and government leaders exercise
power according to the rule of law. In modern sense, the term republic is commonly referred to a
government which excludes a monarch. The term republic in our Constitution indicates that India has
an elected head called the President. He is elected indirectly for a fixed period of five years. Ancient
Athens, Sparta, Roman Republic, Mahajanpadas in Ancient India, the US, France, Islamic Republic of
Iran are some of the examples of the republic states.
Features
In the republican form of government, the political sovereignty is vested in the people and not in a single
individual like a king.
All the public offices are open to every citizen without any discrimination & there is absence of any
privileged class.
7) Anarchism - Anarchism advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often

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described as stateless societies. It can be taken as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations.
Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful.

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TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
Modern democratic governments can be classified into parliamentary, presidential & semi-presidential forms
on the basis of nature of relations between the executive and the legislative organs of the government.

1) Parliamentary system It is the form of government in which the executive is responsible to the
legislature for its policies and acts. Cabinet is the nucleus of this system hence it is also called as the
Cabinet system. The Cabinet (the real executive) is responsible to the legislature & stays in office so long
as it enjoys its confidence hence it is also called as the responsible government. It is described as
Westminster model of government after the location of the British Parliament. This system is present
in the UK, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Japan, India etc.

2) Presidential system In this form, the executive is not responsible to the legislature for its policies and

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acts. The executive is constitutionally independent of the legislature in respect of its term of office.
Hence, the Presidential system is also known as non-executive or non-responsible or fixed executive
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system of government. Such system is present in the USA, Brazil, Russia, Sri Lanka etc.

3) Semi-presidential system In a semi-presidential the President exists alongside a Prime Minister & a
cabinet. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has a popularly elected head of state, who is
more than a purely ceremonial figurehead. In contrast to the presidential system, the cabinet is responsible
to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence. There are two
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separate subtypes of semi-presidential system, namely premier-presidential system and president-

parliamentary system. France, Russia, Mongolia, Madagascar etc. have the semi-presidential system.

1) Features of the Parliamentary System

A)In the Parliamentary system, the political party which secures majority seats in the Lower House forms
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the government. The leader of that party is appointed as the Prime Minister & other ministers are
appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister.

B) The nominal and real executives are different. The President is the nominal executive (titular executive)
while the Prime Minister is the real executive. The President is head of the State, while the Prime
Minister is head of the government.

C) The principle of collective Responsibility is the bedrock principle of parliamentary government. The
ministers are collectively responsible to the Parliament.

D)The ministers operate on the principle of secrecy of procedure and cannot divulge information about
their proceedings, policies and decisions. They take the oath of secrecy before entering their office.

E) The ministers are members of both the legislature and the executive. Hence there is a double membership.
This means that a person cannot be a minister without being a member of the Parliament.

F) The lower house of the Parliament (Lok Sabha) can be dissolved by the President on recommendation
of the Prime Minister and he can advise the President to dissolve the Lok Sabha before the expiry of
its term and hold fresh elections.
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Parliamentary System
Merits Demerits
1. Harmony between legislature and executive A. Unstable government
2. Responsible government B. No continuity of policies
3. Prevents despotism C. Against separation of powers
4. Wide representation D. Government by amateurs

2) Features of the Presidential System

A)The President is both the head of the State and the head of government. As the head of State, he
occupies a ceremonial position. As the head of government, he leads the executive organ of government.
B) The doctrine of separation of powers is the basis of the presidential system. The legislative, executive
and judicial powers of the government are separated and vested in the three independent organs of the
government.

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C) The President is elected by an electoral college for a fixed tenure. He cannot be removed by the
legislature except by impeachment for a grave unconstitutional act.

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D)President governs with the help of a cabinet. It is only an advisory body and consists of non-elected
departmental secretaries. They are selected and appointed by him, are responsible only to him & not
to the legislature.
E) President and his secretaries are not responsible to the legislature for their acts. They neither possess
membership in the legislature nor attend its sessions.
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F) The President cannot dissolve the Lower House of the legislature.
Presidential System
Merits Demerits
1. Stable government A. Conflict between legislature and executive
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2. Definiteness in policies B. Non-responsible government

3. Based on separation of powers C. May lead to autocracy
4. Government by experts D. Narrow representation

3) Features of the Semi-Presidential System

A)Semi-presidential systems may sometimes experience periods in which the President and the Prime
Minister are from differing political parties. This is called cohabitation.
B) Under the premier-presidential system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to
parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may remove
them from office with a vote of no confidence. The president does not have the right to dismiss the
prime minister or the cabinet.
C) Under the president-parliamentary system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the
president and the assembly majority. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet but must
have the support of the parliament majority for his choice. In order to remove a prime minister or the
whole cabinet from power, the president can dismiss them or the assembly can remove them by a vote
of no confidence. This form of semi-presidential system is much closer to pure presidential system.
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TYPES OF ELECTORAL SYSTEM

A voting system or electoral system consists of the set of rules followed for a vote to be considered valid,
and sets out how votes are cast, counted and aggregated to yield a final result of an election or a referendum.
Adoption of a particular system by a country depends on various factors including historical evolution, size,
type of voters, considerations of stability, nature of population, etc. Some of the most common electoral
systems are as follows:
A) Plurality System (First-Past-the-Post System)
In this system country is divided into single member territorial constituencies, usually of equal size.
Voters select a single candidate, usually marking against the candidates name. A candidate who receives
the highest number of votes, may be less than even half the votes polled, is declared the winner.

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This system is easy to operate and establishes a clear link between representatives and constituencies.
It also allows governments to be formed that have a clear mandate from the electorate, of course, on
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the basis of plurality of support amongst the electorate.
However, a number of shortcomings are pointed out in this system. The system wastes many votes,
those cast for losing candidates. It undermines the legitimacy of government in so far as governments
often enjoy only minority support. In this system some social groups like minorities may remain under-
represented.
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In spite of these limitations this system is quite popular in a number of countries including the UK
and India.
B) The Majority System
The majority system requires that a person declared winner in a single member constituency wins by
a clear majority that is getting more than 50 per cent votes. This can be obtained by two methods:
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1) Second Ballot System:

In this system there are single candidate constituencies and single choice voting, as in the first past the
post system. To win on the first ballot, a candidate needs an overall majority of the votes cast. If
no candidate gains a first ballot majority, a second run-off ballot is held between the leading two
candidates. This system is popular in France.
2) Alternative Vote System:
In this system there are single member constituencies. There is preferential voting. Voters rank the
candidates in order of preference i.e. 1 for their first preference, 2 for their second preference, and so
on. Winning candidates must gain minimum 50 per cent of all the votes cast. Votes are counted
according to the first preference.
If no candidate secures 50 per cent in first preference, the candidate with least number of votes is
eliminated and her votes are redistributed according to the second (or subsequent) preferences. This
continues until one candidate has a majority. This method is used in Australia and some other countries
and for elections of President and Vice-President in India.
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C) The Proportional Representation System

The term proportional representation is used to designate various electoral devices based on the principle
that parties should be represented in an Assembly or Parliament in direct proportion to their overall
electoral strength, their percentage of seats equalling their percentage of votes.
It is claimed that under this system any party, interest or group would secure representation in proportion
to the support, it has among the electors. This is achieved by two systems:
1) Single Transferable Vote System:
In this system there are multi member constituencies. Parties may put forward as many candidates as
there are seats to fill in each constituency. Electors vote preferentially, as in the alternative vote system.
Candidates are elected if they achieve a quota. This is the minimum number of votes needed to elect,
the stipulated number of candidates, calculated according to the following formula as explained below:

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OR
The votes are counted according to first preference. If not all the seats are filled, the candidate securing
least number of votes is eliminated and the votes are redistributed according to second preference, and
so on, until all the seats have been filled. This system is used to elect members of Rajya Sabha and
Legislative Councils in India.
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2) Party List system:
In this system either the entire country is treated as a single constituency, or, it is divided into a
number of large multimember constituencies. Parties compile lists of candidates in descending order
of preference and the list is presented to voters. Electors vote for parties, not for candidates.
Parties are allocated seats in direct proportion to the votes they gain in the election. They fill these
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seats from the party list. A minimum percentage (for example 5 per cent fixed in Germany) can be
fixed to exclude small parties. This is the only potentially pure system of proportional representation,
and is therefore, fair to all parties. However, its operation in big countries is very difficult.
Since framers of the Constitution in general followed the British model, they preferred the plurality or first past
the post system for elections to both Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies. To make the office of
President a real representative of national opinion majority system with transferable vote was adopted. As the
Rajya Sabha was meant to be a representative House of States and not of people or constituencies, system of
proportional representation was favoured.
While in general, these systems have been working well, there is a view that first past the post system has
shortcomings which need to be looked into. It is pointed out that in India not only various parties and groups
either remain unrepresented or under-represented in spite of significant support among voters as a whole but
also parties getting just 30 per cent or so of the polled votes are able to emerge as majority parties and form
government.
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NATIONAL AYUSH MISSION

India possess an unmatched heritage represented by its ancient systems of medicine like ASU&H which are
a treasure house of knowledge for preventive and promotive healthcare. The positive features of the Indian
systems of medicine namely their diversity and flexibility; accessibility; affordability, a broad acceptance by
a large section of the general public; comparatively lesser cost and growing economic value, have great
potential to make them providers of healthcare that the large sections of our people need.
The government of India has launched the National AYUSH Mission (NAM).
The proposed Mission will address the gaps in health services through supporting the efforts of State/UT
Governments for providing AYUSH health services/education in the country, particularly in vulnerable and far-
flung areas. Under NAM special focus will be given for specific needs of such areas and for allocation of higher

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resources in their Annual Plans.

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The objective of the mission is to:
To provide cost effective AYUSH Services, with a universal access through upgrading AYUSH Hospitals
and Dispensaries, co-location of AYUSH facilities at Primary Health Centres (PHCs), Community Health
Centres (CHCs) and District Hospitals (DHs).
To strengthen institutional capacity at the state level through upgrading AYUSH educational institutions,
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State Govt. ASU&H Pharmacies, Drug Testing Laboratories and ASU & H enforcement mechanism.
Support cultivation of medicinal plants by adopting Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) so as to provide
sustained supply of quality rawmaterials and support certification mechanism for quality standards, Good
Agricultural/Collection/Storage Practices.
Support setting up of clusters through convergence of cultivation, warehousing, value addition and marketing
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and development of infrastructure for entrepreneurs.

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ADAPTATIONS MADE FOR SURVIVAL IN

TROPICAL REGION
Every organism is suited to live in its particular habitat. Each organism is adapted to its particular environment.
An adaptation is thus, the appearance or behaviour or structure or mode of life of an organism that allows
it to survive in a particular environment.
Tropical region Basic characteristics:
The tropical region lies very close to the equator; between 10N and 10S. So, it is referred to as the
equatorial region.
It is characterized by hot and wet climate throughout the year.
The day temperatures are high with very high humidity. At night the temperature goes down but the
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The forests are thick hence the dense roof created by leaves and branches does not allow the sunlight
to reach the ground. The ground remains dark and damp.
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Only shade tolerant vegetation may grow here. Orchids, bromeliads grow as plant parasites.
Tropical Rainforest Plant Adaptations
Drip tips and waxy surfaces on the leaves allow water to run off hence discourage growth of bacteria and
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fungi.
Buttresses and prop and stilt roots help hold up plants in the shallow soil.
Some plants climb on others to reach the sunlight.
Some plants grow on other plants to reach the sunlight.
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Flowers on the forest floor are designed to lure animal pollinators since there is relatively no wind on the
forest floor to aid in pollination.
Smooth bark and smooth or waxy flowers speed the run off of water.
Plants have shallow roots to help capture nutrients from the top level of soil which is rich in humus.
Many bromeliads are epiphytes (plants that live on other plants); instead of collecting water with roots
they collect rainwater into a central reservoir from which they absorb the water through hairs on their
leaves
Epiphytic orchids have aerial roots that cling to the host plant, absorb minerals, and absorb water from
the atmosphere
Tropical Rainforest Animal Adaptations
Many animals of the rainforest are camouflaged which aids them in avoiding predators.
Some animals like the poison arrow frog produce toxins in their skin to ward off a predator. These animals
are boldly colored as a warning for others to stay as far away as possible.
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Some animals have adaptations that enable them to eat food that other animals cant. For example parrots
have strong beaks that crack the shells of very hard nuts.
Spider monkeys live in the upper canopy layers of rainforests, preferring undisturbed habitat, almost never
coming to the ground. Their long limbs and strong tail are good examples of rainforest biome adaptations.
They swing through the rainforest canopy and hang suspended by their tails. The powerful prehensile tail
plays the role of a fifth arm and is often used for balance or just hanging out.
Many tropical rainforest animals have a diet that includes a large amount of fruit which is available year
round.

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JALLIKATTU
Jallikattuis a bulls game day event happening inTamil Naduas a part of Pongalcelebrations. Bulls are bred
specifically by some private rich persons of the village& temples for the event.
Bullfighting was common among the ancient tribes who lived in the Mullai geographical division of the
ancient Tamil country.Later, it became a platform for display of bravery and prize money was introduced for
entertainment.
The event often results in major injuries and deaths with over 200 deaths over the past two decades.
Animal activists, the FIAPO (Federation of India Animal Protection Agencies)andPETA Indiahave protested
against the practice over the years.
TheAnimal Welfare Board of Indiahas filed a case in theSupreme Court of Indiafor an outright ban on

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Jallikattu because of thecruelty to animalsand the threat to public safety involved. Protestors point out that
Jallikattu is promoted as bull taming, but that there is no taming involved at all. Jallikattu exploits the bulls
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natural nervousness as prey animals by deliberately placing them in a terrifying situation in which they are
forced to run away from those they perceive as predators. The practice effectively involves catching a terrified
animal, not taming it.
In May 2014, theSupreme Court of Indiabanned the practice, citing animal welfare issues. Recently the
Government of Indiahas passed an order exempting Jallikattu from all performances where bulls cannot be
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used, effectively reversing the ban. However, the Supreme Court of India upheld its ban on the event, leading
to protests all over Tamil Nadu.
Animal Welfare Board: The Animal Welfare Board of India is a statutory advisory body on Animal Welfare Laws
and promotes animal welfare in the country.From ensuring that animal welfare laws in the country are diligently
followed, to provide grants to Animal Welfare Organizations and advising the Government of India on animal welfare
issues, the Board has been the face of the animal welfare movement in the country since 1962.The Board consists of
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28 Members. The term of office of Members is for a period of 3 years.

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals: PETA is the largest animal rights organization in the world, with more
than 5 million members and supporters. PETA India focuses primarily on the areas in which the greatest numbers of
animals suffer the most: in the food and leather industries, in laboratories and in the entertainment industry. PETA
Indias investigative work, public education efforts, research, animal rescues, legislative work, special events, celebrity
involvement and national media coverage have resulted in countless improvements to the quality of life for animals and
have saved countless animals lives.
Federation of India Animal Protection Agencies: FIAPOs main aim is to help connect up, and inform, animal
protection organizations and activists across India. The aim is to strengthen animal protection by strengthening
organizations themselves; not to become an alternative to existing organizations but on the contrary, to be an
expression of their strength and an amalgam of their collective expertise and passion.
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