Geography www.iasscore.

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MOUNTAINS
Geomorphic process, be it endogenic or exogenic create a variety of landforms, on the solid surface of the earth
which includes Mountains, Plateaus and Plains.
The existing six Major plates, nine Minor plates and other plates on the earth are in constant movement
causing three types of motion (i) Separation or Divergent, (ii) Closing together or Convergent and (iii) Frictional
and Shearing resulting into the formation of various landforms.
Geosyncline: A mobile zone varied in space and time, usually elongated, basin like depression along the edge
of a continent, in which a thick sequence of sediments and volcanic deposits has accumulated.

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The various rocks which got deposited in sinking seas forming the elongated mountain like structures. All the
mountains have come out of geosynclines.
There were 4 geosynclines in the past (E. Haug)
1)
2)
Rockies Geosynclines
Ural Geosynclines
OR
3) Tethys Geosynclines
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4) Circum-Pacific Geosynclines
The geosyncline theory of mountain formation states that the sediments were squeezed and folded into
mountain ranges due to compressive forces from rigid masses.
Mountain:
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A portion of land rising considerably

above the surrounding country either
as a single eminence (Kilimanjaro) or
in range (Himalayas, Rockies, Andes),
is known as 'mountain'.
Some authorities regard elevations
above 600m (2000 feet) as mountains,
and those below being referred to as
hills.
The existing mountains are the result
of folding and faulting (endogenic
forces), and that of the agents of denudation.
The processes which involve in the building of mountains are known as Orogensis-from Greek word Oros
meaning mountain, and genesis for meaning to come into being'.
Orogeny (Orogenesis): A period of mountain building involving the process of intense upward displacement
of the earth's crust, usually associated with folding, thrust faulting and other compressional processes.
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An orogeny extends in time for some tens of millions of year. There appears to be an average interval
of 200 to 300 million years between 2 orogenies.

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Some of the important theories about the mountains building are:

1) Radio-active Theory by J. Joly (1925)
2) The Geosynclinal Theory by Kober.
3) The Thermal Contraction Theory by Jeffreys.
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4) Theory of Sliding Continents by R.A. Daly.

5) The Continental Drift Theory of Wegener.
6) The Theory of Sea-Floor Spreading by H.H. Hees.
7) The Theory of Plate Tectonics by W.J. Morgan.
The first four theories attempt to explain the origin of folded mountains of Tertiary Period but they do
not throw any light on the mountains older than Tertiary Period. Hereby, we are explaining the Theory
of Plate Tectonics by W.J. Morgan of mountain building.
Plate Tectonics and Mountains Building:
The theory of plate tectonics has a close relationship with mountain building which is based on the
concept of 'Sea Floor Spreading' advocated by Harry H. Hess. It is an improvement over Wegener's
Theory of Continental Drift.
The term 'Plate Tectonics' was coined by Tuzo Wilson (Univ. of Toronto) in 1965 and was propounded
by W. J. Morgan (Princeton University) in 1967.
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The theory of Plate Tectonics is a comprehensive theory which explains
Mountain Building,


Folding and Faulting,
Continental Drift,
OR
Vulcanicity,
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Seismic events (earthquakes) etc.
The process of plate tectonics:
The Plates which are floating over the liquid Asthenosphere move in different directions due to the forces
produced in them.
In the opinion of Morgan - the propounder of Plate Tectonic Theory, the mountain building takes place
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because of compressive forces caused by the collision of two convergent or destructive plates.
It is destructive plate boundaries which builds the mountain. In this process of collision of two plates, the
plates having relatively denser material is subducted under the other plate boundary of relatively lighter
materials. For example: The 'Benioff Zone' or the 'Ring of Fire' and the 'Ocean Trenches' which are the
subduction zone.
The theory of Plate Tectonics identifies the three types of margins of the major and minor plates, i.e.
(convergent, divergent and conservative margins).
The collision of convergent plates may be:
1) Collision of two oceanic plates: Both the plates have denser materials. They result in the formation of
folded mountain ranges and islands arcs - e.g. Japanese Islands, Philippines.
2) Collision of two Continental Plates: Like the Eurasian Plate and the Indian Plate, the Alps and the
Himalayas (Tethys Sea - 70-65 million years ago). The Himalayas and Alps came into existence about 30-
20 million years ago.
3) Collision of one oceanic and one continental plate. These mountains were formed due to the subduction
of Pacific Plate under the American Continental Plate-e.g. the Rockies and the Andes.
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OR
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There is a general consensus among the Geologists, Geomorphologists and Geophysicists that the theory of
Plate Tectonics has given a scientific explanation about the origin of continents, ocean basins and mountain
building. It explains correctly the causes of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, folding, faulting and proved the
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Wegener's Continental Drift. It also explains the cyclic pattern of orogeny process of Mountain Building.
Classification of Mountains:
On the basis of their orogeny and formation, Mountains are of:
Fold Mountains: Formed due to the force of compression originating from the endogenic or internal forces
resulting into synclines (trough) and anticlines (crest) which are the part of Fold Mountains.
For Example: The Himalayas, the Rockies in North America, Andes in South America and the Alps in
Europe are the Fold Mountains.
Since these are formed in very recent periods hence, are also known as Young Fold Mountains.
Block Mountains: Formed due to the force of tension originating inside the earth resulting into down-
lifting or uplifting of land in between two parallel faults forming a block mountain.
The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts and the lowered blocks are called graben.
For Example: Black Forest Mountains in Germany, Sierra Nevada in North America. The Great African
Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley and the Vosges Mountain in Europe are examples.
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Dome Mountains: (Mountains of Accumulations): Formed by the uplifting of land surface due to push
factor of magma accumulation beneath the surface without the lava erupting out.

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For example: Half Dome Mountain in the Sierra Nevada range in California, Dark Mountain in British
Columbia, Canada.

OR
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Volcanic Mountains or Accumulated Mountains: Formed when molten magma deep within the earth
erupts and piles upon the surface, cooling and building a cone of rock one upon the other.
For example: Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii Island, Mount Popa in Myanmar, Mount Fuji Yama in Japan.
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Residual Mountains or Relict Mountains: During the process of weathering (exogenic process) of an
elevated area, when some hardened rocks escape from being worn away leaving behind the structure (made
up of hard materials) known as Relict Mountain, while at the same time the surrounding area gets eroded
For Example: Hill like Satpura, Vindhya, Aravali, Parasnath, Rajmahal Hills, Nilgiri, Palkonda etc. are the
examples of Relict Mountains.

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 Geography www.iasscore.in

PLAINS
A broad area of relatively flat land, covering more than one-third of the world's land area is a major
landforms or types of land on Earth. For Example: the Eurasian Plains and the Russian Steppes.
Classification of Plains: On the basis of various processes of formations, plains can be classified as:
A. Structural Plains: Formed by uplift or subsidence of
land due to Diastrophic force causing upliftment of a
portion of land beneath the ocean water or may cause
submergence of coastal land under ocean water.

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In the other word, it is formed by the upliftment of a
part of the sea floor or continental shelf due to
endogenic forces, located on the borders of almost all
the major continents.
For Example: the Great Plains of the USA surrounded
by Mississippi-Missus plains in the east and Rockies in
OR
the west and the Coromandal plains in India which is
the result of mild subsidence followed by sedimentation.
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B. Erosional Plains: These plains are formed by the agents of erosion after millions of years even high
mountains are reduced to low undulating plains these include the following.
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Pene Plains: Formed by eroding the high mountains or upliftment where wild plains predominate with
some resistant peak remaining. It literally means almost a plain. For Example: Niagara Plain in the
USA, Lorrain in France and Southern England Plains are some examples.
Plains of Glacial Erosion: These plains have rounded peaks and worn down ice scoured shield lands.
Glaciated plains are those of Kashmir in India, northern part of North America and North western
Eurasia.
Wind-eroded Plains: These are called Reg, Seris and Hamada in the Sahara desert; strong winds pick
up weathered materials and deposit them elsewhere. Their formations are also called Pedi-plains.
Karst Plains: There plains have corrugated and undulating surfaces produced by chemical weathering
of limestone landscape by ground water. For Example: Karst region of Yugoslavia.
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C. Depositional Plains: Formed by the depositional activities of various geomorphic agents brought by
various agents of transportation.

River Deposition: The most widespread of these are alluvial plains like the northern plains of India,
the flood plains like the Mississippi Plains in the USA deltaic plains in Egypt and India.
At the foot hills of mountain are formed Piedmont alluvial Plains.

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The flood plain described above is also alluvial plains. They are found along the rivers like Yangtze,
OR
Mekong, Salween etc. and are regarded as granaries of the world. In India flood Plains are divided
into Khadar and Bhangar Plains.
Wind Deposition: Most such plains are sandy deserts like the Sahara in Africa and the desert in India.
They have irregular and undulating surface made by existence of sand dunes and fallows. Loess plains
in china are formed from deserts.
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Marine Deposition: These plains are found in coastal regions. Examples are the east coast of India, the
estuarine banks in Netherlands coast of Germany and Denmark. In Denmark we find polders and dykes.
A polder is a piece of land reclaimed from the sea or lake. The submerged land is surrounded by an
embankment and drained by pumping water into canals.
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PLATEAUS
It is an elevated area (compared to surroundings) with nearly even surface on its top having large area on its
top and a steep slope on its sides. They are also known as high plains or table lands covering around 18% of
the earth's land surface.
Classification of Plateaus:
Broadly plateaus are of two types: Dissected Plateaus and Volcanic Plateaus.
A. Dissected Plateaus: Formed as a result of upward movement in the earth's crust caused by slow collision
of tectonic plates. The Colorado Plateau, in the western United States, has been rising about .03 centimeter

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(.01 inch) a year for more than 10 million years.

OR
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B. Volcanic Plateaus: Formed by numerous small volcanic eruptions that slowly builds up over the time,
forming a plateau from the resulting lava flows. For example: Mount Tongariro, Mount Ngauruhoe, Mount
Ruapehu and The North Island Volcanic Plateau covers most of the central part of the North Island of
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New Zealand.

On the basis of their geographical location and structure of rocks, plateaus can be classified as:
A. Intermontane Plateau: The word Intermontane means between the mountain, the plateaus which are
bordering the fold mountain range or are partly or fully enclosed within them.
Vertical movement raises these extensive landforms of nearly horizontal rocks to thousands of meters
above sea level. For example: Tibet plateau (4500 m high) which is surrounded by folded mountains like
Himalaya, Karakoram, Kunlun, Tien-Shian etc. eg: the plateau of Colorado, Mexico, Bolovia and Iran etc.
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B. Piedmont Plateaus: Also known as Plateaus of denudation as being formed due to various agents of
erosion reducing the level of mountain. The word Piedmont means foot of a mountain.

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Such mountains are situated at the foot of a mountain and are locked on the other side by a plain or a
sea/ocean. For Example: Malwa Plateau in India, those of Patagonia facing the Atlantic ocean and the
OR
Appallachian situated between the Appalachian Mountain and the Atlantic Coastal Plain in U.S.A.
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C. Continental Plateaus: Also known as the plateaus of Accumulation, formed either by an extensive
continental upliftment or by the spread of horizontal basic lava (less viscous) sheets completely covering
the original topography.
The volcanic lava covered plateau of Maharashtra in India, Snake River Plateau in North West USA are
the examples of this type.
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D. Volcanic Plateaus: Produced by volcanic activity diverging into lava plateau and pyroclastic plateau.

Lava plateau: Formed by numerous successive eruptions of highly fluid basaltic lava through numerous

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vents without any violent explosions.
Pyroclastic Plateau: Formed by violent eruptions of massive pyroclastic flows, underlain by pyroclastic

rocks.

OR
For example: Columbia Plateau in USA, Peninsular Plateau in India etc.
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 Indian Polity www.iasscore.in

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Originally having 395 Articles divided into 22 parts and 8 schedules, a lengthiest constitution of the world with
systematic elaboration on every topic. At present, it contains 448 Articles with 12 schedules as a result of
various amendments (101 till so far, GST Amendment).
A. Longest written constitution: The constitution of India is said to be the longest written constitution in
the world because, it contains:
Separate provisions for states and centre and their inter-relationship.
The borrowed provisions from several sources and several other constitutions of the world.

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The separate provisions for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, women, children, and backward regions.
It contains the detailed list of individual rights, directive principles of state policy and details of

B. OR
administration procedures which were laid down to make the constitution an easy handy.
Unique blend of rigidity and flexibility: A Constitution may be called rigid or flexible on the basis of its
amending procedure.
Some parts can be amended by ordinary law making procedure while certain provisions can be
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amended only when a Bill for that purpose is passed in each house of Parliament by a majority of
the total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than two-third of the members of
that house present and voting.
Some amendments are also required to be ratified by the legislatures of not less than one-half of the
states before being presented to the President for assent.
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C. India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic and republic: India is governed by its people through
their representatives elected on the basis of universal adult franchise (Government of the people, by the
people and for the people).
India as a sovereign means it manages its internal and external affairs freely without any external
forces. However, it continues to be a member of the commonwealth of Nation with the British
Monarch as its head.
The term socialist is added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, means achievement of socialist goals
through democratic, evolutionary and non-violent means. However, India follows the mixed model
of socialist and capitalist economy.
By secular means it recognizes all religions equally without having any state religion which is a part
of the basic structure.
By republic means head of the state (President) is elected one and not the monarch.
D. Parliamentary System of Government: Theoretically, Parliament controls the functioning of the Council
of Ministers; hence it is called Parliamentary system.
Here executive is responsible to the legislature and remains in power as long as it enjoys the confidence
of the legislature.
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The President of India, who remains in office for five years, is the nominal, titular or constitutional
head (Executive).
The Prime Minister is the real executive and head of the Council of Ministers who is collectively
responsible to the lower house (Lok Sabha).
E. Single Citizenship: Unlike Federation, where citizen enjoys dual citizenship of both State and Union, India
has a single citizenship provided by the union and recognized by all the states across India.
F. Universal Adult Franchise: The Indian Constitution establishes political equality in India through the
method of universal adult franchise which functions on the basis of 'one person one vote'. Every Indian
who is 18 years of age or above is entitled to vote in the elections, irrespective of caste, sex, race, religion
or status.
G. Independent and Integrated Judicial System: The judiciary system is kept free from the influence of the
executive and the legislature. As an integrated system, India has the Supreme Court as the apex court
below which High Courts come. The High Courts in turn supervise the lower courts.
H. Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles of State Policy: Fundamental Rights

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are not absolute but are subject to the limitations which are expressly defined by the constitution itself
and are enforceable in the court of law.
OR
The DPSPs are the guidelines to be followed by the states regarding governance and are not enforceable
in the court of law.
The Fundamental Duties, added by the 42nd Amendment are moral conscience which ought to be
followed by the Citizens.
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I. A Federation with a strong centralizing tendency: India is an indestructible Union with destructible states
means it acquires a unitary character during the time of emergency. Hence, some experts say it as a quasi
federal in nature.
J. Balancing Parliamentary supremacy with Judicial Review: An independent judiciary with the power of
judicial review is a prominent feature of our constitution. The harmonization which our Constitution has
effected between Parliamentary Sovereignty and a written Constitution with a provision for Judicial
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Review is an important achievement of the framers of our Constitution.

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SOURCES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The sources of Indian Constitution include the imaginative aspirations of the nationalist leaders, the actual
working of the Government of India Act, 1935, and the experience gained from the actual working of some
of the Constitutions of important countries of the world.
Seminal Sources
A. Constituent Assembly Debate: Drawn from the Cabinet Mission Plan, having members including distinguished
lawyers, intellectuals and patriots who took 2 years, 11 months and 18 days to prepare the constitution.
B. Nehru Report: Formed under the leadership of Motilal Nehru to boycott the Simon Commission and

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made recommendations for the desired constitutional setup for India. Such recommendations include:
(i) Grant of Empire;
(ii) Creation of a federal structure for India;
(iii) Bicameralism at the Centre; OR
(iv) Parliamentary and responsible Government in Provinces;
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(v) Guarantee of Fundamental Right; and
(vi) Establishment of Supreme Court as the final court of appeal.
C. Objective Resolutions: Moved by JL Nehru, spelled out making India a sovereign republic where the
ultimate supreme power is vested with the people. It stated that the people would get social, economic
and political justice, liberties of all types and equality. This objective resolution acquired the place of
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Preamble in Indian Constitution.

D. Government of India Act 1935: India was governed by the GoI Act 1935 at the time when our constitution
was in the process of framing, hence, has been influenced by the same such as:
Federal set-up;
Distribution of powers in three lists;
Provincial autonomy;
Office of the Governor;
Bicameral legislature;
President's or Governor's power to issue ordinances; and
Structure of the Supreme Court.
External Sources
Irish Constitution: Directive Principles.
British Constitution: Parliamentary form of government and Parliamentary Privileges.
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US Constitution: Fundamental Rights, the Supreme Court, the post of Vice President.
Canadian Constitution: The Federal system, Union-State Relations and Distribution of Powers.
Australian Constitution: The concurrent list, Provisions of trade and commerce.
German (Weimar) Constitution: The emergency provisions
Developmental Sources
Indian Constitution is dynamic which has grown with the changing needs. Thus, amendments, judicial reviews/
decisions, political practices, parliamentary statutes, rules, regulations and ordinances are the developmental
sources of the constitution.
Amendment(s): Till September 8, 2016, there have been 101 Amendments (Goods and Services Tax Bill)
shaping the Constitution in quite different from the original document. The 42nd Amendment termed as
Mini Constitution clearly proves the dynamism of it due to enormous changes it effected to the Indian
Constitution.
Judicial Decisions: The Judicial Decisions by the Supreme Court on various important issues have paved

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the new dimensions such as the Basic Structure which shows the directions for further amendments:
Gopalan vs. State of Madras;
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State of Madras vs. Champakam;
Golak Nath vs. State of Punjab; and
Keshavanand Bharti vs. Kerala State.
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Parliamentary Statutes: Parliament, time to time through the process mentioned in the constitution
furnishes details of the various articles which are considered as constitutional laws. It provides the details
information of the constitution.
Commentaries of Constitutional Experts: While interpreting the Constitution, the views of the distinguished
constitutional experts, whether Indian or foreign, enjoy special importance.
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The most notable constitutional experts are Jennings, Gledhill, Alexandrowit, D.D. Basu, Palkhiwala, V.N.
Shukla, etc. Their views are not given legal recognition but due regard is paid to them by the judges.
Moreover, true significance of any provision of the Constitution can be understood in the light of their
views.
Rules, Regulations, Ordinances etc.: Each house of the parliament is empowered to make rules for its
efficient working. The President has the right to make rules for fixing the constitutional subjects.
President of India is also empowered to make rules with respect to the condition of services of the
members of the Union Public Service Commission.
President can also frame rules to establish peace and efficient administration of the Union Territories.
Above all, the President has also the power to issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session. All these
rules, regulations and ordinances serve as sources of the Constitution.
Constitutional Practices
Although the Constitution of India is the most detailed in the world, still certain practices independent of the
Constitution have developed in India.
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A few examples of such a practice can be enumerated as follows:

The Central Government takes beforehand the advice of the State Government in the appointment of its
Governor.
Governor can be recalled by the Central Government on the advice of the State Government concerned.
Governor should not belong to the state to which he is appointed.
One of the judges of the Supreme Court must belong to the minority community.
The senior most judge of the Supreme Court should be appointed as the Chief Justice of India.
The leader of the majority party in Lok sabha is appointed as the Prime Minister.

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OR
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UNESCO GLOBAL GEOPARK

UNESCO Global Geoparks are single, unified geographical areas where sites and landscapes of international
geological significance are managed with a holistic concept of protection, education and sustainable
development.
UNESCO Global Geoparks empower local communities and give them the opportunity to develop cohesive
partnerships with the common goal of promoting the area's significant geological processes, features,
periods of time, historical themes linked to geology, or outstanding geological beauty.
A UNESCO Global Geopark enhance awareness and understanding of key issues facing society, such as
using our earth's resources sustainably, mitigating the effects of climate change and reducing natural

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disasters-related risks.
The creation of innovative local enterprises, new jobs and high quality training courses is stimulated as

protected. OR
new sources of revenue are generated through geotourism, while the geological resources of the area are

A set of criteria as established by UNESCO must first be met for a geopark, as nominated by the
corresponding government, to be included in the GGN:
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a) the existence of a management plan designed to foster socio-economic development that is sustainable
(most likely to be based on agritourism and geotourism);
b) demonstrate methods for conserving and enhancing geological heritage and provide means for teaching
geoscientific disciplines and broader environmental issues;
c) joint-proposals submitted by public authorities, local communities and private interests acting together,
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which demonstrate the best practices with respect to Earth heritage conservation and its integration
into sustainable development strategies.
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NO DETENTION POLICY
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act (RTE) passed in the
year 2009 makes education a fundamental right of every child between the ages of 6 and 14 under Article
21A and specifies minimum norms in elementary schools. The Act requires all private schools (except the
minority institutions) to reserve 25% seats for the poor and other categories of children (to be reimbursed by
the state as part of the public-private partnership plan).
Concerning the higher dropout rate due to being unable to read, write and pass, the Act under section-16,
prohibits schools from detaining or expelling any student up to Class VIII for reducing the higher dropout rate
and to have a minimum educated citizenry.
The essence of the policy is that children should not be "failed" and detained up to Class 8. This also means

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there are no "examinations" in the narrow traditional sense of the word up to Class 8. Instead, the Act
mandates a process of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) to assess and evaluate the student's
learning. CCE regularly assesses student progress in multiple ways and uses the feedback in the teaching-
OR
learning process. It gives a continuous progress record and specific inputs for improving learning. Unlike exams,
it can also assess things such as social attitudes, creativity, emotional development and perseverance. Research
evidence across the world suggests that such methods (called formative assessments) tend to improve student
learning.
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However, after few years of its implementation the policy has proved to be counter-productive and a wide
range of criticism on the issue has been witnessed from various factions of the society. The policy has led to
students developing a lackadaisical attitude towards their studies. Parents also didn't bother as their children
cannot be held back in the class. This has reduced the quality of education and has led to no difference
between good and bad students.
The recently appointed T. S. R. Subramanian committee has recommended that the no detention policy must
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be continued for young children until completion of class V when the child will be 11 years old. At the upper
primary stage, the system of detention shall be restored subject to the provision of remedial coaching and at
least two extra chances being offered to prove his capability to move to a higher class.
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GANGA GRAM YOJANA

Ganga is the Indian national river and it is also the longest river flowing in India. It originates from Himalayas
from the state of Uttarakhand and has a stretch of 2525 km. It ends its journey at the Bay of Bengal.
The villages and cities located along river Ganga depend on it for their day to day livelihood. But according
to international surveys, Ganga is the one of the most polluted rivers of the world.
A large number of villages, town and cities situated along the banks of Ganga dump their daily wastes in it.
All household sewerages, industrial waste drains, etc. are linked to this river Ganga, thus polluting the holy
river. There is a huge difference between the quality and color of water at the time it reaches the Bay of
Bengal, from the time it gets originated.

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Hence, as a major initiative towards fast track implementation of Namami Gange Programme, Union Minister
of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation has launched Ganga Gram Yojana at Village
Puth in Hapur district of U.P.
Salient features of Ganga Gram Yojana:
a)
OR
1600 villages situated along the banks of river Ganga will be developed under this scheme.
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b) In these villages open drains falling into river Ganga will be diverted and alternative arrangements for
sewage treatment will be made.
c) The villages will have toilets in every household.
d) These villages will be developed under the Sichewal model. Sichewal is situated in Punjab, where cooperation
of the villagers has been solicited for the water management and waste disposal in a meticulous way.
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